Instruments and Experimental Techniques, Vol. 48, No. 2, 2005, pp. 141–167.

Translated from Pribory i Tekhnika Eksperimenta, No. 2, 2005, pp. 9–38.

Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Gerasimov.

Water as an Insulator in Pulsed Facilities

(Review)
A. I. Gerasimov
Russian Federal Nuclear Center, All-Russia Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics,
pr. Mira 37, Sarov, Nizhni Novgorod oblast, 607190 Russia
Received June 3, 2004; in final form, October 12, 2004

Abstract—Transmission lines with distributed parameters are often used as electrical energy storage units and
high-voltage (high-current) pulse shapers in electrophysical facilities. To increase the pulse power and reduce
the dimensions of the equipment, deionized water, purified from mechanical impurities and gas, is used as an
insulator in lines. Water has a high breakdown strength ((BS) ~ 130 kV/cm) at pulses with a duration of ~1 µs
and electrode areas of up to tens of square meters, a large value of the relative permittivity (~80), and a small
loss tangent in the frequency range 0–1 GHz. Water also possesses a number of characteristics needed to
achieve the above aims. We review here the data on the electrical properties of water and the studies of it pub-
lished over the last three decades; the methods for increasing the water BS and the influence of numerous factors
on the BS; the physical mechanism of water breakdown and the basic regularities of the BS in strong electric
fields; the BS in the most frequently used electrode systems; formulas for calculating the water BS under dif-
ferent conditions and over the surfaces of solid dielectrics; the characteristics of mixtures of water and ethylene
glycol or methanol; water purification systems for electrophysical facilities; the comparative parameters of
coaxial energy storage units having various insulators, etc. The summary generalizes the brief and predomi-
nantly reference information on the electrical properties of water and its applications for researchers, engineers,
and the users of the equipment having water insulation; it can help to solve related problems more quickly and
reliably.

INTRODUCTION spark; weak decomposition under exposure of pulse

Lines with distributed parameters (strip, coaxial,
double (Blumlein), radial lines, lines with stepwise-
changing wave impedance, etc.) and equipped with the
corresponding switches usually serve as electrical
energy storage units and pulse shapers in various elec-
trophysical facilities (EPFs).1
Increasing the power and energy capacity of such
facilities in combination with reducing their mass–
dimensional parameters is a constant scientific and
practical requirement. Providing such features for these
facilities is directly associated with the electrical, phys-
icochemical, technological, radiation hardness, opera-
tional, and cost characteristics of the insulating medium
used in an energy storage. The same insulator parame-
ters determine the operating efficiency of the lines
transmitting electromagnetic pulses to the consumer.
A set of requirements is imposed on such a dielectric;
the most important of these are as follows: a high pulse
breakdown strength (BS) (~130 kV/cm for an area of
electrodes of >1 m2); a large relative permittivity ε at
frequencies of 0–1 GHz; a small loss tangent tan tan δ
up to 1 GHz; a low active conductivity; a rapid recovery
of electrical properties after a breakdown; safety in the
event of fire or explosion under the action of an electric
1 The main abbreviations and notation are also presented in Appen-
dix.
electric fields E and discharges; radiation hardness to
penetrating radiations; harmlessness; and low cost.
Deionized water, purified from mechanical impuri-
ties and gases and exposed to short voltage pulses, pos-
sesses almost all of these characteristics.
An electric capacitor with water insulation was first
applied in studies of electric implosions of conductors
[1]. The capacitor had flat electrodes, was charged to
240 kV, and stored an energy of 30 kJ. Water has since
been widely used in facilities with high pulse currents
(>100 kA) and voltages (up to ~10 MV) with rise times
of a few nanoseconds and longer. Such generators are
used
• to produce bremsstrahlung pulses and beams of
accelerated electrons and ions;
• in plasma studies;
• to generate microwave radiation and implosion of
conductors;
• for a variety of other purposes (see, e.g., [2–4]).
Water is used as insulation in the LIU-10, LIU-30,
I-3000, LIU-10M, STRAUS, STRAUS-2, and other
high-power, iron-free linear induction electron acceler-
ators on the basis of radial lines and with a stepwise-
varied wave impedance; these were developed at the
Russian Federal Nuclear Center’s All-Russia Institute
of Experimental Physics (RFNC–VNIIEF) (see, e.g.,

0020-4412/05/4802-0141 © 2005 Pleiades Publishing, Inc.

142 GERASIMOV
[5, 6]), and will be used in new high-current accelera-
tors.
Studies on the use of water as an insulator in low-
resistance generators of high-power electric pulses
were initiated in the USSR in 1963, on the initiative of
Academician G.I. Budker at the Russian Academy of
Sciences’ Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk).
A number of high-current accelerators were subse-
quently designed on this basis. Studies of the water BS
and the influence on it of various factors were begun
almost simultaneously under the supervision of Profes-
sor V.Ya. Ushakov at the Tomsk Polytechnical Institute.
The results from these studies and from other works
devoted to the electrical characteristics of water are
summarized in [7, 8]. Unfortunately, these books were
published in small quantities and are now bibliograph-
ical rarities; moreover, some of the information is obso-
lete or is not presented at all.
A great deal of information on various aspects of the
electrical characteristics of water has been obtained
over the recent 30 years or so, and can be found in peri-
odicals and in collections of the proceedings of confer-
ences and symposia. The author felt it would be both
useful and interesting to integrate the available data on
the properties and use of water in a single article.
This review presents and analyzes the published
data obtained from the studies and use of water as an
efficient pulse insulator. The following are examined:
• the main electrical characteristics of water;
• the influence of numerous factors on its BS;
• the physical description of water breakdown at var-
ious pulse durations of an applied voltage;
• empirical formulas for estimating the BS for dif-
ferent electrode systems and their materials;
• the main regularities for the water breakdown volt-
ages for structures consisting of solid dielectrics and
formulas for calculating these voltages;
• the electrical characteristics of mixtures of water
and ethylene glycol or methanol developed for opera-
tion at low temperatures (down to –40°ë) and to extend
the storage unit’s charging time;
• information on the water-purification systems for
EPFs;
• the parameters of coaxial energy storage units with
various media as insulators;
• the advantages of water insulation;
• other aspects of using water as insulation.
Certain details of studies, different measurement
techniques, and instruments and experimental devices
can be found in the list of original sources and the ref-
erences in them. Most of the formulas in this review are
presented not in system units but in practical units of
measurement; this is more convenient for engineering
calculations. Numerical factors of specified dimension
should therefore be substituted into formulas.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Not considered are certain problems dealing with
water conductivity and breakdown. These include, e.g.,
such important characteristics of ions in water as their
mobility. Many works have been devoted to studies of
this characteristic, and a number of different hypothe-
ses and explanations of the mobility’s diverse depen-
dences on various factors have been proposed. How-
ever, no comprehensive and summarized mobility the-
ory yet exists. It would hardly be expedient to expound
here on the vast quantity of data on charge transport in
water, since they are often contradictory. Those who are
interested in such data can find them in an earlier
review [9]. Also not presented are materials on break-
down at E ≈ 1 MV/cm in submillimeter gaps having dif-
ferent discharge-channel development dynamics, the
generation of shock waves, the formation of gas bub-
bles, etc. (e.g., [10]). Neither are the following consid-
ered: triggered and untriggered gaps with water insula-
tion, their features, characteristics, and application; the
development and parameters of the discharge channel;
etc. These data are contained in [11, 12] and in the ref-
erences therein. Finally, the characteristics of particular
EPFs with water insulation are not presented in this
review, although there are many references to descrip-
tions of such facilities.
Nevertheless, the brief data presented here on vari-
ous aspects of water as a pulsed insulator in high-power
EPFs are mainly of a reference nature and will be useful
to specialists who deal with the development, study,
and operation of such systems.
1. BASIC ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
1.1. Permittivity
The relative permittivity of water ε and the operating
pulse electric field strength E are the most important
characteristics of the liquid when used as an insulator,
since they determine the electrical energy density
stored in the dielectric,
W = εE 2/2 (1)
and, correspondingly, the impedance of the energy stor-
age or the transmission line.
The permittivity of a substance is a complex quan-
tity, and is dependent on the electromagnetic field fre-
quency. According to the Debye theory [13],
ε = ε∞ + (εs – ε∞)/(1 + jωτD), (2)
where ε∞ is the permittivity at infinitely high frequen-
cies, εs is the static permittivity at the zero frequency,
and ω = 2πf is the circular frequency. For polar liquids,
ε∞ << εs and can therefore be ignored in (2). Quantity
τD is the Debye relaxation time—the time required for
changing the orientation of molecular dipoles under the
action of the electric field. For water, τD ≈ 10–11 at 25°ë,
and the dependence of ε on f can be ignored when con-
sidering high-power pulsed facilities.
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES 143

In practice, it is necessary to know the dependence Table 1. Relative permittivity ε as a function of temperature
of ε on the water temperature T and the frequency f of T and frequency f
voltage changes or the frequency equivalent to the dura-
T, f, Hz
tion of the acting pulse. The experimental data agree
well with the changes in the relative water permittivity °C 105 106 107 108 3 × 108 3 × 109 1010 2.5 × 1010
ε depending on T and calculated using the formula [14]
1.5 87 87 87 87 86.5 80.5 38 15
–3
ε = 78.54 ( 1 – 4.579 × 10 T 1 15 81.7 81 78.8 49 25
(3)
–5 2 –8
+ 1.17 × 10 T 1 – 2.8 × 10 T 1 ,
3 25 78.2 78.2 78.2 78 77.5 76.7 55 34
35 74 74 58 41
where T1 = T ° – 25 is the centigrade temperature. As T 55 68 67.5 60 49
rises, the ε value falls slowly, decreasing from 88.1 at
0°ë to 78.2 at 25°ë and to 70.1 at 50°ë. 75 61.5 61 60.5 57 51.5
Table 1 lists the ε values for different T and f [14]. 95 55 52 52
At a temperature close to room T = 20°C, ε = 79.8 and
remains virtually independent of f up to f = 3 × 109 GHz,
above which it abruptly falls. This means that, at fre- Table 2. Dependence of tan δ on the frequency f and water
quencies of 0–3 × 109 GHz, the electrical length of a temperature T
water-insulated line holds constant: f, Hz
T,
tl = lε0.5c–1, (4) °C 105 3 3 2.5
106 107 108 1010
where l is the line’s geometrical length and c is the × 108 × 109 × 1010
velocity of light in vacuum. 1.5 0.190 0.019 0.002 0.007 0.032 0.310 1.030 0.425
The line’s wave impedance, which, e.g., for a coax- 15 0.031 0.021 0.205 0.700 0.330
ial line at a high frequency, is equal to
25 0.400 0.040 0.046 0.005 0.016 0.157 0.540 0.265
Z = (L/C )0.5 = 60ε–0.5ln(a/b), (5) 35 0.048 0.012 0.127 0.440 0.215
where L and C are the line inductance and capacitance 55 0.072 0.009 0.089 0.360 0.245
per unit length, and a and b are the radii of the outer and 75 0.103 0.007 0.066 0.280
inner conductors, respectively.
95 0.143 0.007 0.047

