Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-017-0967-4

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Socio-Environmental Perception of an Urban Wetland

and Sustainability Scenarios: a Case Study in Mexico City
Pablo Torres-Lima 1 & Kristen Conway-Gómez 2 & Rodolfo Buentello-Sánchez 3

Received: 2 September 2016 / Accepted: 7 November 2017 / Published online: 21 November 2017
# Society of Wetland Scientists 2017

Abstract Local perceptions of landscape attributes are recognized as critical in the evaluation of multifunctional territories;
however, case studies in the urban wetlands context are limited. This study assesses socioeconomic, environmental and regional
management variables that may directly and indirectly affect local population’s perceptions, altering stakeholders concerns for
defining urban wetland management agendas in the San Gregorio de Atapulco wetland of Xochimilco, Mexico City. Using
Principal Component Analysis, we evaluated factors influencing socioenvironmental perceptions among urban wetland residents
in the context of the chinampa area, an ancestral agro-productive system south of Mexico City. Results indicate the majority of
socioeconomic and environmental variables, excluding age, gender and education, were not statistically significant. Regional
management variables, particularly pertaining to canals, urban housing and irregular settlements, had significantly more impor-
tance than socioeconomic and environmental variables and influence resident’s perceptions of factors that detract from and
promote sustainability of the urban wetland. In terms of urban wetland management agendas, locals` concerns were related to
the effects of urbanization, wetland governance and regional habitability. We suggest that urban wetland policy developed within
neighborhood planning units and aimed at reducing urban sprawl while introducing landscape conservation strategies could
positively affect better local land use and wetland sustainability.

Keywords Socio-environmental perception . Urban wetland . Regional management . Chinampa system . Mexico City

