Conducted by: Mutonga Dylan

Student number: 214058662

Subject: Solid state Physics

Experiment: Investigating the anomalous Hall effect in Tungsten

Date: 09/04/2024
Aim

• Validation of the proportionality of the Hall voltage and the magnetic flux density.
• Determining the polarity of the charge carriers.
• Calculating the Hall constant RH and the charge carrier concentration n.

Apparatus used

• 1 Hall effect apparatus (tungsten)

• 1 U-core with yoke
• 1 Pair of bored pole pieces
• 2 Coil with 250 turns
• 1 High current power supply
• 1 Variable extra low-voltage transformer
• 1 Multimeter LDanalog 30
• 4 Pair cables 100 cm, red/blue
• 2 Connecting lead 100 cm black
• 1 Leybold multiclamp
• 1 Stand rod, 25 cm
• 1 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm
• 1 Microvoltmeter
• 1 Universal Measuring Instrument Physics.
• 1 Combi B-Sensor S
• 1 Extension cable, 15-pole

Introduction

The anomalous Hall effect (AHE) is a fascinating phenomenon observed in certain materials where a
transverse voltage is generated in response to an applied longitudinal electric field, perpendicular to
both the current and the external magnetic field. The anomalous Hall effect persists even in the absence
of an external magnetic field, indicating an intrinsic mechanism tied to the material's electronic
−𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵
structure. The following equation holds for Hall voltage, 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝑅𝐻 𝑑

The Hall voltage in a Hall effect sensor is generally proportional to the product of the magnetic flux
density (B), the current (I) passing through the sensor, and a factor known as the Hall coefficient (RH).
𝐸𝑦 𝑉𝐻 1
This relationship is expressed by the formula 𝑅𝐻 = = =−
𝑗𝑥 𝐵 𝐼𝐵 𝑛𝑒

The sign of the Hall constant RH is determined by the polarity of the charge carriers, predominantly
responsible for the current. The occurrence of predominantly positive charge carriers characterizes the
anomalous Hall effect. The polarity of the charge carriers can be determined from the direction of the
Hall voltage. The concentration of the charge carriers n can be determined experimentally by measuring
the Hall voltage 𝑈𝐻 as function of the magnetic field B for various currents.

Procedure
Calibrating the magnetic field:

• The iron of the electromagnets was demagnetized before recording the magnetic field as a
function of the current I by allowing a current of 1 A to flow through the field coils of 250 turns
for a brief period; then steadily reducing the current to zero.

• To measure the current through the coils, the ammeter was connected between the positive
pole of the voltage transformer and the coil.

• The magnetic flux density B was measured as a function of the current by increasing the current
in steps of 0.5 A DC.

Measuring the Hall voltage as function of the magnetic field:

• Before subjecting the Hall effect apparatus to the magnetic field, the zero point was adjusted as
follows: A transverse current of 10 A was applied, and the indicator of the meter for measuring
the Hall voltage UH was set to zero using the adjusting knob 4. If the display changed after
switching off, the transverse current was switched back on, and the zero-point adjustment was
repeated.

• A transverse current of 15 A was applied to the Hall effect apparatus, and the Hall voltage UH
was measured as a function of the magnetic field B (Effective field values were read off from the
calibration curve of part a)). Multiple measurements were conducted to determine a mean
value for the Hall voltage UH.

• The measurement was repeated for a transverse current of 20 A.

Readings

Table 1: Calibration of magnetic field.

IA BT

0.0 0.000
0.5 0.118
1.0 0.200
1.5 0.295
2.0 0.374
2.5 0.455
3.0 0.520
3.5 0.585
4.0 0.630
4.5 0.665
5.0 0.695
 5.5 0.715
6.0 0.735
6.5 0.748
7.0 0.760
7.5 0.780
8.0 0.790
8.5 0.800
9.0 0.810

Table 2: Measuring the Hall voltage as a function of the magnetic field

BT UH (I = 15 A) UH (I = 20 A)

m
0.20 6.5 7.5
0.38 11.6 15.0
0.52 17.4 20.2
0.64 20.9 24.9
0.70 23.1 28.0
0.73 24.2 30.0
0.76 25.2 -
0.79 26.0 -
0.81 27.0 34.0
Results and Analysis

Measuring the hall voltage as a function of the magnetic field, table corrected in volts:

For example, 1 microvolt to volt = 1 × 10−6 V. Therefore, row one, 6.5 microvolts = 6.5 × 10−6 V.