1.2. Dielectric Loss Tangent

The ratio between the imaginary and real parts of ε
in (2), i.e., the loss tangent tan tan δ , also depends on T
and f. Generally speaking, tan tan δ affects the slopes
of the pulse leading and trailing edges and the decrease
in the voltage amplitude, especially during its transmis-
sion along a water-insulated line with a large electrical
length. In practice, the rise time of the output pulse at
the load is determined by other factors: the response
speed of the switch connecting the line to the load, par-
asitic inductances and capacitances of the load’s ele-
ments, etc. Values of tan tan δ for water (Table 2) are
presented in [14], where it is pointed out that these high
values at low frequencies are explained by the measure-
ment error caused by the presence of foreign impurities
in water, since the measurements were performed in
insufficiently purified water before the application of
ion-exchange resins. A complex dependence of tan
tan δ on f and T follows from Table 2.
Knowledge of tan tan δ for given f and T allows the
account of the energy loss during the charging (dis-
charge) of the storage unit with water insulation and the
corresponding calculation of the decrease in the ampli-
tude and the change in the shape of the pulses at the
storage and load. This can be achieved by introducing
into the equivalent circuit an active resistance with a
value dependent on tan tan δ and determined by a
series or parallel connection of the resistor to the stor-
age capacitance C, respectively,
Rser, Ω = ( tan δ )/ωC, Rpar, Ω = [( tan δ )ωC]–1, (6)
where C is expressed in farads. When the characteris-
tics of transient processes in water-insulated lines with
distributed parameters are calculated, an active resis-
tance R per unit length, relating to tan tan δ , is intro-
duced into the equivalent linear LC chain.
1.3. Electrical Resistivity
The electrical resistivity ρ of water and its inverse
quantity, conductivity σ, are its important characteris-
tics. The water resistivity ρ is determined by the num-
ber and motion of the ions of the substance dissolved in
it, by the intrinsic conductivity caused by a dissociation
of water molecules, and by the electric-field-induced
emission of charges from the electrodes into water.
A portion of the water molecules are always disso-
ciated into H+ and OH– ions. Therefore, there is no kind
of purification that can help to attain a water resistivity
of ρ ≥ 80 MΩ cm. In addition, the applied field polar-

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144 GERASIMOV
Table 3. Coefficients a1 and a2 for several substances at con-
centrations of 1 mol/l
Substance 104 a1 107 a2 Substance 104 a1 107 a2
H2SO4 165 –16 KOH 190 32
HCl 164 –15 NaCl 226 84
HNO3 163 –16 KCl 217 67
izes the H2O molecules and strips their electrons to the
anode. Ionized H2O+ molecules react with H2O, form-
ing radicals OH– and H2O+ hydroxonium ions. The
duration of this reaction is ~10–13 s, and it can be con-
sidered inertialess compared to the duration of the pulse
field action in an EPF. Moreover, water is to a certain
degree one of the best solvents of almost all substances,
including the different types of stainless steel most fre-
quently used as an electrode material.
The water or aqueous solution conductivity
increases as T rises from 0 to 100°ë; its change is
described by a quadratic function [15]
σ(T), Ω–1 m–1 = σ18[1 + a1(T – 18) + a2(T – 18)2], (7)
where σ18 is the water conductivity at 18°ë, and a1 and
a2 are factors depending on the substance dissolved in
the water (Table 3) and weakly depending on its con-
centration. A rise in the water conductivity may con-
tribute to the liberation of microscopic bubbles at the
electrodes due to electrolysis and the heating of
micropoints, which increases the probability of an
uncontrolled breakdown of water.
1.4. Pulsed Water Breakdown Strength
The principal characteristic of water in an EPF is its
breakdown strength (BS). However, despite extensive
experimental and theoretical studies and the interest in
this problem in connection with various applications,
the physics of interelectrode electric pulse breakdown
of water is still not quite clear. This is associated with
the complex character of a breakdown’s onset and
development and with their dependence on a combina-
tion of factors: the duration, amplitude, and shape of the
applied pulse electric field E; the geometry and material
of the electrode system; the degree of water degassing;
the presence and material of the mechanical particles in
the water volume and at the electrodes' surface; water
resistivity ρ, etc. It seems to be impossible to find a
quantitative analytical regularity for the aggregate
effect of these factors on the water BS, especially if
there are no conventional and consistent methods for
determining their physicochemical characteristics.
Therefore, on the basis of the experimental data, we
briefly discuss below the influence of the main factors
on the water BS and present empirical formulas for cal-
culating the breakdown strength Eb for a water layer
and over a surface of solid dielectrics in water.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
1.4.1. Resistivity. The vast experimental data on the
influence of ρ on the BS of water and water electrolytes
were systemized in [7, 8] and, to our knowledge, have
since 1980 remained unchanged in subsequent publica-
tions. The results from these studies can be reduced to
the following: Solutions of NaCl, KCl, CuSO4,
K2Cr2O7, Na2SO3, and other salts and solutions of acids
were studied depending on the concentration of these
substances in water, the duration, shape, and polarity of
the applied voltage pulse, and the electrode system and
material. The results obtained are contradictory: in
some works, the pulse breakdown voltage for water
increased with rising ρ, while a decrease was observed
in other works. It is difficult to draw an unambiguous
conclusion from these experiments, since the periph-
eral conditions under which they were performed are
usually not presented. For this reason, the effect on BS
of the chemical composition of salts and acids has not
been determined precisely, even though they may react
with the material of the electrodes and modify their sur-
faces, thereby affecting the BS of a device. This review
does not contain details of the aforementioned studies,
which can be found in [7, 8] and the references therein.
Nevertheless, an analysis of these studies and those
presented below in Section 2 allows us to make the fol-
lowing conclusions. Increasing the ρ of water via its
thorough deionization is not a way of enhancing its
pulse (~1 µs) BS and only increases the cost of a facility
and its operation and complicates its maintenance. The
optimal ρ value must be chosen with allowance for the
admissible energy loss during the storage charging
time, or for the admissible decrease in the voltage
amplitude at the output of the energy-transmitting line.
The author of this review has derived a formula that
takes into account this decrease in the voltage ampli-
tude at the storage. He considered the transient process
in which a capacitor C1 charged to a voltage U1 is
instantaneously (without losses) connected through a
lumped inductance L and the common active resistance
r to the initially uncharged capacitor C2. Active resis-
tance R (in this case, the total resistance of the leakage
through water) is connected in parallel to C2. Assuming
that r << 2z (the condition for a damped oscillatory pro-
cess in the circuit) and where z = (L/C)1/2 and C =
C1C2/(C1 + C2 ), and ( f0τ)–1 << 1 (the condition for the
vastly larger time constant τ = ερ of the C2 discharge
through R compared to its charge time from C1), and
using the formula f0 = (LC)–1/2 for the current oscilla-
tion frequency in the circuit, we obtain the expression
for the voltage across C2 depending on time t:
–1 2 2 –1
U 2 = U 1 ( LC 2 ) [ ( b – a ) + ω 1 ]
(8)
× { exp ( – at ) – [ cos ω 1 t + b/ω 1 sin ω 1 t ] exp ( – bt ) },
where a = [R(C1 + C2)]–1, b = r/2L + a(C1/2C2), ω1 =
2
( f 0 – b2)1/2.
For an ideal dielectric (i.e., for R = ∞ and τ = ∞), Eq.
(8) transforms into an ordinary equation for a transient
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES 145

process of charging capacitor C2 from capacitor C1 in Table 4. Effect of electrode material on water BS
the rLC circuit (a = 0, b = r/2L):
Specific sublimation
0 –1 Anode Cathode Eb, kV/cm
U 2 = U 1 C1 ( C1 + C2 ) heat, kJ/g
(9)
× [ 1 – ( cos ω 1 t + b/ω 1 sin ω 1 t ) ] exp ( – bt ). Steel Steel 950
Mo Mo 850 6.98
0
Comparing U2 to U 2 at moment t = π(LC)1/2, we find Al Al 800 11.90
0
that, e.g., at ρ = 1 MΩ cm, U2 is smaller than U 2 by Cu Cu 770 5.35
6.8%, and at ρ = 2 and 6 MΩ cm, U2 is smaller by 3.4 Pb Pb 750 0.96
and 1.1%, respectively. Cu Steel 820
On the other hand, ρ must not be so small that, due Steel Cu 910
to a leakage current through water and a charge trans- Pb Steel 810
ferred during the voltage action, gas bubbles caused by
Steel Pb 890
electrolysis would form at the electrodes. To provide
such conditions, it is sufficient that ρ ≥ 2–5 MΩ cm.
From the data summarized in [7, 8], a qualitative crite-
Table 5. Effect of electrode material on coefficient K
rion follows for the onset of formation of microbubbles
through electrolysis at tef ~ 1 µs and a field of Material Stainless steel Brass Cu Al
~100 kV/cm; this can be represented as
K 584 ± 76 580 ± 58 549 ± 40 408 ± 65
jti ≤ 10–7 Ä s/cm2, (10)
where j, A/cm2, is the current density through water and
ti, s, is the current-flow duration. Inequality (10) deter- “weak” areas, the roles of which are played by, e.g., the
mines the minimum resistivity value, ρ ~ 1 MΩ cm. geometrical inhomogeneities of the electrode surfaces,
It is shown in Section 2.4 that, for ti> 65 µs, the the metal oxidation products, and the adsorbed gases.
effect of the ρ value on the BS is quite considerable. 1.4.5. Electrode material. In a homogeneous field,
1.4.2. Water temperature. The temperature the material of the electrode from which the breakdown
changes the solubility of gases in water and their is initiated affects Eb. In electrode systems of the point–
release at the electrodes, which influences the moment plane type, the point material influences Eb.
of discharge initiation. Increasing the temperature Table 4 lists the data on the water BS (ρ ≈ 1 MΩ cm)
improves the conditions for microbubble formation. for different materials of sphere–sphere-type electrodes
However, for properly degassed water, the BS is inde- 2 mm in diameter and having a ~3-mm interelectrode
pendent of T up to the boiling temperature. However, as gap [7]. A rectangular voltage pulse with a rise time of
the temperature rises, the conductivity of the liquid 10 ns was applied. The time before the breakdown
increases according to formula (7), which may contrib- moment maintained for all of the materials was ~0.5 µs.
ute to the additional formation of microbubbles through It was found that it is the anode material that mainly
electrolysis. affects the BS. A trend toward a decrease in the BS is
1.4.3. Solid particles. Solid conducting and dielec- observed when the sublimation heat of the electrode
tric particles generally reduce the water BS, in particu- material declines.
lar, due to changes in the topography of the electrodes’
surfaces when bombarded by microparticles. Their The effect of the electrode material on the BS in a
effect on Eb at tef ≤ 1 µs has not been definitively estab- virtually homogeneous field was studied experimen-
lished. As tef increases, Eb decreases, especially at tally in [16] in a hemisphere–sphere (diameters of 5.08
tef >> 1 µs, since, e.g., impurity particles have enough and 10.2 cm, respectively) electrode system. The inter-
time to be polarized and to locally distort the field, thus electrode gap was varied from 0.25 to 0.8 cm. The
reducing the BS. water was well degassed and had ρ = 18 MΩ cm at
25°C. The voltage buildup time to an amplitude of
1.4.4. Geometry of electrodes. An increase in the ≤500 kV was varied from 2 to 10 µs. Field E was con-
field inhomogeneity in water causes a decrease in the trolled in the range 150–500 kV/cm. The value of coef-
breakdown voltage Ub; the dependence of the water BS ficient K in formula (13), which is directly proportional
on the micro- and macrogeometry of the electrodes' to the breakdown field strength Eb, was refined in these
surfaces is stronger than it is on the concentration of studies. The results obtained for the positive polarity of
gases. For any field configuration, increasing the inter- the hemisphere are listed in Table 5; the K values for the
electrode gap reduces the average breakdown Eb values. negative polarity of this electrode were 5% higher.
The effect of the geometry of the electrodes and their
effective area S (see formula (13)) on Eb is considered A comparison with the data in Table 5 shows the
further in Subsections 1.4.8–1.4.10. An increase in S same trend toward decreasing Eb with a decrease in the
reduces the BS due to an increase in the number of sublimation heat, as in Table 4. A considerably reduced