Introduction environmental variables are recognized as important for cities

to function, for urban services to remain efficient and for the
The rapid expansion of urban regions and populations remains study of interactions between entities such as populations and
an issue that impedes the achievement of sustainability, resulting landscapes in contemporary urban spaces (Pickett et al. 2011).
in constant transformations in the geography of urbanization Likewise, various socio-environmental indicators reflect the de-
(Seto et al. 2010). Social-ecological systems and urban- gree of consolidation of activities, policies, strategies and plan-
ning methods for sustainable urbanization themselves (Shen
et al. 2011), particularly regarding the promotion of ecosystems
and cityscapes as deterrents to urban sprawl.
* Kristen Conway-Gómez Currently, landscape studies focus on addressing the man-
kconwaygomez@cpp.edu
agement of priority ecosystems; including wetlands (Ewel
Pablo Torres-Lima 2010; Gitay et al. 2011). Wetlands have increased value be-
ptorres@correo.xoc.uam.mx cause their functions relate to human development, particularly
Rodolfo Buentello-Sánchez in regard to agricultural and urban landscapes (Mitsch and
arqrbuentello@yahoo.com.mx Gosselink 2000). However, wetlands are amongst the most
1 threatened habitats in the world. Historically the majority of
Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal, Universidad
Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco (UAM-X), Mexico wetland loss has occurred as land is converted to agricultural
City, Mexico use, but now, urban development is a significant driver of wet-
2
Geography/Anthropology Department, California State Polytechnic land loss and degradation (Sizo et al. 2016). In Mexico, it is
University, Pomona, CA, USA estimated that 62% of wetlands have already disappeared main-
3
Posgrado en Ciencias y Artes para el Diseño, UAM-X, Mexico ly due to farm and urban development (Landgrave and Moreno-
City, Mexico Casasola 2012). In places where human development has been
170
significant, wetland functions can be easily overwhelmed. In
this type of situation perceived values of the wetland may be
based on the functional ecological processes wetlands provide,
but are also determined by human perceptions, where the wet-
land is located, what the human population pressures on it are,
and its extent (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000).
Westbrook and Noble (2013) argue that a more strategic
approach to assessing and managing impacts to wetlands, in-
cluding directions for implementing policy and land use plans
on-the-ground, is needed. Furthermore, analysis of the percep-
tion of landscape attributes on the part of local people has been
recognized as a critical component in the evaluation of future
multifunctional territories (Waldhardt et al. 2010).
Frameworks to support urban wetland sustainability-based
policy and planning should be translated into more specific,
operational plans and practices (Sizo et al. 2016). In terms of
environmental planning, the challenge is to promote the per-
ceptions of local populations towards the type of activities that
should be encouraged (i.e. local landscape restoration) while
maintaining the quantity and quality of natural resources
found in geographical spaces, in light of the impacts of urban-
ization (Hynes and Campbell 2011).
Improving the quality of regional systems and ecologi-
cal and socio-economic landscapes requires that institu-
tions for planning and mechanisms of governance envisage
sustainability, with local communities playing an important
role in terms of the management of their resources and land
use; as well as regional population dynamics (Wheeler
2009). For the planning and management of urban wet-
lands and peri-urban areas, incorporating local residents
within the framework of policies and guidelines for action
has been recommended (Scientific and Technical Review
Panel 2011), especially recognizing the importance of ag-
ricultural activities in wetlands as a way of reducing pov-
erty and ensuring food security (McCartney et al. 2010).
However, the literature on planning and evaluation of the
sustainability of urban land use rarely describes factors that
influence the social and environmental awareness of local
people concerning the impacts of urbanization processes on
regional sustainable development (Collomb et al. 2010). The
need for research regarding the perceptions of local people
when making decisions about their landscapes and biophysi-
cal processes at particular levels has become evident (Cook
et al. 2012). Similarly, the social and environmental percep-
tions of local people concerning future scenarios of activities
and current agricultural production practices in peri-rural or
intra-urban landscapes are understudied (Steinberg 2005). A
number of studies present results with reference to gender
variables, proximity and lifestyles (livelihoods) as predictors
for responses on the part of local populations managing re-
sources and regional environmental risks (Baptiste and
Nordenstam 2009). Also, knowing about the sense of Bplace^
on the part of local actors, in terms of commitments,
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
negotiations and ways of designing strategies conducive to
socio-ecological transformations resulting in the sustainability
of regional ecosystems is critical (Chapin et al. 2012).
Case studies regarding socioenvironmental perceptions in
the context of urban wetlands are limited, regarding both cul-
tural landscapes as well as agro-productive areas (Aguilar et al.
2012). In Latin America, there are few study cases reported on
urban wetlands’ value and conservation, particularly in regard
to planning processes for landscapes that have been threatened
by urban expansion, such as the UNESCO World Heritage site
of Xochimilco in Mexico City (Revollo-Fernández 2015).
Within the framework of analysis concerning the environ-
mental challenges to the development crisis that has affected
urban areas, particularly with regard to landscape fragmentation
as an inherent feature of contemporary urban planning and urban
expansion (Shlomo et al. 2012), it is necessary to identify: a) the
socioeconomic, environmental and regional variables perceived
by rural-urban dwellers to result from urbanization; b) practices
and activities necessary for achieving urban wetland sustainabil-
ity; and, c) proposals for action and institutional orientation in
terms of planning and sustainable conservation for this kind of
landscape. Therefore, the study of socioeconomic, environmen-
tal and regional variables that influence the perceptions of peo-
ple regarding the management of natural resources and transfor-
mations of the rural landscape in mega-cities and with respect to
programs and policies of wetland management should contrib-
ute to improved assessment, design and implementation of sus-
tainable conservation systems in metropolitan areas that are able
to reduce urban pressure on strictly rural areas (Yang et al.
2010). This may be especially helpful for urban wetlands that
are at risk (Wetlands International 2011).
This paper conceptually addresses a dimension of land-
scape that is poorly studied, involving the transformation of
a wetland ecosystem situated within a metropolis, which re-
produces the spatial inequalities manifested in natural and
agricultural systems, which are at risk of degradation. Thus,
despite the limitations imposed by urbanization, local percep-
tion of urban wetlands as important ecosystems recognizes the
relationships between people and nature in a city, representing