B/T 𝑈𝐻 at 15 A 𝑈𝐻 at 20 A
0.20 6.5 × 10−6 7.5 × 10−6
0.38 11.6 × 10−6 15 × 10−6
0.52 17.4 × 10−6 20.2 × 10−6
0.64 20.9 × 10−6 24.9 × 10−6
0.70 23.1 × 10−6 28.0 × 10−6
0.73 24.2 × 10−6 30.0 × 10−6
0.76 25.2 × 10−6 -
0.79 26.0 × 10−6 -
0.81 27.0 × 10−6 34.0 × 10−6

Analysis

Determination of Hall coefficient and carrier concentration:

The slope of a line in a graph plotting Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 against magnetic flux density B can be used to
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
determine 𝑅𝐻 ;by rearranging the hall voltage equation to isolate 𝑅𝐻 gives 𝑅𝐻 = , due to the linear
𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻
relationship of proportionality plotting plot 𝑉𝐻 against B, the slope of the resulting graph will be 𝐵
𝑑
Comparing this slope to the expression for 𝑅𝐻 gives 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒. Thus, if we take any two
𝐶
𝑉 ∆𝑦
points on the curves we can determine 𝐴𝐻 (slope= 𝐵𝐻 ) with the formula 𝑚 = ∆𝑥
 ∆𝑌 (27×10−6 )−(6.5×10−6 )
Hall coefficient at 15 A, 𝐴𝐻 = ∆𝑋
= 0.81−0.20
= 3.36 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝐶

∆𝑌 (34×10−6 )−(7.5×10−6 )
Hall coefficient at 20 A, 𝐴𝐻 = ∆𝑋 = 0.38−0.20
= 4.34 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝐶

With the conductor length given (5 × 10−5 𝑚), and the slope determined; 𝑅𝐻 can be determined using
𝑑
the formula 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒.
𝐶

(5 ×10−5 )
Therefore, 𝑅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 15𝐴 = × (3.36 × 10−5 ) = 1.12 × 10−10 𝑚3 /𝐶 . 𝑅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 20𝐴 =
15
(5×10−5 )
(20)
× (4.34 × 10−5 ) = 1.09 × 10−10 𝑚3 /𝐶.

The Hall coefficient is a measure of the strength and direction of the Hall effect in a material, which
arises due to the presence of charge carriers (electrons or holes), this relation is given by the equation
1
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒
, where e is the charge of an electron (1.60 × 10−19) and n is the carrier concentration. Thus,
1
rearranging the equation to make n the subject of the formula gives 𝑛 = 𝑅
𝐻𝑒

1
Thus, n at 15 A = = 5.58 × 1028 𝑚−3
(1.12×10−10 )(1.60×10−19 )

1
n at 20 A =(1.09×10−10 )(1.60×10−19 ) = 5.73 × 1028 𝑚−3

Determining the polarity of charge carriers:

The polarity of the charge carriers was determined by observing the sign of the hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 from the
given readings, thus the sign of the charge carriers was positive.

Comparing experiment results with the literature values using percentage error:

Literature value for 𝑅𝐻 = 1.18 × 10−10 𝑚3 /𝐶

Literature value for n= 5.29 × 1028 𝑚−3

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error= | 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
|× 100%
 (1.12×10−10 )−(1.18×10−10 )
• Thus, percentage error for Hall coefficient at 15 A= | (1.18×10−10 )
| × 100% = 5.1%
(1.09×10 −10 )−(1.18×10−10 )
• Percentage error for Hall voltage at 20 A =| (1.18×10−10 )
| × 100% = 7.6%
(5.58×1028 )−(5.29×1028 )
• Percentage error for carrier concentration n at 15 A= | (5.28×1028 )
| × 100% = 5.5%
(5.73×1028 )−(5.29×1028 )
• Percentage error for carrier concentration n at 20 A= | |× 100% = 8.3%
(5.29×1028 )

Discussion

Validation of the proportionality of the Hall voltage and the magnetic flux density:

From the data collected and compiled, the relationship between hall voltage and magnetic flux density is
directly proportional. As one variable increases, so does the other and as one variable decreases so does
the other. The graph of Hall voltage against flux density proves this:

Percentage error accuracy:

Percentage error accuracies are moderate as they are between the ranges of 5 and 10%, this means this
method of determining hall coefficient and carrier concentration is fairly accurate. External factors that
affect the accuracy of results according to (Hao, Q., Chen, W., & Xiao, G. (2015). Beta (β) tungsten thin
films: Structure, electron transport, and giant spin Hall effect. Applied Physics Letters, 106(18).) could be:

• Carrier mobility
• Temperature
• Scattering mechanisms
Conclusion

In the experiment, the anomalous Hall effect in tungsten was successfully conducted. By applying a
perpendicular magnetic field to the tungsten sample and measuring the resulting Hall voltage, valuable
insights into the behavior of charge carriers in this material were gained.

Our experimental results revealed the presence of an anomalous Hall voltage component alongside the
expected Lorentz Hall voltage. This anomalous contribution arises from the interaction between the
magnetic moments of the material and the motion of charge carriers, demonstrating the complex
nature of electron transport in tungsten.

Furthermore, by analyzing the sign of the Hall voltage, we determined the dominant type of charge
carriers in our tungsten sample. The indication of positive hall voltage shows that tungsten is
predominantly a hole carrier.

Our findings are consistent with theoretical expectations for tungsten

(https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.163.622 ), confirming its suitability for applications where
understanding the anomalous Hall effect is crucial, such as in spintronics and magnetic sensing
technologies.
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