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

146 GERASIMOV
Eb value was obtained for Al electrodes; this was also
noticed in [16] without analyzing the possible reasons.
1.4.6. Pulse repetition rate. The frequency gener-
ally affects the BS of water depending on its intrinsic
and impurity conductivity, the pulse profile and dura-
tion, field E, permittivity ε, and tan tan δ at a given fre-
quency f. When the dielectric losses in the liquid, which
are defined by the well-known expression
P = 1.8 × 10–12εfE 2 tan δ , (11)
and the conduction losses are insufficient to substan-
tially heat the medium, the BS in a homogeneous field
is virtually independent of f when the electric heating
(bubble) breakdown mechanism can be activated. In
formula (11), P, W/cm3, is the specific loss (the power
dissipated in 1 cm3 of a dielectric); f, Hz; and E, V/cm.
A discharge in water at ρ = 10 MΩ cm under multi-
ple actions of bipolar pulses with amplitudes of up to
700 kV and f = 0–10 Hz was studied in [17]. A point–
plane electrode system allowed the behavior of uncom-
pleted discharges to be studied and the discharge initia-
tion and quenching voltages to be measured. Rogowsky
electrodes 15.24 cm in diameter were used in certain
experiments. The influence of previous uncompleted
discharges and complete breakdowns on the BS was
determined. A very low voltage of initiation was deter-
mined for the first discharge in a series. The voltage of
initiation of uncompleted discharges was then (after n
pulses were applied) increased.
After the gap was completely broken down, many
vapor and gaseous bubbles remained in it; these had
enough time to collapse at f ≤ 4 Hz. At f > 4 Hz, part of
the bubbles nevertheless remained inside the water vol-
ume; however, the gap BS was recovered. Experiments
with voltage applied to degassed and nondegassed
water (the degree of degassing was not given) showed
that, in the first case, the threshold at which uncom-
pleted discharges are initiated has a stable voltage
value; in the second, a large scatter is observed. Upon
the application of a voltage of 700 kV to a spherical
(rather than point) Al electrode 5.08 cm in diameter
(with a field of 275 kV/cm at its surface), it was imme-
diately covered with a continuous layer of bubbles.
Upon subsequent application of 100 pulses at a repeti-
tion rate of 4 to 10 Hz, no breakdown developed from
this electrode. This can be explained by the gas ioniza-
tion in the bubbles and by the displacement of the elec-
tric field to their outer surface, which actually increased
the effective electrode diameter and reduced the field at
its surface.
The BS recovery dynamics after the completed
breakdowns in purified water (no data on ρ or on the
degree of degassing were given) was studied in [18]. At
low probabilities of breakdown in the point–plane sys-
tem (i.e., under the action of voltage pulses with ampli-
tudes lower than the breakdown magnitude applied to
the discharge gaps), random breakdowns had virtually
no effect on the breakdown probability at frequencies
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
lower than several tens of hertz. The intervals between
pulses were long enough for the insulating properties of
the water to recover. (The solid products of oil decom-
position are formed in the transformer oil; BS recovery
requires from tens of seconds to tens of minutes, or the
forced circulation of the liquid.)
When a repeated voltage pulse U2 (the amplitude of
which is close to that of the first breakdown voltage U1)
is applied, the duration t of the BS recovery to U1
depends on the value of energy Ψ released in the spark
channel during the breakdown by the first pulse (Ψ was
varied in the experiment from 20 to 380 J at U1 =
63 kV). Complex measurements showed that the BS
recovery dynamics is clearly related to the characteris-
tics of the vapor–gaseous cavity (VGC), into which the
discharge channel in the liquid is transformed after the
energy release stage terminates. Immediately after the
current pulse, the temperature of the substance in the
VGC reaches a value of several thousand degrees and
the pressure is much higher than the hydrostatic pres-
sure. This leads to the rapid expansion of the VGC at a
speed of ~400 m/s. The substance in the VGC is par-
tially ionized; therefore, the BS is no higher than a few
kilovolts per centimeter. An exchange of energy with
the environment then rapidly cools the substance in the
VGC, the latter contracts, and, several hundred micro-
seconds later when the second pulse U2 is applied, the
BS of the gap is determined by the composition and
density of the substance in the VGC.
The experimentally measured function U2/U1 = f(t)
has two temporal regions. In the first of these, with a
duration of ~1 ms, the BS increases slowly to a level
U2/U1 ≈ 0.2. The rise rate then increases to U2/U1 ≈ 0.8,
but it depends appreciably on Ψ: e.g., for Ψ = 20 J, this
level is reached in ~50 µs and for Ψ = 380 J, ~8 ms. In
the third region, the BS rise rate again becomes lower
and the breakdown voltage reaches the initial level in
several seconds.
There are several works on the practical use of
water-insulated devices operating in frequency modes.
Paper [19] describes a powerful Éààê-4 high-voltage
generator, in which a water-insulated twin double form-
ing line (TDFL) with coaxial electrodes (with a maxi-
mum diameter of 48 cm) serves as the storage and pulse
shaper. The TDFL has a double electrical length of
17 ns and an output wave impedance of 0.45 Ω. It was
charged for 0.5 µs to 100 kV. The TDFL was switched
with a gas-filled spark gap having 81 control electrodes
and discharged through a series of cable sections with a
total wave impedance of up to 0.5 Ω connected in par-
allel to its output. This generator produced a voltage of
100 to 200 kV and a current of <200 kA in the load and
operated in the repetitively pulsed and pulse-train (with
a train duration of 1–1.5 s) modes at a repetition rate of
up to 20 Hz without cooling. No studies of the water BS
were performed.
Paper [20] describes a modulator for a klystron
operating at a frequency of up to 50 Hz, in which, to
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
reduce its dimensions, a storing forming line (SFL)
with water insulation, a double electrical length of
700 ns, and a wave impedance of 2.2 Ω were used. The
SFL was manufactured in the form of a symmetrical,
multiple-fold, zigzag three-electrode line with a total
geometric length of 15 m; this was switched to the pri-
mary winding of a step-up transformer with a magnetic
switch. A voltage of 600 kV with a flat top and a dura-
tion of 400 ns was generated across the secondary
winding. The line’s electrodes, 6 mm thick and 140 mm
wide, were made of stainless steel; the water insulation
between them was 12 mm thick; and the design BS was
120 kV/cm. The water temperature was maintained
equal to 30 ± 2°ë to stabilize the line impedance to an
accuracy of ±1% under temperature changes in ε of
water. The SFL was charged by pulses to 90 kV, when
a 0.169-µF capacitor was discharged into it through an
inductor (the charging duration is unknown). The
degree of water ionization and degassing was not pre-
sented; neither were the results from studies of the
water BS.
Paper [21] describes an ETIGO-4 high-voltage gen-
erator continuously operating at a pulse repetition rate
of 1 Hz. It was used in studies of the acceleration of
electron and ion beams and the generation of micro-
waves, in the development of new materials, etc. A
coaxial line with water insulation having an impedance
of 1.8 MΩ and an electrical length of 120 ns serves as
one of intermediate storages. A capacitor with a capac-
itance of 35 nF charged to 240 kV discharges into it
through a magnetic switch. The line was also connected
to the primary coil of the step-up transformer by a mag-
netic switch. The transformer’s secondary coil was con-
nected to the load and produced a voltage amplitude of
400 kV across it and a current of 13 kA of 120-ns dura-
tion through it. The pulse repetition rate of 1 Hz was
restricted by the power of the primary dc source and
could be raised. No data on the water characteristics
were reported.
In 1987, work to develop a frequency (up to 120 Hz)
generator of pulsed (~60 ns) accelerated electron or ion
beams with a mean power of as high as 300 kW was
announced (the RHEPP project in the United States)
([22] and references therein). It was designed to perform
a wide range of various studies and to solve applied prob-
lems. All of the accelerator’s components had lifetimes
of >104 h. The accelerator included a double forming line
(DFL) and a single water-insulated coaxial line with
matched wave impedances (0.88 Ω). The DFL, which
had to be charged for 1 µs to 250 kV, had an outer diam-
eter of ~1 m, an internal operating field E = 100 kV/cm,
and a breakdown field of ~142 kV/cm.
The first version of this accelerator (the RHEPP-1)
ran in 1994 for a prolonged period at a frequency of
5 Hz, an output voltage of 1 MV, and an electron beam
pulse current of 25 kA from a diode. It was also suc-
cessfully tested at a frequency of 120 Hz and provided
an output power of 100 kW. After certain units were
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
147
refined, the second version of the facility (the RHEPP-2)
was put into operation in 1997 for commercial applica-
tions (primarily for treating surfaces with charged par-
ticle beams) with the following characteristics: an
energy of 2.5 MeV, a current of 25 kA, a pulse duration
of ~60 ns, a pulse repetition rate of 120 Hz, and a mean
power of 300 kW. The facility operated continuously in
this regime 14 h per day for several weeks. The numer-
ous papers on the development and tests of the units and
the accelerator as whole did not report on the character-
istics of the water used.
1.4.7. Gases dissolved in water. Water actively dis-
solves the following gas volumes per 1 m3 at atmo-
spheric pressure and a temperature of 20°C: 16 l N2,
18.4 l H2, 31 l O2, and 878 l CO2; at T = 0°C, 1.7 CO2
volumes are dissolved per one water volume [23].
Hydrogen is virtually absent in the near-ground layer,
and therefore may be ignored. Gases are confined
inside the volumes between water molecules and form
microbubbles near the electrode surfaces in a high elec-
tric field. The discharge that can be initiated in these
bubbles reduces the water BS, especially for acting
pulse durations of >1 µs.
1.4.8. Physical picture of pulsed water break-
down. When powerful electric pulses are generated in
high-power-consuming EPFs with water insulation, the
energy is usually stored in storage units in a time
shorter than or about 1 µs. Marx generators of voltage
pulses are commonly used as current sources that
charge storage units in this time. After the storage is
connected to the load, the energy is consumed for sev-
eral tens of nanoseconds. In this case, the actual peak
powers are as high as megawatts and even terawatts,
thus corresponding to megavolt voltages and megaam-
pere currents. During the comparatively long storage
charging process, one must take measures to prevent
the uncontrolled breakdown of a water layer. This
requires a knowledge of the regularities of the water BS
and the initiation and development of a discharge in
water.
However, as was mentioned above, the physics and
mechanism of water BS have not as yet been clearly
determined. Nevertheless, a number of breakdown
models that qualitatively describe its development have
been proposed. It is generally agreed that an electric
breakdown has three stages: discharge initiation, its
development and propagation, and, finally, the forma-
tion (as the current rises) of an ionized channel that
short-circuits the electrodes and is considered a section
with a time-dependent ohmic–inductive impedance.
The discharge initiation depends substantially on
the duration tef of the electric-field action (tef is defined
below in formula (13)). This parameter allows us to dis-
tinguish three ranges: tef ≤ 1 µs, 1 µs ≤ tef ≤ 10 µs, and
tef ≥ 10 µs.
In the first range, the duration of the development of
a discharge from a cathode in a strong inhomogeneous
electric field is treated as the ionization breakdown
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
148 GERASIMOV
mechanism. The electrons emitted from micropoints at
the cathode surface form a weakly movable volume
charge near the tops of the micropoints. A layer of
water containing this charge can act as a piston that
generates a shock wave. Behind the wave front near the
micropoint, a cavitation microcavity is formed, into
which the liberation of gases dissolved in water is prob-
able. Electrons in the cavity are accelerated more than
those in the water and gain an energy sufficient for the
impact ionization of gases and water. In strong fields,
these electrons may not be lost and can move farther in
the liquid heating it. At a certain density of the energy
release in water, gaseous–vapor macrobubbles are pro-
duced, in which a discharge finally develops.
A discharge from the anode at tef ≤ 1 µs in a field
close to homogeneous is initiated by stripping electrons
from polarized water molecules, i.e., by the autoionisa-
tion effect in the liquid. It is considered that the field
strength near the cathode is reduced by the space charge
of the electrons emitted by micropoints. Electrons
begin to move to the anode; this leads to the impact
boiling of local regions of the near-anode water layers
and to the formation of gaseous–vapor macrobubbles.
The ionization of these bubbles marks the onset of ini-
tiation of the water breakdown channels.
When the voltage-exposure duration is several
nanoseconds, the development of a discharge begins
with the explosive destruction of micropoints on the
electrodes as a result of their resistive heating by field-
emission and capacitive currents. Metal vapors enter
the plasma of the developing discharge; the water BS is
thereby associated with the thermodynamic character-
istics of the electrode material.
When the field action duration is 1 µs ≤ tef ≤ 10 µs,
gas liberation at the electrodes resulting from water
electrolysis (an electrochemical breakdown) plays a
significant role in the breakdown mechanism. A dis-
charge is initiated at the electrode where the gas libera-
tion is more intense and microbubbles grow and reach
a certain critical size. Primary weakly ionized con-
tracted channels 1–5 µm in diameter begin to grow
from micropoints into the gap depth at a velocity of
105–107 cm/s. The field strength near the channel head
is as high as 108 V/cm. The channel develops from the
positive electrode as a result of autoionisation in the liq-
uid, and from the negative electrode due to impact ion-
ization. At the moment the critical temperature is
reached near the base of the primary channel, an ioniza-
tion wave begins to move through it, transforming it
into a highly conducting channel. The pressure in it
rises to several thousand atmospheres, it expands radi-
ally, and the current and glow in it simultaneously
increase via the impact and thermal ionization mecha-
nisms. When a certain degree of thermalization is
reached, the primary channel transforms into a highly
conducting leader channel, from whose head primary
and streamer channels may grow and be transformed
into leaders in a similar manner.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
When the duration of the applied voltage pulse is
≥10 µs, the electrothermal (bubble) breakdown mecha-
nism takes place. This is explained by the liquid over-
heating from the conduction currents, especially in the
vicinity of the micropoints' tops, where a thermal
explosion with vaporization and the formation of
vapor–gaseous bubbles may occur. Water electrolysis
also can contribute to bubble formation. The subse-
quent breakdown develops in a manner similar to the
above process.
The above picture of water breakdown development
was summarized using the results from numerous
experiments employing fast optical and electron–opti-
cal chronography, high-speed interferometry and spec-
trography, and shadow imaging techniques; field stud-
ies using the Kerr electrooptical effect; etc. The original
sources of the first studies are contained in [7, 8], while
the data of later works are available from [24].
Recent works [25, 26] present data on discharge ini-
tiation in water upon the artificial production of
microbubbles with dimensions of 20–100 µm produced
near electrodes by the pulsed heating of a thin wire.
A microbubble was photographed with magnifications
of up to 100 using a pulsed (~3 ns) laser or a multiframe
system with mandatory locking to the moment a volt-
age pulse (up to 100 kV) of controlled polarity was
applied. The field between the electrodes was slightly
inhomogeneous and had a value of <300 kV/cm.
A streamer appeared from the bubble top at the cathode
surface and began to grow at a subsonic speed
(<400 m/s). The streamer was controlled by Coulomb
and hydrodynamic forces and had a form of a bush with
a characteristic inhomogeneity scale of <10 µm. It was
concluded that cathode bubbles were broken down by a