an overall opportunity for the development of environmental
planning. The objectives of this work consist first of examin-
ing the main socioeconomic, environmental and regional var-
iables that influence people’s perceptions of the impacts of
urbanization on the urban wetland of San Gregorio A.,
Xochimilco (Fig. 1); and second, in evaluating perceptions
that favor the achievement of wetland sustainability within
the framework of Mexico City, as part of a planning agenda.
The Study Area
The Lake System of Xochimilco around Mexico City, an his-
toric spatial organization consisting for the most part of human
settlements with productive agricultural fields – chinampas –
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
Fig. 1 The wetland north of the urban center of San Gregorio Atapulco, a permanent wetland that is a remnant of the great Xochimilco-Chalco Lake
around the lake shores, dates as far back as the XVth century.
The chinampas are an example of ecological engineering with
wide contributions to the contemporary sustainability at the
urban-rural interface (Renard et al. 2012) that make up a
unique example of farming systems on raised beds in tempo-
rarily flooded wetlands (Altieri et al. 2015). BAs a result of
their aesthetic value and cultural importance, chinampas were
declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987, a
protected natural area by the Mexican Government in 1992,
and a Ramsar Site (Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance) in 2004 (No. 1,363) because of their provision of
ecosystem services^ (Merlin-Uribe et al. 2013, p. 217), cov-
ering an area of 2657 ha.
The lake plain of Xochimilco is located at an average alti-
tude of 2240 m, with an average annual rainfall of 669 mm and
temperature of 16.4 ° C. The lake system is a water body that
receives runoff from watersheds, draining a total area of
277.8 km2 with a volume of water estimated at 2622 m3, which
is contained in an area of 160 ha. Its canals form a network
measuring 203 km in length (Gobierno del Distrito Federal
2006). The lake area includes an agro-ecological production
area of 1200 ha out of the original 9000 ha recorded in the early
twentieth century (González 2010). North of the urban center
171
of San Gregorio A., there is a permanent wetland that is a
remnant of the great Xochimilco-Chalco Lake. Among the
most important canals are the National Canal and the San
Gregorio A. lake conservation area for flora and fauna.
San Gregorio A. has presented a Bvery high level^ of mar-
ginalization, where in 2005 there were 17 illegal settlements,
with a population of 11,783, representing 61% of the total
population of the region (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y
Geografía 2005). In the region, the predominant production
system is vegetable cultivation. Strong urban pressure, on the
borders of the wetlands of Xochimilco and the conversion of
productive land for housing have become points of social and
political conflict, whilst also generating environmental degra-
dation and health problems (Wigle 2010).
Methods
Data Collection
de Lange et al. (2015)) found that obtaining the perceptions of
people was the most common means of attributing impacts to
a protected area, while Baptiste and Nordenstam (2009)
172
studied behavior, beliefs, knowledge and opinions of regional,
socioeconomic and environmental sustainability in under-
standing environmental perceptions within wetland commu-
nities. We examined the ideas, significance, knowledge and
practices of the population that may have either positive or
negative influence on the social and environmental develop-
ment of their locality as a type of environmental attitudes
inventory (e.g. Milfont and Duckitt 2010).
We applied a methodological approach, focusing on site
characteristics (per Dierwechter 2010) with field work con-
ducted between April and May 2010. During site visits, we
identified key informants and engaged in informal discussions
with villagers to gather background data and determine indi-
cators and variables concerning environmental perceptions of
the population. We applied an initial pretest to define the ma-
jor determinants, as the factors or elements that limit or define
decisions or conditions of sustainability from a combination of
social processes and their interaction with the environment;
these factors were included in the final survey as variables. We
gathered socio-demographic data using a close-ended ques-
tion survey that was modified from an initial pretest, on three
factors promoting and restricting wetland sustainability in San
Gregorio A., including socio-economic, environmental and
regional data (see Tables 1 and 2), and on perceived agendas
for urban wetland planning. Villagers were asked to indicate
their levels of perception on socioecological impact for each
statement (where 1 = strongly, 2 = slightly, and 3 = little).
Table 1 Indicators and variables
of socioenvironmental impacts Indicator
that negatively affect wetland
sustainability in San Gregorio Socioeconomic
Atapulco
Environmental
Regional
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
To determine the survey sample, a geographic statistical
area of the municipality of Xochimilco was selected in San
Gregorio A. (AGEB 027–9). This area has 4026 inhabitants of
whom 1802 were over 20 years of age, 10% of whom we
interviewed (n = 180). Because physical changes are occur-
ring in San Gregorio A., where processes of suburbanization
in agricultural-rural areas define transformation of the broader
landscape, in addition to applying a close-ended question sur-
vey, we include open questions on perceived agendas for ur-
ban wetland planning. We also conducted field visits to com-
pose an architectural typology (rural-urban construction fea-
tures). This typology describes a regional characterization of
habitability, which is related to socio-economic and environ-
mental elements among settlement types and housing profiles.
People surveyed were grouped into four housing types,
adapting their particular habitability to the region’s socioeco-
nomic and environmental context, where urban elements have
been incorporated as part of a variety of cultural processes
involved in the appropriation and use of space. In terms of
the architectural typology, we observed that there is a relation-
ship between the use, ownership and type of space, which
differs from the original wetland territory, i.e. in the last
30 years an urban landscape has been created that is incom-
patible with the functions of the regional lake ecosystem. The
urban landscape was classified according to the housing ty-
pologies, which predominate on the north-south banks of the
National Canal. These typologies reveal the social and
Socioenvironmental impact
Use of modified or transgenic seeds
Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
Replacing traditional chinampas techniques with greenhouses
Construction of stables
Construction of bridges between canals
Introduction of sanitary hydraulic network in chinampas
Improvised rubbish tips
Loss of trade with local markets
Construction of locks and weirs
Closure of canals and ditches
Destruction of dikes
Drainage of sewage into canals
Deforestation of native ahuejotes trees (Salix Bomplandiana L.)
Invasion of water hyacinth (Eichhoria crassipes)
Removing of wild plants and animals
Use of motorized aquatic vehicles
Abandonment of piers
Transformation of chinampas into housing
Conversion of canals into streets
No intervention on the part of institutions and government
Officials
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181 173