multiavalanche mechanism. A fan-shaped set of
streamers (numbering >100) originated from the
anode-bubble top. These had a supersonic velocity of
movement in water (~2000 m/s) and filled a hemisphere
of <600 µm radius. The formation of streamers was
accompanied by a shock wave, at the center of which
streamers were generated. Approximately 100–150 ns
later, the shock wave arrived at the end of the streamer
zone and all but one of the primary streamers disap-
peared. A new fan-shaped set of streamers (with a smaller
number of <30) originated from its top, and so on. The
velocity of the secondary streamers was ~5000 m/s. The
main discharge developed along one of the streamers
and was accompanied by a high-power shock wave.
These experiments showed clearly that, if a
microbubble is present near the cathode or anode, the
breakdown channel begins to develop only at the bub-
ble top, and its appearance substantially reduces the
discharge initiation delay time. The delay of a dis-
charge from a cathode bubble is ~20 times longer than
the delay of the discharge onset from the anode. Thus,
in order to raise the water insulation BS, the measures
taken must be aimed primarily at reducing the probabil-
ity of gas-bubble formation on the electrode surfaces.
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
It will be shown in Section 2 that, according to new
studies, the above descriptions of water breakdown can
be realized, in compliance with the three ranges of
pulse durations, only under specific conditions and are
not universal. When water is purified from mechanical
particles and is degassed and deionized to a high
degree, it remains electrically strong up to 1 ms under
the exposure of a field of up to ~100 kV/cm.
Paper [27] presents new results published in 2004
from experimental studies of the discharge in water
between pointed and flat electrodes (anode and cath-
ode, respectively), when its conductivity σ0 changes
from 2 × 10–3 to 0.04 × 10–3 Si/cm through the dissolv-
ing of NaCl. This study was undertaken in order to find
ways of constructing a physical model of water break-
down, especially at the early stage of its development.
The interelectrode distance was varied from 2 to
20 mm. A pulse with an amplitude of up to 30 kV with
a variable distance of ≤10 µs was applied t0 the gap.
This established that the breakdown process is charac-
terized by several temporal stages that differ in the
value of the dynamic conductivity σ of the interelec-
trode gap. At the initial stage, with a duration ∆t1 ≈ 100–
200 ns, σ is constant and equal to the initial conductiv-
ity σ0. At the second stage, when ∆t2 ≈ 200–250 ns, σ
increases by a factor of >10 and trends toward reaching
a quasi-stationary value at the end of this interval. At
the third stage, when ∆t3 ≈ 100 ns, σ increases by a fac-
tor of >100 with a subsequent drop at the moment when
∆t3 terminates. At this stage, a transition occurs from
the prebreakdown state to the short-circuiting of the
gap by the discharge channel. During the fourth stage,
a relatively slow increase in σ is observed in the formed
channel.
When ∆t2, UV radiation is detected. It follows from
measurements that it is emitted from point sources at
the anode surface and from incomplete near-anode
streamers. This radiation in the interelectrode gap and
near the cathode is detected only during the transition
from the ∆t3 stage to the stage of the short-circuited dis-
charge channel. The shift between the interelectrode
current and the UV radiation peaks is ~40 ns.
The energy released in the gap at the prebreakdown
stage is comparable to and even exceeds the energy
released at the stage of the formed discharge channel
spanning the gap.
The results obtained allowed the authors of [27] to
draw the following conclusions: The concepts of the
ionization water breakdown at a voltage pulse duration
of ≤1 µs (see, e.g., [8, 24]) that dominated until recently
and were based on the similarity of the discharges in
gases and liquids (when the latter are considered as a
dense gas) are invalid. It must be assumed that, even in
high fields E, electrons in a “hydrated” state and have
an almost ionic mobility [28]. This means that electrons
cannot ionize water molecules through collisions. Con-
sequently, to explain the prebreakdown increase in the
liquid conductivity, it is necessary to find charge carri-
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
149
ers whose role in the interelectrode medium can be
played by free (nonhydrated) electrons.
It was therefore suggested in [27] that micropoints
explode in water at the electrode surfaces with the for-
mation of “hot” points [29]. If we assume that the field
near the miscropoint tops at the anode is
E ≈ 2U[rln(4d/r)]–1 (12)
(where U is the applied voltage, r is the miscropoint
top’s radius of curvature, and d is the length of the inter-
electrode gap), then for U = 30 kV, r ≈ 10 µm, and d =
1 cm, the field E is 107 V/cm. The presence on the elec-
trode surface of a layer (adsorbed gas, oxide films, etc.)
with a permittivity that is appreciably lower than the
water permittivity ε = 80 may considerably amplify this
field, and it will exceed the field that causes microex-
plosions [31]. Centers of explosive emission are
sources of intense UV radiation that can increase both
the conductivity in the interelectrode gap and the rise in
the interelectrode current due to photoionisation pro-
cesses (the photostripping of electrons from negative
ions) [29, 32]. The field E near the micropoint top may
exceed the ionization threshold of the avalanche multi-
plication of electrons and the initiation of discharge
development.
However, in the analysis briefly presented above, the
authors of [27] ignored the possibility of the “hydrata-
tion” of electrons generated by UV radiation. This
results from the lack of data on the elementary “hydra-
tation” processes, particularly on the photoexcitation
and photoionisation processes. The applicability of the
free electron model may therefore be disputable.
A “quasi-hole” positive-charge transfer could be
another mechanism of the conduction measured exper-
imentally in [33]. The hole mobility is anomalously
high and far exceeds the mobility of hydrated electrons.
In this case, a comparatively low concentration of holes
can ensure that the currents measured before the gap are
short-circuited by a discharge channel (at the ∆t2 stage).
Emissions from hot points at the anode and the photo-
ionisation processes that accompany them can supply
holes to the interelectrode gap.
Hence, these latest experiments have confirmed
once more that the water breakdown mechanism is far
from clear.
1.4.9. Formulas for calculating the water break-
down field strength. Since it remains impossible to
determine a priori the water BS, one must use empirical
formulas to perform the calculations required when
designing water-insulated facilities.
To estimate field Eb in a breakdown of water with a
resistivity ρ ≥ 105 Ω cm for an action duration of 0.1 to
1 µs and a voltage increasing according to the 1 – cosωt
law in a system of coaxial electrodes with an area of
>104 cm2, J.C. Martin proposed the formula [34]
– 0.33
Eb, kV/cm = K t ef S–0.1, (13)
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
150
where K is a factor equal to 300 at the positive polarity
of the inner electrode and 600 for the negative polarity;
tef, µs, is the field strength rise time from a level 0.63Eb
to Eb; and S, cm2, is the electrode area over which the
field changes from 90 to 100% Eb. Note that this for-
mula is applicable to transformer oil, ethanol, and
methanol (K = 500 for both polarities), and for glycerin
and castor oil as well (K = 700).
According to (13), Eb increases with shortening tef.
Therefore, a common practice is to reduce tef to a min-
imum, e.g., by switching the electrical energy storages
in the region of a steep voltage buildup as they are being
charged. Reducing tef allows the thickness of the water
insulation to be reduced and E to be increased, which
increases the stored energy density (1) and, correspond-
ingly, the storage power. The latter becomes able to
transfer higher currents to the consumer and to main-
tain a higher voltage across a low-impedance load.
Moreover, shortening tef makes it possible to reduce the
device’s mass and dimensions.
The dependence of Eb on S is weaker. However, in
facilities with a high energy capacity, the electrodes
have large areas (1–50 m2) and their effect (a decrease
in Eb) is appreciable. Typical values of the operating
field strengths in such devices are 70–130 kV/cm at a
BS margin of ~30%, i.e., E is lower than Eb by ~30%.
Formula (13) was refined in [35] with allowance for
a field inhomogeneity at the negative polarity of the
central electrode,
– – 0.33 – 0.069
E b = 557t ˝Ù S
0.5
× { 1 + 0.12 [ ( a – b )/(b ln ( a/b ) – 1 ) ] },
+
Eb =
– 0.33 – 0.058
287t ˝Ù S , only an estimate of the Eb value. It would be more cor-
where a and b are radii of the outer and central conduc-
tors, respectively.
It was shown in [36] that, in a homogeneous field
and gaps d = 0.5–5 cm, formula (13) agrees better with
the experiment if a factor d –0.1 is introduced into its
right-hand part.
The BS of purified water was studied in [37] as a
function of the gap length d = 0.4–5 cm and the elec-
trode surface S = 5–1000 cm2 under the action of a tri-
angular voltage pulse with a duration tef = 0.1–2 µs in a
field of Rogowsky electrodes and in highly inhomoge-
neous fields of point–plane and blade–plane systems.
The relationship obtained for the Rogowsky electrodes
is
– 0.25
Eb = K t ef S –0.1d –0.1,
where K is a factor equal to 380 and 320 for stainless-
steel and Al electrodes, respectively.
The following equations were obtained for mean
breakdown electric intensities for a breakdown in the
point–plane system at negative and positive potentials
at the point, respectively:
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
GERASIMOV
–
E b = K 2 t ef
– 0.33
µ
– 0.33 – 0.1
d ,
(16)
+
Eb =
– 0.25 – 0.45 – 0.1
K 1 t ef µ d ,
where µ is the gain for the mean field E in the gap
caused by its increase to Emax at the point top (µ =
Emax/E; in experiments, µ was varied from 1 to 15),
K1 = 290 for a stainless steel point, and K2 = 330, inde-
pendent of the point material. Relationships (16) are
applicable only at µ < 10. At µ > 10, the dependence of
+
Eb on µ is weaker. The equation for E b is applicable
only at µ > 1.5, while, for µ < 1.5, it is more correct to
use (13) to calculate Eb.
The mean field Eb in the blade–plane electrode sys-
tem can be calculated using the formulas
– – 0.67 + – 0.83
E b = 62.5 t ef S–0.1, E b = 27 t ef d–0.667. (17)
The BS in a nanosecond homogeneous field at a
pulse duration of 50 ns ≤ t ≤ 10–6 s can be calculated
from the formula [38]
Eb, kV/cm = 130t –0.33S –0.08, (18)
where t, µs and S, cm2.
The BS of a strip transmitting line with water insu-
lation was calculated in [39] for a pulse duration t = 30–
70 ns with an amplitude of 400–1100 kV and an effec-
tive area of the electrodes of 103 cm2 (calculations using
(13) at t ≤ 30 ns yielded a value of Eb 30% lower than
that obtained experimentally):
Eb, kV/cm = 160d–0.65t–0.39S–0.08. (19)
(14)
It should be noted that formulas (13)–(19) allow
rect to accompany each formula with all of the condi-
tions under which these formulas were derived, in par-
ticular, the state of the electrode surfaces and the meth-
ods of their conditioning, the electrode material, the
degree of water and electrode surface degassing, the
concentration, size, and material of mechanical parti-
cles in water, etc.
1.4.10. Breakdown strength over the surface of
solid dielectrics (SDs) in water. Supporting structural
and simultaneously insulating elements made of solid
dielectrics are placed in water or in any other liquid
insulator. The considerable differences in the ε and ρ
values for water and solid dielectrics lead to difficulties
in designing and using such insulators, since they may
substantially modify the E value and distribution at the
interface with water. In order to develop a water-insu-
lated device, it is therefore important to know the
(15)
breakdown (spanning) voltage over the surface of solid
insulators depending on their shape and electrical prop-
erties.
There are well-known methods for mathematically
simulating fields to determine the optimum shapes of
certain insulating elements in water-insulated storage
units, particularly separating diaphragms [40].
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
Es, MV/cm (a)
1 1.3
1.3
2 1.1
1.1
3
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
10–8 2 3 5 10–7
Fig. 1. Breakdown strength Es over the SD surface as a function of duration ts of the voltage action before the discharge initiation
in a field with predominantly (a) tangential and (b) normal components: (1) fluoroplastic; (2) organic glass; (3) polyethylene; the
curve was calculated using formula (20).
Attempts to determine the shape of insulators with a
high BS using electrolytic baths were undertaken.
However, mathematical and physical simulation does
not allow any appreciable increase in the operational
reliability of SD elements, since there are difficulties in
considering the quality of the material, the state of the
surfaces of insulators and electrodes, their mechanical
loading, the degree of water purification and degassing,
and the gradual saturation of insulators with water
whose rate increases in an electric field [41]. Therefore,
direct measurements of the breakdown voltage over the
insulator surface in water should be considered as the
most reliable technique. It is desirable that measure-
ments be performed under conditions reproducing the
actual operation of insulators in high-voltage devices.
Paper [42] presents experimental data on the depen-
dence of the voltage for a creeping discharge in techni-
cal water (with resistivity ρ ≈ 104 Ω cm) on the SD
thickness, the SD rim length and ε, the electric field
configuration, the voltage pulse polarity, and on other
parameters. Most measurements were performed in the
point–plane system with an SD layer interleaved
between the electrodes: polyethylene (ε ≈ 2.2), fluoro-
plastic (ε ≈ 2.5), vacuum rubber (ε = 2.5–5), and texto-
lite (ε = 8). A steel rod 5 mm in diameter served as the
point.
A generator produced negative or positive voltage
pulses with amplitudes of up to 60 kV. The initial values
of the pulse amplitude at which a discharge was initi-
ated were considered as the discharge voltage values,
while the completed breakdown between the electrodes
occurred at substantially lower voltages that decreased
during the development of a creeping discharge along
the rim due to leakage currents.
It was found that, despite different ε values and a
surface resistance of the above SDs, the discharge volt-
ages were quite close for all samples and changed
almost linearly from 25 to 45 kV, as the rim length
increased from 2 to 12 cm. The discharge voltages were
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
151
Es, MV/cm
(b)
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
ts, s 10–8 2 3 ts, s
higher for the negative polarity at the rod than for the
positive polarity; this effect was more pronounced for
longer rims. The average velocities of creeping dis-
charge development for the above polarities were v– ≈
0.03 cm/µs and v+ ≈ 1–2 cm/µs, respectively, and the
delay in discharge development was in the first case
~40 times longer.
The data on the breakdown voltage over the surfaces
of organic glass, fluoroplastic, and polyvinyl chloride
plastic under the action of pulses with amplitudes of
200, 600, and 1000 kV and durations of 3–100 ns (with
a rise time of 1–3 ns) are presented in [43]. Data on the
spatial BS of these SDs in sphere–sphere and point–
plane electrode systems were simultaneously obtained
for the two polarities of the pulses and sample thick-
nesses d = 0.1–1 cm.
It was discovered that the mean field strength Es dur-
ing a breakdown is virtually independent of the SD
properties, the specific surface electric capacitance, and
the ratio between the normal and tangential field com-
ponents specified by the electrode configuration (Fig. 1).
The mean breakdown field strengths Es averaged over
their length d = 0.3–1.8 cm and thickness d = 0.1–1 cm
satisfy the relationship
log E s , MV/cm = (k1 – k2 log d ) – (k3 – k4 log d ) log t s ,(20)
where ts, ns, is the time for which the voltage was
applied before the discharge initiation. The values of
coefficients k1–k4 for various SDs and field configura-
tions are listed in Table 6.
It should be noted that formula (20) also yields a
quite accurate Es value for the above SDs in glycerin
and transformer oil (in fields with prevailing tangential
or normal components), and for breakdowns through
the thickness of layers of transformer- and castor-oil
and glycerin layers. The corresponding coefficients k1–
k4 are presented in [43].
Paper [44] presents the results from experiments in
searching for optimum SD shapes in water in a homo-
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
152 GERASIMOV

Table 6. Coefficients for breakdowns over the SD surface in
water and water bulk breakdowns
Electrode system
Poly- Orga-
Coeffi- Fluoro-
cient
ethy- nic
plastic sphere–
point–plane
lene glass sphere (–) (+)
k1 0.648 0.314 0.482 0.278 0.649 0.690
k2 0.662 0.709 0.847 0.818 0.462 0.848
k3 –0.044 –0.219 –0.14 –0.362 –0.216 –0.153
k4 0.036 0.06 0.137 0.221 0.06 0.083
geneous field and in a field of a coaxial water-insulated
(ρ = 2 MΩ cm) line with diameters of the outer and
central stainless-steel electrodes of 21 and 10.5 cm, a
wave impedance of 4.6 Ω, and a length of 70 cm. The
line was being charged to 1 MV for 1 µs. The central
electrode was at a negative potential. The breakdown
voltage Us in water over the surface of axial and radial
polyethylene, caprolon, and organic-glass insulators of
various shapes was measured (Figs. 2 and 3).
When Us was measured in a homogeneous field of
12-cm-diameter Rogowsky electrodes, the voltage
across the sample was built up in steps of 20–30 kV
beginning with 60% of expected Us. In coaxial elec-
trodes, the voltage at the front of a single pulse for a
complete surface discharge was assumed to be Us. If a
breakdown did not occur, the pulse was cut off by a trig-
gered spark gap. Insulator samples were milled from
blocks; their surfaces were not exposed to an additional
treatment. The insulators were held in contact with
electrodes through friction, a common practice in
water-insulated facilities.
The task posed was solved by testing the following
insulators:
(i) Those minimally distorting the field distribution,
i.e., with a surface parallel to the field’s lines of force
(Figs. 2a and 3a);
(ii) With an intricate shape that ensured a field com-
ponent normal to the surface and an increased length of
the discharge trajectory (Figs. 2b–2d and 3b, 3c);
(iii) With a decreased field strength in the region of
the contacts with electrodes: (1) by external shielding
(Figs. 2e and 3b–3d); (2) by internal shielding
(Figs. 2f–2h); (3) during protection of the edge by
rounding an insulator (Fig. 2i).
The BS over the SD volume was higher than the
water BS by 250% for durations of the applied voltage
pulses of ~1 µs.
It was found that the breakdown strengths Es over
the surfaces of insulators of the simplest shapes (Figs.
2a and 3a) amount to 70–90% of the mean breakdown
strengths for water and are lower than Es for insulators
with internal shielding (Fig. 2f). A shift of the maxi-
mum electric intensity to the gap’s depth, to the water–
solid dielectric interface (Figs. 2c, 2d, 2i and 3b), leads
to lower Es despite an elongation of the insulator sur-
face length, compared to the insulator surface lengths in
Figs. 2a and 3a. This is explained by the appearance of
a field component normal to the surface and resulting in
an enhanced field strength at the interface between the
two media. For the insulators in Figs. 2c and 2d, a dis-
charge is initiated not from electrodes, which always
happens in the absence of a solid dielectric in the inter-
electrode gap, but from the point at which the radius of
curvature is minimal and develops from there to the
cathode and the anode.
Reducing the field near the contact between the
insulator and the electrode by shielding or imparting a
special shape to the insulator rim yielded no positive
effect. The best result was obtained for an internal
shield (Figs. 2f–2h). However, no significant rise in Us
was obtained in this case either, since, when the maxi-
mum field region is shifted deeper to the sample, a field
component weakening the action of the first effect
appears at the interface between the media. Therefore,
an increase in Us is observed only until the shield
reaches a certain depth in the insulator body, after
which the effect of the normal field component begins
to grow. Nevertheless, shielding in the near-anode
region is more efficient.
From the data obtained, it follows that Us values for
the SDs of three different materials are approximately
equal. Only for polyethylene is it slightly lower, due to
the larger field distortion caused by the smallest ε value.
When the length l of a cylindrical insulator changes
from 1 to 5 cm (Fig. 2a), the mean breakdown field Es
changes according to the law
Es, kV/cm = kl –0.33, (21)