Table 2 Indicators and variables

of socioenvironmental impacts
that promote wetland
sustainability in San Gregorio
Atlapulco
Indicator Socioenvironmental impact
Socioeconomic Agricultural production with traditional techniques
Leveling of chinampas
Use of organic fertilizers
Use of eco-techniques
Collection and use of rain water
New opportunities for marketing of horticulture and flowers
Rubbish collection
Rescue and renewal of traditions and customs
Environmental Cleaning, dredging and reopening of canals
Strengthening and building of levees
Closure of all household drainage outlets
Modification of ditches and water flows
Reforestation of native ahuejotes trees in chinampas
Permanent eradication of water lilies (Nymphaea spp.)
Introduction of native flora and fauna
Use of traditional boats
Regional Recovery of the lake canal system
Physical demarcation of the chinampa area
Relocation of houses occupying chinampa areas
Prevention of further urban encroachment
Promotion of open spaces between the canals waterfront and residential buildings

economic conditions of the local resident population, and are
as follows: a) Consolidated Settlement Type I: The house
occupies almost the entire land surface, which does not pres-
ent any indication of having once been either cropland or
chinampa. These are located on the south bank of the
National Canal and represent 35% of the study area, but are
also located in areas still considered as agricultural; b)
Consolidated Settlement Type II: The houses occupy part of
the land surface and may conserve part of the original
chinampa area or have replaced it with other vegetation cover.
Most of these houses are located on the northern bank of the
National Canal and reflect a change in land use from agricul-
tural to residential, representing 20% of the study area; c)
Provisional Settlement Type I: These people occupy about
half of the land surface that originally functioned as a
chinampa and the area is subdivided, resulting in on-going
housing construction or Bunfinished buildings^. People who
occupy most of these settlements are not originally from San
Gregorio A. or are families who no longer continue the farm-
ing tradition of chinampas and occupy these sites or sell them
for residential purposes. This typology, which covers 30% of
the study area, is characterized by self-built housing with un-
stable foundations and a lack of services and equipment; and
d) Provisional Settlement Type II: Residences occupy a small
fraction of the plot or chinampa and the living space is used
primarily as a small warehouse or workshop. This settlement
represents 15% of the study area and most buildings are
constructed using rustic materials (asbestos sheets or wooden
planks). This type of construction is the trigger for house
building to begin.
Data Analysis
Interview data were analyzed using multivariate principal
components analysis (PCA), which has been used to eval-
uate socioenvironmental perceptions in decision making
(Rowe et al. 1994). This technique identifies p variables
×1, ×2, …xp and finds combinations of maximum correla-
tion, positive and negative, that produce indices or princi-
pal components (components) that are independent.
Furthermore, in the absence of correlation, the principal
components measure different dimensions of the data
(Manly, F 1986). Before performing the PCA, the data
was evaluated for the homogeneity of covariance matrix
by the Barttlet’s test (Morrison 1976). Categorical vari-
ables, such as gender, ownership and local origin were
assigned numeric values for analysis purposes (Corrales-
García et al. 2009; González-Tena et al. 2015). We used the
PRINCOMP function of SAS version 9.2.
Six different analyses were carried out, covering three
areas – environmental, socioeconomic and regional – that
negatively and positively affect the sustainability of the
wetlands. For each analysis we show only those compo-
nents that represent at least 10% of the total variability of
174 Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181

analyzed data; those with smaller variance are discarded Results

(Afifi et al. 2004). The proportions of the variance ex-
plained were low due to the poor correlations between
the variables studied (Manly, F 1986). Tables 3 and 4 show
the results of analysis of components with greater than 0.40
or less than 0.40 values of variability in bold, which are
those components attributed statistical significance based
on their sharing at least 10% variance with the construct
that explains each area.
Sociodemographic Profiles
In the municipality of Xochimilco 32% of men over 18 years
old are somehow involved in agricultural activities, while 41%
of women are. However, only 4% of men and 0.6% women
engage in farming as their main source of income (Instituto
Nacional de Estadística y Geografía 2015). Of the sample

Table 3 Eigenvectors and values

of principal components that Variables in Three Realms Components
negatively affect wetland PC1 PC2 PC3
sustainability in three realms
Socioeconomic Factors
Sex −0.006 0.582
Own Chinampa −0.105 0.590
Use of modified or transgenic seeds 0.395 −0.006
Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides 0.391 0.017
Replacing traditional chinampa techniques with greenhouses 0.359 0.063
Construction of stables 0.371 −0.161
Construction of bridges between canals 0.311 0.026
Introduction of sanitary hydraulic network in chinampas 0.363 0.052
Improvised rubbish tips 0.297 0.085
Loss of trade with local markets 0.263 0.297
Values 2.991 1.668
Percent of explained variance 23.00 13.00
Environmental Factors
Sex 0.170 0.438
Own Chinampa 0.098 0.529
Construction of locks and weirs 0.370 0.060
Closure of canals and ditches 0.435 0.087
Destruction of dikes 0.329 0.160
Drainage of sewage into canals 0.202 −0.051
Deforestation of ahuejotes trees (Salix Bomplandiana L.) 0.350 −0-078
Invasion of water hyacinth (Eichhoria crassipes) 0.349 −0.067
Removing of wild plants and animals 0.369 −0.372
Use of motorized aquatic vehicles 0.241 −0.379
Values 2.429 1.771
Percent of explained variance 19.00 14.00
Regional Factors
Sex 0.278 0.483 −0.261
Age −0.037 −0.412 −0.405
Education −0.200 0.236 0.695
Own Chinampa 0.114 0.589 −0.100
Abandonment of piers 0.434 0.030 0.337
Transformation of chinampas into housing 0.502 −0.185 0.056
Conversion of canals into streets 0.508 −0.127 0.141
No intervention on the part of institutions and government officials
Values 2.470 1.517 1.192
Percent of explained variance 27.50 17.00 13.25

Component values of variability greater than 0.40 or less than 0.40 are in bold, indicating statistical significance
based on their sharing at least 10% variance with the construct that explains each area
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
interviewed in San Gregorio A. 59% were male and 41% fe-
male; 30% were age 18–30 years, 59% were 31–60 years old
and 11% were over 60. Among the respondents, 56% had less
than high school education while 44% had completed high
school or above. Education rate changes when gender is com-
pared, with more men having college education (28%) than
women (12%). 51% were engaged directly in agricultural pro-
duction on chinampas, while 49% were involved in other urban
activities for their main sources of income and employment.
64% of respondents claimed to be natives of San Gregorio A.,
30% from neighboring areas and the remaining 6% said that
their residence in the area was temporary. The urban residential
area (southern part of the study site) corresponded to 65% of the
population, whereas 35% were settled in northern areas, which
are in the process of becoming urbanized.
Factors Restraining Urban Wetland Sustainability
Among socioeconomic factors that negatively affect San
Gregorio A. wetland sustainability, which account for 23% of
the variance, none of the individual variables represent ±0.40
variability so are therefore not considered statistically significant
indicators of sustainability. However, the use of transgenic
seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, construction of stables,
and the introduction of a sanitary hydraulic network threaten the
economy in the region. In the second component analysis, de-
scribed by the natives of San Gregorio A. who have chinampas,
the loss of trade in local markets is considered a loss of econom-
ic capacity, but only represents 13% of the variance (Table 3).
Among the Environmental factors, component 1 represented
a cumulative variance of 19.0% (Table 3); the principal variable
was sewer discharge into canals, which is associated with con-
struction of locks and weirs, extraction of local flora and fauna,
deforestation of aheujote (Salix bonplandiana) trees and the
high rates of water lily invasion. The general perception of in-
terviewees demonstrates that these factors are the most damag-
ing for the sustainability of the wetlands. The second principal
component represented 14% of the variance of the interviews,
with middle-aged men who have chinampas identifying the in-
vasion of water lilies and the use of motorized water vehicles as
significantly affecting water quality and use of canals for agri-
cultural purposes through the buildup of sludge in canals and
interference of canoes transporting foodstuffs (Table 3).
Among regional variables most associated with diminished
wetland sustainability component 1 had the most impact (27.5%
of total variance) with conversion of canals into streets, transfor-
mation of chinampas into housing and abandonment of piers
perceived as the greatest threats. For component 2, which rep-
resented 17% of the total variability, a group of middle aged
male interviewees (31–60 years of age) also perceived the trans-
formation of chinampas into housing negatively affected region-
al paths to sustainability. For the third component, young people
with education beyond elementary school and not originally
175
from San Gregorio de A. identified abandonment of piers as a
problem for the regional sustainability of the wetlands (Table 3).
In summary, questions about the socioeconomic aspects on-
ly occupied the first two principal components with 36% of the
total variance (Table 3), which suggests a high number of in-
terviewees do not perceive the importance of these aspects as
significant threats to sustainability. Environmental aspects were
not perceived among interviewees as posing a great threat to
sustainability, with the first two components contributing 33%
of the total variance (Table 3). In contrast, regional factors were
noted as important by interviewees, and were characterized by
three components as explaining 55.75% of the explained vari-
ance (Table 3), which may refer to the importance interviewees
attributed to the conversion processes of infrastructure (canals
and piers) for urban uses as streets and housing.
Factors Promoting Urban Wetland Sustainability
Among socioeconomic factors that promote sustainability of
the San Gregorio A. wetlands, in the first component the only
statistically significant variable was creation of new opportuni-
ties for marketing of horticulture and flowers. Likewise, in the
first component, leveling of chinampas; use of organic fertil-
izers; collection and use of rainwater; rubbish collection were
significant. In the second component, which explained 12.64%
of the variance (Table 4), some men who worked chinampas
indicated the use of eco-techniques to intensify ecological pro-
cesses in agricultural production as advantageous for sustain-
ability. In the third component, which explained 11% of the
variance, middle-aged interviewees (31–60 years) with educa-
tion from high school to professional consider rubbish collec-
tion important for wetland sustainability.
According to interviewees, the environmental area of com-
ponent 1, which accounts for 28.4% of the total variance, did
not include individual variables with values greater than 0.40 or
less than 0.40. Yet despite this, the variables cited as most
favorable to sustainability were the introduction of native flora
and fauna; cleaning, dredging and reopening of canals, closure
of all household drainage outlets, strengthening and building
levees in the plots, and permanent eradication of water lilies. In
the second component (11.7% of explained variance), native
chinampa owning men attribute the cleaning of canals to wet-
land sustainability (Table 4).
The regional factors held more importance for interviewees,
with the first three components explaining 58.4% of the vari-
ance. Thus, the first component, which explained 28% of the
variance, was best described by the following factors: the phys-
ical demarcation of the chinampa area with a row of trees; pre-
vention of further urban encroachment; recovery of the lake
canal system; the promotion of open spaces between the canals
waterfront and residential buildings; and, the relocation of hous-
es occupying chinampa area. In the second component, which
explained 17.10% of the variance, men from San Gregorio de A.
176 Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181