+ + + + + + + + +
l

– – – – – – – – –
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

Fig. 2. Shapes of SD insulators tested in a homogeneous electric field.

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 3. Shapes of insulators tested in a field of coaxial elec-
trodes.
where k is a constant depending on the pulse duration tp
and the insulator material. For tp = 1 µs, k = 250 and 270
for polyethylene and caprolon, respectively.
Formula (21) was refined in [24] and proposed in the
form
– 0.25
Es, kV/cm = kl–0.33 t ef , (22)
where k = 200 for polyethylene and 220 for caprolon (tef
see in formula (13)).
In a system of coaxial electrodes, the insulator in
Fig. 3a was broken down in some cases in water with-
out visible traces remaining on the insulator surface.
The voltages Us for all of the tested shapes in Figs. 3b–
3d were 40–50% lower, and traces of discharge in the
form of carbonized (polyethylene and caprolon) or
melted (organic glass) regions were observed at the
insulators’ surfaces. In this case, the caprolon and
organic-glass insulators cracked.
The results from these studies allowed us to con-
clude that controlling the field distribution is not an effi-
cient method for increasing Us over the surface of SD
insulators operating in water. The appearance of a field
component normal to the insulator surface reduces Us.
In most cases, the optimum shape of insulators is the
simplest one (a cylinder, a flat washer), for which the
insulator surface is parallel to the field’s lines of force.
A solid dielectric may substantially reduce the field
strength at the edge of an electrode in water and thus
raise the BS of the device. A capacitor with water insu-
lation in the form of a set of flat rectangular vertical
electrodes having a capacitance of 0.58 µF and
designed to be charged in 2.5 µs to 940 kV (a stored
energy of 250 kJ) [45]. High-voltage and grounded
electrodes in the form of sections are arranged in two
tanks with lengths, widths, and heights of 290, 240, and
150 cm, respectively. The dimensions of this storage
unit are much smaller than those of a water-insulated
coaxial line with the same electrical parameters. A field
attenuator made of acryl plastic (ε = 2.2) with a height
of 10.2 cm and a cross-sectional width of 27 cm is
placed along the entire perimeter of the outer edge of
each high-voltage electrode.
As a result of “pulling” equipotentials into the plas-
tic volume, the field at the electrode edge decreased to
170 kV/cm in place of 340 kV/cm without the attenua-
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
153
1
–108 kV/cm
2
4
12.5 cm 2.5
cm
Fig. 4. Distribution of equipotentials in a capacitor section:
(1) section body; (2) high-voltage electrode; (3) field atten-
uator made of acryl plastic (ε = 2.2); and (4) water (ε = 81).
tor. The maximum field in water decreased to
108 kV/cm at the bevel boundary near the electrode
edge (Fig. 4). The field is homogeneous at the greater
part of the electrode surface (106 cm2) and is equal to
75 kV/cm. The gap between the water-filled attenuator
joints that inevitably appeared during its manufacture
was of concern. Numerical calculations showed that the
gap width (1.3 mm) ensured capacitor operation at a
voltage of about 750 kV. The experiments were per-
formed on a section prototype reduced by a factor of
two (Fig. 5). It withstood multiply applied voltage
pulses with an amplitude equivalent to 1 MV for a full-
scale section. The breakdown strength calculated from
+
(13) for a full-scale section was E b = 85 kV/cm; i.e., at
a maximum charging voltage of 940 kV, the field in the
capacitor was 88% of the breakdown field. The basic
operating mode of the capacitor was changed to 750 kV,
which made the device more reliable. Tests of the full-
scale capacitor at a voltage of up to 790 kV confirmed
this.
When it is necessary to separate the water-insulated
volume from the evacuated volume in the electrical
line, Martin proposed using continuous diaphragm-like
or sectioned insulators (Fig. 6) [46]. The latter are con-
structed as SD rings arranged in series with metal gra-
dient electrodes between them. The former and the lat-
ter insulators are recommended at operating voltages of
<1.5 and >1.5 MV, respectively. As a rule, a high-volt-
age conductor for transmitting electromagnetic pulses
to the consumer (a high-current electron diode, a mul-
tiwire liner, etc.) is placed in vacuum along the axes of
such insulators. To reduce the conductor inductance,
the insulator must have a minimum height and a certain
breakdown strength margin (as a rule,
30%). The
insulators manufactured according to the recommenda-
tions presented below meet these requirements, with
the BS on the vacuum side lower than that on the water
side.
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
154 GERASIMOV

1
5
3

20 cm
7 2
4
6
6.25 cm

Fig. 5. Section model: (1) section body; (2) high-voltage electrode; (3) field attenuator made of acryl plastic (ε = 2.2); (4) high-
voltage lead in; (5) attenuator of the lead-in 4 field; (6) radial gap between the ends of the attenuator joint; and (7) water.

The diaphragm must be arranged so that the equipo- For a sectioned insulator with Lucite rings beveled
tentials intersect its surfaces at an angle of ~20° and the at an angle of 45°, Martin obtained the following
field along its radius length is almost homogeneous, expression for the breakdown field at 50% probability:
except in the vicinities of the anode and cathode elec- Eb, kV/cm = 175t –1/6S –1/10, (23)
trodes. The SD rings must be beveled at an angle of where t, µs, is the time during which a field strength of
45°–60° in the vacuum in order to preclude the impact 0.89Eb to Eb was applied to the sectioned insulator, and
of electrons emitted by the rings' metal surfaces. The S, cm2, is the ring surface area in vacuum. This formula
gradient electrodes must have grooves on the anode has been verified experimentally many times. For
side to reduce the field in the vacuum–insulator–elec- example, the best agreement with experiments in which
trode triple joints. In addition, the gradient electrodes a voltage of 0.6 MV with a duration of 60 ns and a rise
time of 20 ns was applied to an area S = 75 cm2 was
must protrude slightly into the vacuum outside the ring
achieved in [46] with an index of power for S of 1/8.
edge in order to shield the insulators from electrons and Other comparative measurements can be found in the
UV light. The gradient electrodes and the rings must be references in [47].
in tight mechanical contact; this includes the circle of Figure 7 shows a sectioned insulator of the “Z”
the truncated cone. The potential must be distributed accelerator [47]. Five SD rings 3 are located between
uniformly over the rings (a nonuniformity of <10%). anode 1 and cathode 2 electrodes, (polystyrene, Rexo-
lite 1422—a rigid copolymer of styrene with transverse
links); each has a thickness h = 5.715 cm and an outer
(a) (b) diameter of 335 cm with a profile of +45° in the evacu-
ated volume. Gradient electrodes 4 0.9525 cm thick
3
made of anodized Al are positioned between the rings.
3 The rings' edges in vacuum are specially profiled for
reducing the electric field in triple joints by 15%, com-
pared to the field in the case of flat rings. The surfaces
of the insulating and gradient rings were processed
2 until an rms roughness of <81 µm was obtained. The
2 gradient electrodes compose a capacitive divider of the
1 total high-voltage pulse voltage; as a result, an almost
1 4 identical potential difference is applied to each ring,
raising the BS of the device.
Based on an analysis of seven published experimen-
4 6 tal works on the BS of polyethylene and polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA) rings of the above profile when
5 h changes from 0.254 to 1.59 cm and the voltage action
time tef = 0.5 ns to 10 µs (tef is defined in (13)), the for-
mula for the mean Eb at a breakdown probability of
50% was obtained:
Fig. 6. Schematic drawings of decoupling insulators of (a) Eb, kV/cm = ke0.27/h(tefb/ln2)–0.1, (24)
diaphragm and (b) sectioned types: (1) cathode; (2) anode;
(3) water; (4) vacuum; (5) diaphragm; and (6) sectioned where k = 232 for polystyrene and 221 ± 16 for PMMA;
insulator. h, cm; tef, µs; and b, cm, is the average length of the cir-