Table 4 Eigenvectors and values

of the principal components that Variables in Three Realms Components
promote the sustainability of the
wetlands in three areas CP1 CP2 CP3

Socioeconomic Factors
Sex 0.020 0.628 0.053
Age −0-021 −0.139 −0.592
Education −0.068 −0.243 0.576
Own Chinampa 0.084 0.478 0.296
Agricultural production with traditional techniques 0.229 −0.122 −0.107
Leveling of chinampas 0.388 −0.065 −0.075
Use of organic fertilizers 0.386 0.091 −0.004
Use of eco-techniques 0.304 0.345 −0.161
Collection and use of rain water 0.360 −0.120 0.129
Creation of new opportunities for marketing of horticulture and flowers 0.411 −0.028 −0.003
Rubbish collection 0.355 −0.176 0.390
Rescue and renewal of traditions and customs 0.333 −0.120 0.148
Values 3.482 1.643 1.414
Percent of explained variance 27.00 12.64 11.00
Environmental Factors
Sex 0.073 0.632
Local origin 0.062 0.422
Own Chinampa 0.137 0.547
Cleaning, dredging and reopening of canals 0.374 −0.170
Strengthening and building of levees 0.353 0.005
Closure of all household drainage outlets 0.360 −0.059
Modification of ditches and water flows 0.291 −0.095
Reforestation of native species (ahuejotes) in chinampas and tree planting in 0.316 −0.012
mountains
Permanent eradication of water lilies (Nymphaea spp.) 0.351 0.400
Introduction of native flora and fauna 0.395 −0.084
Use of traditional boats 0.300 −0.000
Values 3.693 1.519
Percent of explained variance 28.40 11.70
Regional Factors
Sex 0.146 0.578 0.173
Age −0.079 −0.294 0.557
Education −0.014 −0.069 −0.760
Local origin 0.073 0.435 0.203
Own Chinampa 0.172 0.540 −0.129
Recovery of the lake canal system 0.430 0.015 −0.018
Physical demarcation of the chinampa area 0.450 −0.084 −0.082
Relocation of houses occupying chinampa area 0.414 0.384 0.089
Prevention of further urban encroachment 0.443 −0.169 0.087
Promotion of open spaces between the canals waterfront and residential 0.423 −0.220 −0.036
buildings
Values 2.780 1.530 1.240
Percent of explained variance 28.00 17.10 13.30

Component values of variability greater than 0.40 or less than 0.40 are in bold, indicating statistical significance
based on their sharing at least 10% variance with the construct that explains each area

who worked chinampas were the only three variables. In the variance; older adults with lower levels of education did not state
third component, which explained 13.30% of the explained that factors in the regional dimension played an important role.
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
In sum, regional factors were perceived by interviewees as
the most important; both in aspects that negatively and posi-
tively affect the sustainability of the San Gregorio A. wet-
lands. The regional level of factors was the principal determi-
nate in the decision-making process of residents and, it may be
that interventions aimed at supporting the regional well-being
can guide positive perceptions and, as a result, increase envi-
ronmentally desirable behaviors (Woodhouse et al. 2015).
Perceived Agendas for Urban Wetland Planning
In terms of setting urban wetland planning agendas aimed at
achieving sustainability, the population interviewed consid-
ered that the local socio-environmental situation critically
worsened over the last five years while 90% of the population
perceives that this landscape is important for the conservation
of the environment of Mexico City. Contradictorily, there ap-
pears to be a low level of social responsibility in terms of
caring for the environment on the part of the population; that
is, only 31% of respondents identified themselves as very
responsible, 46% reasonably responsible and 23% not at all
responsible. Most people consider that agendas for environ-
mental conservation are a responsibility pertaining to the gov-
ernmental spheres of the municipality of Xochimilco. This
kind of contradiction, where individuals consider the natural
environment to be important but do not take any action to
counter its degradation suggests that despite the existence of
hierarchical environmental perceptions and attitudes that
reflect the social profile of the population, other material
priorities may influence individuals who believe that not
acting will favor the preservation of nature, as indicated by
Milfont and Duckitt (2010) in their research assessing the
range of environmental attitudes.
What we see is that despite the fact that social and environ-
mental problems affecting the sustainability of the urban wet-
land and its surroundings represent a concern for the majority
of the population (86%), the environmental governance that
people mention when describing the wetland landscape is far
from their daily life priorities. Similarly, the opinion of the
majority of respondents, including those who are engaged in
agricultural activities as well as those in urban activities, both
within and outside the region, indicates that urbanization can
harm the environment irreversibly. These results were similar
to those reported by Torres-Lima and Rodríguez-Sánchez
(2008) who found that people from this town maintain a
strong identity as producers and members of their communi-
ties, but little affinity or solid participatory relationships for
combating the environmental problems of the region. Baptiste
and Nordenstam (2009)) found that villagers with strong en-
vironmental beliefs may indicate higher levels of environmen-
tal concerns and were more likely to support policies that
protect the wetlands, but these beliefs were not significantly
correlated with environmental behaviors.
177
Most people perceived that basic regional habitability not
only consists of a set of basic physical structures: homes,
public spaces, water, sanitation and energy infrastructure, ac-
cess to education, health and leisure and productive spaces,
but also includes the landscape. This may imply that there are
different cultural ways of appropriating this particular geo-
graphical space that are in constant flux, within the framework
of Mexico City’s urbanization. In other words, the inclusion of
a conceptual approach to the urban wetland landscape should
consider both the residential lifestyles of local people as well
as the spatial and socio-economic interactions of ecosystems
and perceptions of the actors in their territory (Pfund 2010), as
they represent a key component of regional habitability and
must form an indispensable part of the metropolitan planning
agenda in Mexico City.
Discussion
Considering results that relate to the evaluation of sustainabil-
ity in terms of the socioeconomic, environmental and regional
management variables, these differed in terms of activities that
either affect or benefit the population, their environment and
landscape. In terms of regional indicators, the lack of inter-
vention on the part of institutions and local authorities in the
conservation of the environment is perceived as critical; like-
wise the abandonment of piers, the transformation of
chinampas into housing areas and the conversion of canals
into streets are all perceived as having significant regional
impact. Delgado-Ramos (2015) call for paradigm change to
transform urban settlements in Mexico City to more livable
and sustainable places. This must include a process that pays
attention to the form but also to the function of urban terri-
tories, including specific recommendations in a bottom-up
management of water infrastructure and the guarantee of hu-
man rights to water, sanitation and a healthy environment
(Delgado-Ramos 2015).
As revealed in this study, activities that could be perceived
as having beneficial effects on the quality of life, environment
and landscape were related to the regional environment ac-
cording to most respondents. Regarding regional indicators,
the recovery of canals and the physical demarcation of the
chinampa area with trees are perceived as significant benefits,
while preventing urban encroachment and promoting more
open spaces in the lake system are also perceived as providing
benefit. The relocation of houses currently constructed on the
chinampas is considered of limited benefit, because of diffi-
culties relating to their degree of consolidation.
From the perspective of the analysis of regional territorial
intervention, this study finds that the various forms of appre-
hension and appropriation of landscape areas are a result of a
collective social transformation of nature that reflects a partic-
ular way of organizing and experiencing this wetland within a
178
framework of complex and changing urban relationships.
Thus, the ideas and concepts regarding the significance of a
rural-urban wetland are associated with regional habitability.
This may confirm that the multiple conceptual perspectives of
local people lead to the proliferation of different types of land-
scapes in different spatiotemporal contexts. Our findings sug-
gest that the functional features of the wetland landscape in
San Gregorio A. are interpreted from different perspectives,
according to five major factors ascribed with practical statis-
tical significance; age, gender (male), education, the owner-
ship of a chinampa and being native.
Particularly, within the framework of agricultural produc-
tion practices in peri-urban areas, farming represents a poten-
tial source of employment and income where formal educa-
tion can be applied, and farmers’ qualifications either for ur-
ban or agricultural employment are still associated with finan-
cial gain for regional development (Torres-Lima et al. 1994).
Therefore, education is important in shaping positive local
perceptions of this urban wetland by enabling people to re-
ceive and interpret information about their environment and
regional context. Assessment of the urban landscape for some
respondents was based on a view of its aesthetic qualities and
its potential use as a reserve for human settlement (i.e. land
area), whereas for other original populations the spatial orga-
nization of natural resources for environmental and agricultur-
al production purposes makes it possible for them to carry out
their own rural-urban territory management. For instance, by
managing the ecological cycles and interactions within the
components of the chinampa agroecosystem (i.e. nutrient cy-
cles) and coordinating complex techniques with crop needs,
farmers try to increase productivity and reduce environmental
risks and economic losses.
In this sense, these social groups assign different environ-
mental values (mental and material) to the properties or features
of nature (Cook et al. 2012). In the case of in San Gregorio A.
residents who are involved in agricultural production taking a
regional environmental perspective, consider the presence or
absence of signs or indicators of landscape and ecological sys-
tems that either permit the restoration of or define loss (e.g. of
springs or canals), assigning a certain type of environmental
condition to the land. In this sense, different types of transfor-
mation result from changes in agricultural activities (i.e. instal-
lation of greenhouses on rural land), alterations in the quantity
and quality of natural resources (i.e., water availability) and
changes in regional socioeconomic structure and processes
(i.e., sources of employment) (De Aranzabal et al. 2008).
Residents of San Gregorio A. become agents of change
when they realize the extent of the transformations affecting
their territories, resources, housing and social relations; as
they observe their landscapes bear witness to what once was
and what they would like them to become. Through the expe-
rience of occupying and using their environmental space, local
people are influenced in terms of the evaluation and
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
significance attributed to buildings and public spaces, collec-
tively accepted as Bideal^ for habitation, thus defining region-
al habitability. Likewise, respondents expressed certain modes
of family and community life according to the way their hous-
es are built, the way they inhabit their neighborhoods and the
socioeconomic relationships they have with the market (prod-
ucts, services and labor) within truly urban contexts. In this
sense, in order to link sustainable management planning with
on-the-ground implementation, and determine how best to
meet the urban wetland conservation target in strategic-level
policy and practice, urban wetlands focused on two ap-
proaches: a) an area-based scale, called individual neighbor-
hood planning units; and b) a sustainability-based approach,
which considers a combination of landscape indicators within
individual urban planning units (Sizo et al. 2016).
In the transformation and degradation of the Xochimilco
lake region there are some important socio-economic factors
to acknowledge in the analysis of landscape change. For exam-
ple, many of those seeking housing in the zone are seeking
access to (unserviced) land for basic shelter and settlement
purposes driven by poverty and not in pursuit of rural liveli-
hoods or residential lifestyles. Therefore, we recognize that
landscape transformation is not limited to different degrees of
environmental awareness or local perceptions, but also shaped
by political and economic issues, mainly in the urban context.
However, the local perception, with practical statistical signif-
icance reported in this paper, on regional landscapes in San
Gregorio A. implies to those who produce, modify, use, occupy
and inhabit the objects and spaces, the possibility of obtaining a
certain degree of comfort, or the perception of well-being mak-
ing them available for use as habitable or regional spaces.
In the Xochimilco urban wetland, socio-environmental per-
ceptions are defining elements in the design of human settle-