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
1
3
Fig. 7. Sectioned insulator: (1) anode; (2) cathode; (3) dielectric ring; (4) gradient electrode; (5) evacuated volume; (6) water; and
(7) sensors for measuring the high-voltage parameters.
cle on the vacuum side of the insulating ring. Calcula-
tions using this formula for polystyrene rings at a volt-
age pulse half-height duration of 93 ns yielded Eb =
158 kV/cm, while the Eb obtained from formula (23)
was ~18% smaller. In experiments, 333 consecutive
voltage pulses with an amplitude of ~3 MV were
applied to the insulator, after which additional five
pulses with an amplitude of 4.52 MV were applied
without ring breakdowns; the degree of rarefaction was
varied from 1.8 × 10–5 to 6.1 × 10–6 Torr.
The BSs over the surface and through the thickness
of the SD in water are affected by the state of the sur-
faces near the boundary between the insulator and
metal on the water side at the interface of any three
media (water–metal–etc.). According to both theory
and experimental studies, the BS rises with a decrease
in the roughness Rz on the metal surface at this point.
Paper [48] presents studies on the effect the Rz of the
Rexolite surface in the triple joint has on the BS for
breakdowns through bulk Rexolite samples. Rexolite is
a semitransparent material and has a BS of 20 kV/mm
for a dc voltage and a loss tangent tan tan δ = 0.0066 at
a frequency of 500 MHz. It is mechanically strong, and
its characteristics make this material attractive for wide
use in pulsed powerful EPFs under the application of
voltage pulses with a rise time of several tens of nano-
seconds and shorter.
Two stainless-steel electrodes, each of which had
surfaces with a Bruce profile and flat parts 25 mm in
diameter at their centers (where the fields were homo-
geneous), were fixed in a test chamber filled with
deionized water (the characteristics of which were not
described). A Rexolite plate 3.18 mm thick and 80 mm
square was mounted tightly between these electrodes.
(Such thicknesses are used in breakdown tests of insu-
lators.) Both of the plate surfaces adjacent to the elec-
trodes were preliminarily worked with abrasive paper
of 36 to 800 µm grit. The surface roughness Rz was then
measured using an NT1 100 profilometer with mea-
surement limits ranging from submicrons to 1 mm.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
155
7
4
6
A voltage with amplitudes of up to 700 kV and a rise
time of 400 ns, in which the flat pulse top was reached,
was applied to the electrodes between which an insula-
tor sample was inserted. The onset of the current of the
developing breakdown was usually detected 500 ns
after voltage pulse onset with the subsequent complete
closure of the electrodes by the discharge channel. Five
groups with five samples each were tested. The samples
had equal Rz over the range 0.025–5.080 µm. After each
breakdown, the electrodes were rinsed and polished to
a mirror state. The average delay time t of the break-
down of the insulators in each group was measured at
the given surface Rz. The time was measured from the
moment the voltage pulse was applied to the electrodes
until the moment of the onset of electrode closure by
the discharge current through the Rexolite breakdown
channel. When Rz increased from 1.48 to 5.08 µm,
delay t declined smoothly from 700 to 500 ns. No
breakdown was observed at Rz < 0.5 µm.
2. METHODS FOR RAISING
THE WATER BREAKDOWN STRENGTH
2.1. Increasing the Water Hydrostatic Pressure
The effect of the hydrostatic pressure p on the water
BS was studied in [49]. A discharge gap 0.3 cm long
with a homogeneous field was formed by 1-cm-diame-
ter electrodes placed in a special chamber. The latter
was filled with degassed (the degree of degassing is
unknown) water (ρ ≈ 5 MΩ cm) filtered from mechan-
ical particles as small as 1 µm. A voltage pulse of up to
500 kV with leading and trailing edge durations of 0.1
and 30 µs, respectively, was applied between the elec-
trodes. When p was increased from 0.1 to 14 MPa, the
initiation of the prestreamer process was delayed
longer, resulting in a stronger field Eb in the breakdown,
and the maximum stored energy density increased lin-
early by almost an order of magnitude.
When a voltage with an oscillation period of 8 µs
was applied to a 3-cm-long gap, it was broken down at
p = 0.3 MPa by the second half-wave at a an amplitude
of 500 kV and withstood 2 MV at 10 MPa. The
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
156
Eb, MV/cm
1.6
1.2 3 were ∆d = 0.3–0.4 mm. In the presence of diffuse lay-
1.0
0.8
0.6
2 ied between 2.5 and 3 mm.
0.4
0.3 1 The characteristic time of the electric field displace-
0.2
0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
t, µs
Fig. 8. Volt–second characteristics of water breakdown:
(1) for smooth metal electrodes; (2) with a conducting near-
anode layer; and (3) with conducting near-anode and near-
cathode layers.
decrease in Eb during a breakdown is associated with
the formation of gas microbubbles at the electrodes
because current flowing through the water over long
periods leads to a change in the ionization development
in gaseous inclusions. However, the delay tb of the
breakdown moment was also prolonged with increas-
ing p. For p = 0.3 MPa the delay was tb = 75 ns; for p =
10 MPa, no breakdown was initiated for tb = 15 µs, thus
demonstrating the considerable influence of gaseous
processes on water breakdown.
Increasing the pressure p can be recommended one
way of raising the water BS. This requires, however,
that the metal body of the electrical energy storage be
substantially strengthened, increasing its mass and
complicating its maintenance. In addition, for a voltage
action time of <1 µs, Eb is virtually independent of p
[8]; for a thoroughly degassed liquid, the effect of p on
Eb becomes much weaker [24].
2.2. Changes in the Near-Electrode Conditions
Water breakdown is usually initiated at microinho-
mogeneities on the electrodes due to amplification of
the field E at their tops. Paper [50] described studies on
the creation of a conducting layer with a conductivity
σÒ, which fell smoothly with the depth in the liquid,
near the electrode surfaces (ρ ≈ 1 MΩ cm). The effec-
tive thickness of this layer was greater by far than the
size of the micropoints but much shorter than the inter-
electrode distance.
Solid and porous (with pore dimensions of ~5 µm)
stainless-steel disk Rogowsky electrodes were used in
the experiments to create a homogeneous field on an
~1-cm-diameter area. To eliminate the “diffuse” layers'
instability in the Earth’s gravitational field, the elec-
trodes were arranged one above the other, so that their
axis of symmetry was vertical. A solution of blue vitriol
CuSO4 with a density slightly higher than water was
injected through the lower porous electrode into the
water. A solution of FeCl2 in ethanol with a density
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
GERASIMOV
slightly lower than water was injected through the same
upper electrode. Typical thicknesses of diffuse layers
ers, the length of the effective gap def ≈ 2 mm differed
appreciably from the value of the total gap d, which var-
ment from the near-electrode regions can be estimated
as tc ≈ ε/σÒ. When a layer is introduced, the field
strength near the electrode surface changes with time t
in the first approximation as
E(t) ≈ (U/d)(tr/tc – 1)–1[exp(–t/tr) – exp(–t/tc)], (25)
where U is the voltage amplitude, d is the interelectrode
distance, and tr is the voltage rise time. If tr > tc, an
increase in the gap BS can be expected, since the influ-
ence of breakdown-initiating near-electrode processes
weakens.
A voltage pulse with a controlled amplitude U = 60–
300 kV was applied to the gap of length d, and tr was
varied between 0.1 and 1 µs. It was impossible to
unambiguously calculate the field strength near the
gap’s center in water using the amplitude of the applied
voltage and length d. The breakdown field strengths Eb
in the gap were therefore determined using the Kerr
electrooptic effect in water, and by measuring the gra-
dients of the refractive index using the Toepler method
with a cylindrical lens (these techniques and equipment
are described in [50, 51] and the references therein).
Eb was initially measured with smooth electrodes
upon the application of a pulse voltage with tr ≈ 0.3 µs.
It was found that, for breakdown delay times t < 2.5 µs,
a discharge develops from the anode, as was already
well known. For t > 2.5 µs, a discharge sometimes
developed from the cathode. The probability of this
process increased with t, but remained small compared
to the probability of a breakdown from the anode. The
resulting volt–second water breakdown characteristic
of t = 0.3–20 µs is shown in Fig. 8.
Experiments with near-electrode layers began with
the anodes being shielded by such a layer. A solid elec-
trode served as the cathode. It was found that, for delay
times t ≤ 2 µs, an almost twofold increase in Eb (curve
2 in Fig. 8) was observed in comparison to the case of
nonporous electrodes (curve 1). As t increased, the
volt–second characteristics corresponding to the
unshielded anode electrode approached one another.
When the cathode was shielded, a breakdown
always developed from the anode, and the volt–second
characteristic was the same as for a breakdown between
solid electrodes (curve 1).
Experiments in the presence of conducting layers
near both electrodes yielded different results depending
on the duration tr. At tr ~ 1 µs and Eb ~ 1 MV/cm, a
breakdown occurred only 150–250 ns after U was
applied. The breakdown developed independently of
the polarity of the electrode potential and propagated
away from the electrode with the lower layer conduc-
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
tivity. An almost fourfold increase in the gap BS, com-
pared to the case of unshielded electrodes (curve 3,
Fig. 8), was achieved for t = 0.3–1 µs. The discharge
developed simultaneously from the both electrodes.
The results of these experiments showed clearly that
the main role determining the water BS is played by the
near-surface processes at the electrodes. These are
determined by microprotrusions on the electrodes; the
former amplify the field and form gas microbubbles,
from which a discharge in water is initiated.
The shielding of electrodes by diffusion layers can
hardly be employed in EPFs, since large-area elec-
trodes with micropores are difficult to manufacture.
Moreover, the electrodes must have a certain orienta-
tion in the Earth’s gravitational field. If electrolytes are
introduced into the water, it is necessary to replace the
water after each pulse; otherwise, unrealistic require-
ments will be imposed on the water purification system.
2.3. Injection of Charges
from the Electrode Materials into Water
Papers [51, 52] and the references therein present
the results from studies of the influence of electrode
materials on the injection of charge carriers from elec-
trodes into purified water, depending on the duration of
the potential difference applied between the electrodes.
Stainless steel, aluminum, brass, and copper served as
the electrode materials. The length, width, and thick-
ness of the electrodes were 110, 3.7, and 1 cm, respec-
tively. The radius of rounding their edges was 0.47 cm,
and the interelectrode gap was 1 cm in length. The water
was preliminarily purified, deionized, degassed, and cir-
culated at a velocity of 2 l/min through the interelectrode
gap. The pulse voltage amplitude was ≤150 kV.
The general results were as follows: The electrodes
begin to inject charge carriers into water 100 µs after
the voltage was applied. These carriers reduced the ρ
value of water and formed a space charge between the
electrodes, which modified the field E distribution pat-
tern. The value and sign of charges depended on the
electrode material. By selecting an appropriate combi-
nation of electrode materials, one can obtain (for an
average E in water of ~100 kV/cm) an uncharged, or
unipolar (positively or negatively), or bipolar charged
liquid dielectric. A bipolar injection that allowed a
decrease in E near the electrode surfaces and a 40%
increase in the voltage of a spontaneous water break-
down was especially important. In this way, the operat-
ing voltage can be raised by the same value and the
stored energy density can be increased by a factor of
almost two.
The field distributions were measured using the Kerr
electrooptic effect. All measurements were performed
with ρ changing from 40 to 60 MΩ cm and at a water
temperature of 7°ë in order to reveal more clearly the
influence of the space charge. Figure 9 shows the plots
of the field distributions.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
157
d
+ –
E/E0
1.5 1
2
3
1.0
0.5
0 d
Fig. 9. Field E distribution in water between the electrodes as
a function of the polarity of charges injected by the elec-
trodes: (1) positive; (2) negative; and (3) bipolar. The mean
field E0 = U/d (U is the potential difference between the elec-
trodes at the field measurement moment, d = 1 cm is the gap).
It was established that stainless steel and Cu inject
positive charges; under certain conditions when elec-
trodes of different materials are used, steel and Cu
inject negative charges. Al electrodes inject only nega-
tive charges, while brass electrodes can emit charges of
both signs. Brass is an alloy of Cu and Zn; therefore, Cu
is the most probable injector of positive charges, while
Zn injects negative charges. Table 7 presents the char-
acter of charge injection, depending on the material and
polarity of the electrodes.
It was not explained in [51, 52] in what facilities it
is necessary to maintain a high voltage for ~1 ms using
water insulation. This is probably associated with the
search for ways of charging storage units from electro-
mechanical generators and inductive storages.
When analyzing the experimental results, it seems
surprising that the water BS was maintained for such a
long time. The explanation for this is as follows: Water
is highly deionized (ρ ~ 50 MΩ cm), and the current
density through it is insufficiently high for electrolysis
with the formation of gas bubbles near the electrodes.
As was pointed out, it is important that the gas mole-
cules adsorbed at the electrode surfaces and reservoir
walls be removed. The polishing of electrode surfaces
by ion bombardment (an electric discharge in argon) is
mentioned, but it is not clear whether such electrodes
were used in these experiments. Passivated electropol-
ished electrodes were probably applied.
2.4. Water Purification from Mechanical Particles
That Do Not Change the Water Resistivity
The effect of the degree to which the water is made
pure of organic and mechanical particles that do not
change its ρ was studied experimentally in [53]. A pulse
voltage with a duration of ≥65 µs was applied to a gap
filled with a water insulator. It is asserted that a water
BS of long duration is needed for high-power large
facilities in which the electric capacitor is often charged
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
158 GERASIMOV