ments. Incorporating urban environmental design for this site
implies that the concepts of agricultural plots (chinampas),
public spaces and residential areas improve their biophysical
quality by giving them value as landscapes. Thus, the con-
struction of wetland sustainability and regional habitable land-
scape are related aspects of urban-rural space associated with
well-being or quality of life (Rogers et al. 2012). Moreover,
wetland transformation results from changes in agricultural
activities, alterations in the quantity and quality of natural
resources and changes in regional socioeconomic structure
and processes. In terms of defining the future of the dynamic
nature of society-wetland interactions in this specific socio-
economic context, we agree with the statement that in order to
go further than just a Bnormative^ planning, realistic efforts to
preserve the remaining conservation land in Xochimilco must
involve a more comprehensive approach that better integrates
environmental and social issues within and among municipal
and upper-levels of government (Wigle 2010). Some strate-
gies to be included in an urban wetland policy for this area
may include the following:
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
General Strategies Plan:
Sensibilization
• The creation and implementation of a permanent, effective and high
quality plan for greater understanding and dissemination of: (a) the his-
torical heritage and cultural and social dimension that integrate commu-
nities; (b) the ecological resilience, biodiversity, environment, and eco-
system goods and services that are used and stored; (c) agricultural
systems, food security and livelihoods, including traditional knowledge;
and (d) the assets, resources and public services, social and environmental
governance systems and institutional settings for the decisions that outline
the paths of evolution, development and change of the urban wetland.
Rehabilitation of chinampas through management plans
• Fund low interest credit for the purchase of equipment, machinery and
infrastructure for the development of agricultural and ecotourism activities.
• Rehabilitate the agricultural soil and channels in order to maintain the
agro-ecological production profile of the urban wetland (chinampas).
• Subsidy payment of agricultural income in urban areas with high
pressure where traditional agriculture free of chemicals is practiced.
• Preparation and publication of a program of payment for ecosistemic
services for conservation and natural restoration of the region, wetlands,
water resources and the integrity of the chinampas.
• Financing for hydraulic and agricultural irrigation works,
agroproductive rehabilitation, infrastructure and equipment.
Measures for the conservation of agrobiodiversity/biodiversity and
ecosystems in the urban wetland.
• Design of a regulatory framework and legal system that links public
policies for the protection of agricultural biodiversity, biodiversity and
ecosystems in the urban wetland avoiding land use change.
• Promotion of sustainable development on the urban wetland, under the
framework of support strategies to maintain the rural landscape as an
area of conservation and restoration of natural resources, agricultural
biodiversity and local biological populations and environmental
services; and as an important area of rural and agroindustrial production,
to reduce the processes of continuous development and regional
environmental degradation.
• Development of methods for evaluation and monitoring of agricultural
biodiversity in the urban wetland.
Measures for the preservation of traditional agricultural practices,
techniques and knowledge.
• To strengthen and consolidate networks of social exchange and
economic cooperation allowing an integration of knowledge of different
regional production and cultural processes by improving traditional
farming practices with the help of modern technologies.
• Systematic recording of intangible traditional agricultural technologies
and their dissemination (i.e. local technological development to produce
rustic seeds and inputs).
• Promotion of a system of technical and scientific support to enable
tracking, monitoring and promotion of sustainable models and
agricultural practices of organic or environmentally compatible with the
regional vocation.
• Promotion of social and economic structures (i.e. local companies) of
integration and partnership between chinampa farmers to provide
quality services for agricultural development (technical assistance,
management and sale of technology, financing, market management).
Measures to foster economic development of the urban wetland.
• Participatory design strategies operationally oriented to specific demands
and to achieve results in reducing poverty and increasing local food security.
• Provide equitable access to public services, housing, technology and
regional markets of fresh or industrialized agricultural products.
179
• Reactivate cooperation networks between primary producers and
consumers in Mexico City, and to encourage the flow of goods and
services of agricultural and environmental type within the metropolitan
region seeking to generate an economy less dependent on markets and
extra-regional inputs with a smaller ecological trace.
• Design economic strategies and local community development that
respond to the diversity of chinampa agroecosystems and their potential
resources (i.e. horizontal and vertical integration of production,
diversification of supply, creation of value networks and transformation
of agricultural products to enter new regional urban markets, promotion
of the brand products image, and promotion of the ecotourism industry).
Measures for the landscape conservation of the urban wetland.
• Due to the high vulnerability of the chinampas, both the environmental
components and the fragility of their specific habitats, actions will be
implemented: the protection of their areas with a high degree of
naturalness or environmental quality; maintenance of existing
applications and development of the potential for productive different
uses consistent with attitudes; and the recovery of degraded areas.
• Preventing land of the region becoming part of real estate development
by investing in infrastructure works and programs for research and
impact of technological development in the medium and long term (i.e.
works of soil and water conservation; dams and water captors;
renewable energy pumps; centers for composting urban solid waste;
marketing centers; and inexpensive water treatment plants).
Measures for the preservation and promotion of cultural activities of
the urban wetland.
• Generation of a permanent, effective and high quality training and technical
advice to consider aspects of environmental education and the preservation
and promotion of cultural activities associated with the chinampas.
• Design strategies and actions to supply ecotourism, rural tourism, nature
tourism and cultural tourism consistent with the environmental, cultural
and economic conservation in the area where agricultural activities,
marketing products and services, environmental restoration and
conservation and chinampería, parks and recreation centers, payment for
environmental services, environmental monitoring and active social
participation are contemplated through the promotion of regional
business culture and low levels of social and economic integration of rural
microenterprises and the formation of local bodies for social comptroller.
Measures to strengthen collaboration and partnership to implement
the measures described above.
• Participation of local communities to move from a reactive attitude of
the rural landscape management to a proactive one in the formulation of
local policies for the promotion of agricultural systems under the
framework of a regional strategic planning.
• Creation of autonomous decentralized entities as part of the urban
wetland that has to be linked to institutional strengthening local
governments in decision making on watershed protection, buffer zones
and land use, among others.
• Strategies and mechanisms of engagement and collaboration with
potential partner institutions linked to local problems, such as
universities and research centers that meet the demands of the site
producers under appropriate technology transfer schemes and advice.
Monitoring and evaluation.
• Generation of a permanent, effective and high quality data collection
and the establishment of a methodology for monitoring and evaluation
of programs on the urban wetland.
• Establishment of a specialized agency in collaboration with the
local government to monitor the state of the urban wetland and the
effectiveness of measures taken for dynamic conservation,
including the application of resources and transparency in the use
of institutional support
180
Conclusions
Any spatial intervention in regional landscapes is artificial
but also forms a part of the collective consciousness of the
local population, which concurs with the idea that these
landscapes can be used towards a sustainability associated
with individual and collective well-being. The perception
of wetlands in San Gregorio A. is a key element in terms
of the articulation of the regional landscape. In the pro-
cess of reevaluating the local landscape, it is important to
highlight the importance of environmental conservation,
including recovering hydrological networks (canal sys-
tems and chinampas) that are being transformed and in-
corporated in a gradual process of urbanization within the
region. Increasing population density, urbanization and
changes in forms of agricultural production (i.e. green-
houses and supplies) that have caused various conflicts
in terms of the values and customs regarding the percep-
tion of natural and productive landscapes.
There is a marked juxtaposition of building works for
urban services and infrastructure in chinampa areas re-
quired by new human settlements, leading to changes in
land use. Consequently, agricultural space is transformed
in response to changing social and environmental con-
ditions throughout the lake network with urban-rural
characteristics being expressed in every neighborhood
and home. In this sense, the neighborhood appears to
represent the socio-territorial domain where the space/
time relationship of regional habitability is expressed.
The neighborhood represents a section of the city and
a part of the regional urban wetland that transgresses a
boundary, distinguishing private from public space: indi-
cating what it is to live in a home and the way mem-
bership in a rural location or geographical rural–urban
area is construed.
Although urbanization in Mexico City takes place un-
der certain conditions, and produces others, in intra-urban
agricultural areas, it may lead to social and environmental
problems of sewage contamination, illegal settlements and
alterations to the regional landscape and, in the case of
Xochimilco, the deterioration of its wetland landscape. It
is essential to recognize that the urban wetlands in San
Gregorio A. still have environmental and social attributes
that are relevant to Mexico City, and the perception of the
local population, as well as regional conditions, should be
linked to conservation policy scenarios and to urban plan-
ning processes and goals, aimed at achieving wetland sus-
tainability objectives.
Acknowledgments P. Torres–Lima acknowledges funding from the
Fulbright NEXUS Regional Scholars Program supporting his research
stay at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona for writing this
paper. We also acknowledge the statistical help of Juan G. Cruz-Castillo.
Wetlands (2018) 38:169–181
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