Table 7. Character of charge injection, materials, and polar- in diameter with rounded edges. No information on the
ities of electrode potentials treatment and state of the electrode surfaces is avail-
able. The particles' substances are unknown, but it can
Character Electrode material Potential
of charge
Moment
diffe-
be understood indirectly that small grains of ion-
anode cathode in time, µs exchange resins were entering the high-voltage gap
injection rence, kV
from the deionization columns.
Positive Cu stainless 1260 78 When there were no filters in the water purification
charges steel system, the average water breakdown field measured
stainless stainless 1000 91 over four days was 161 ± 8 kV/cm with Cu electrodes.
steel steel When filters that retained particles of >30 and >0.5 µm
Cu Cu 1500 88 were included in series in the water purification loop,
Negative Al Al 1260 68 the BS increased to Eb = 186 ± 4 kV/cm. When an addi-
charges tional organic filter was present (the size of the retained
Cu Brass 1040 85
particles is not reported, but the discussion allows one
Al Brass 1250 67 to suggest that their size is at least 0.2 µm), Eb = 222 ±
Bipolar in- Brass Brass 1000 96 2 kV/cm.
jection Brass Cu 1250 67 Table 8 lists the measured Eb values for other elec-
Cu Al 752 92 trode materials. It was noted that introducing a filter
with activated charcoal for a short time additionally
stainless Al 1010 73
steel raises Eb. It is assumed that coal actively binds organic
particles with a size of <0.5 µm and >0.2 µm.
Brass stainless 1000 79
steel It was additionally determined that polypropylene
and polyvinylidene fluoride are the best polymer mate-
stainless Cu 752 102 rials for the units of the water purification system.
steel
Brass Al 996 89
In analyzing [53], we should note that neither the
shape nor the amplitude of the testing high-voltage
stainless Brass 752 76 pulse was given, and the breakdown initiation mecha-
steel nism in the presence of inorganic particles in water was
not considered. According to [54], it can be assumed
that grains of ionites represent a strong electrolyte solu-
Table 8. Mean Eb (kV/cm) values at various filters and elec- tion. Such grains on the electrode surfaces are conduct-
trode materials ing macroinhomogeneities that amplify the field E at
Electrode Without With 30- and With an addition- their tops. This field initiates a discharge that is subse-
material filters 0.5-µm filters al organic filter quently transformed into a breakdown through water.
The larger the number of such grains, the higher the
Graphite 137 ± 12.5 breakdown probability.
Stainless steel 145 ± 8 174 ± 8 190 ± 3
304 SS
2.5. Injection of Bipolar Ions
Al 159 ± 4
of Amino Acids into Water
Cu 161 ± 8 186 ± 4 222 ± 2
Paper [55] describes studies of the pulse BS for
W 163 ± 3 217.6 water with ρ ≈ 20 MΩ cm upon the introduction of
Au 168 ± 6.5 bipolar (zwitter) amino acid ions. The water was puri-
Pb 169 ± 4 fied from mechanical particles with dimensions of
>0.5 µm. The electrodes, separated by a 1-cm gap, cre-
ated a homogeneous field; their area was changed from
in a multimicrosecond regime (particular facilities are 60 to 150 cm2. A triangular voltage pulse with a varied
not mentioned). duration t = 1–5 µs was applied to the gap. The most
detailed studies of the effect of additives were per-
Special attention was focused on purifying and formed for β-alanine (NH2–CH2–CH2–COOH) and
degassing the water thoroughly. Tygon tubes were glycine (NH2–CH2–COOH) at concentrations q =
removed from the water purification system, since this 0.01–0.1 mol/l.
material evolves a plasticizer into water, and a UV ster- It was found experimentally that, for t = 5 µs, Eb is
ilizer was introduced into the system. All of the experi- a complex function of the concentration q being deter-
ments were performed at ρ ≈ 18 MΩ cm and a water mined by the electrode material. For ferrite-type stain-
temperature of +10°ë, which reduced the liberation of less steel, Eb exceeds Ew for pure water by a factor of
gas from the water. The tested water gap with a 0.8-cm 1.33 at q = 0.03 for β-alanine. For q ≥ 0.06, the BS of
thick layer was formed by flat disk electrodes 10.2 cm the solution falls to Ew. For austenite-class stainless

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
steel electrodes, Eb has two peaks, at q = 0.33 (Eb /Ew =
1.48) and q = 0.055 (Eb /Ew = 1.41), and one minimum, at
q = 0.04 (Eb /Ew = 1.08). For Al electrodes, the introduc-
tion of an amino acid leads to a monotonically decreas-
ing BS of the liquid with increasing q.
Similar results were obtained at t = 1.5 µs. The only
difference was a shift of the minimum to larger q values
and a slight increase in the peaks to Eb/Ew = 1.52 and
1.48, respectively. Almost similar results were obtained
for titanium at t = 1.5 µs, but the Eb /Ew values at the
peaks were lower, 1.38 and 1.44.
When the quality of water purification degrades
(ρ falls), the positive effect from the introduction of
amino acids is weakened. The highest value Eb /Ew =
1.26 was obtained for ρ ≈ 1 MΩ cm.
It is important that, in the presence of additives, the
rms spread of Eb values falls by a factor of 3; its maxi-
mum value is 8%.
Brass electrodes coated with Cr, Ni, and Sn were
tested in an experimental run. The BS for water doped
with β-alanine was almost equal to the BS for pure
water under identical experimental conditions.
Apart from amino acids, SF6 (dissolved in water at
an excess pressure of 3 Mpa) and chloroform (CHCl3)
were tested as water additives. Both agents bring about
insignificant changes in the ρ of the water and are elec-
tron–acceptor substances; their rates of reaction with
hydrated electrons is three orders of magnitude higher
than those of amino acids. It was established that SF6
did not affect the BS in a homogeneous field, and
CHCl3 drastically reduced it at q = 0.03: breakdowns
were observed even at Eb = 2 kV/cm. It was initially
assumed that these substances would interact effi-
ciently with hydrated electrons, forming low-mobility
products of chemical reactions and thus reducing the
intensity of prebreakdown processes associated with
the motion of electrons in water. Nevertheless, the
authors of [55] considered that the BS in a “negative
point–plane” electrode system can be increased, since
prebreakdown electron processes will proceed in the
near-cathode region as distinct from a system with a
homogeneous field and a discharge development from
the anode.
Hence, introducing surface-active bipolar molecules
of amino acids into water evidently affects the charac-
teristics of the double electric layers in the water near
the electrodes. Amino acid molecules can be adsorbed
on their surfaces; this, when their amounts are optimal
and stainless-steel or titanium electrodes are used,
makes it possible to increase the stored energy density
by a factor of 2. However, using this method to increase
E requires that the technology for selectively purifying
the water of impurity ions be developed, provided the
concentration of amino acids remains constant.
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
159
2.6. Formation of Near-Electrode Layers
by Passing a Direct Current through Water
An analysis of the results of works [50–52, 55],
devoted to the formation of near-electrode layers with
enhanced conductivity, allowed the author of this
review to substantiate in 1990 the possibility of concen-
trating the cations and anions located in near-electrode
layers of water by passing a direct current with a den-
sity of up to several mA/cm2 through the water. The
ions released by the electrodes into the liquid and the
H+ and OH– ions resulting from a continuous dissocia-
tion of water molecules were considered as charge car-
riers supplied to the near-electrode regions. A combina-
tion of the charge carrier accumulation and concentra-
tion values experimentally determined in [51, 52] was
taken as the basis for an approximate selection of the
direct-current parameters: for ρ ≈ 50 MΩ cm and Ew ~
100 kV/cm, the required time was tw ~ 1 ms. It follows
from here that, at a multiply lower field EÒ and a sub-
stantially longer duration of current flow tÒ with allow-
ance for the lower mobility of ions and a possible par-
tial recombination of charges, a criterion for the cre-
ation of near-electrode layers is the inequality
Ectc ≥ Ewtw = 105 V/cm × 10–3 Ò = 102 V s/cm. (26)
Thus, tc > 1 s at Ec = 100 V/cm. However, it was unclear
what polarity of electrodes is required, compared to
their polarity upon the application of a high voltage.
When the voltage sources are connected with the same
polarity, negatively and positively charged ions must be
concentrated near the cathode and anode, respectively.
The space charges near the electrodes must also depend
on the direct-current parameters, the density of the
impurity ions, and on the type of ions participating in
the electrochemical reactions (i.e., on the electrode
material). When the sources are connected in a manner
opposite to the above, the polarities of the near-elec-
trode layers are also reversed. The layer characteristics
may be affected by water electrolysis, during which the
amount of released hydrogen is twice as large as the
amount of oxygen. Moreover, the coefficient of reverse
dissolution of hydrogen in the water is 2.2 times less
than that for oxygen [56]. Some other factors could also
affect the behavior of the layers. Therefore, the final
answer to a number of the questions that arise could be
found experimentally.
Two electrodes 4 cm in diameter and made of
X18H10T stainless steel were installed in a water-filled
propylene vessel. The length of the interelectrode gap
was adjusted. The field in the gap was virtually homo-
geneous. The vessel, electrodes, and the conductors
connected to them were thoroughly degreased and
rinsed. The resistivity of the water was ~1 MΩ cm.
A dc current source (a voltage of 500 V and a current of
1 A) was connected to the high-voltage electrode of the
tested gap through a decoupling choke.
A source of trapezoidal pulses with an amplitude of
50 kV and a duration of ~30 ns initially served as the
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
160 GERASIMOV
high-voltage generator. It was connected to the gap
electrodes through a blocking capacitor. It followed
from [7, 8] that, for a density j ≥ 6 mA/cm2 of a current
flowing for a long time, water electrolysis may occur,
accompanied by gases evolved near the electrodes. The
initial experimental current densities were therefore
much lower.
The direct-current duration tÒ was estimated from
(26) and totaled 5–25 s. Within these limits, an interval
was chosen during which the initial current with j =
0.1 mA/cm2 flowed, and at the end of which a high-
voltage pulse was applied. The length d of the water gap
was adjusted so that it was broken down with 50%
probability at the pulse top. The breakdown was moni-
tored both visually and using an oscilloscope. The dc
source and the high-voltage generator were turned on
each 5 min. The current density was then increased, and
the procedure was repeated.
A family of functions d = f( j) was obtained for par-
ticular time intervals for the sources connected with the
same polarities and for the opposite connection. All of
the plots had d minima, at which the BS reached a max-
imum at ~15 s. It turned out that, when the sources were
connected in the opposite fashion, the minimum gap d
was attained at j ≈ 0.6 mA/cm2; for the unipolar connec-
tion, the same gap length d was ensured at j ≈
1.6 mA/cm2. At these optimal current densities, the BS
rose by a factor of ~1.6.
A source of unipolar pulses that reached an ampli-
tude of 65 kV in 0.5 µs was then used as a high-voltage
generator. The measurement procedure was similar to
that presented above, and the results were close to those
already obtained; i.e., the minima of d = f( j) corre-
sponded to the same current densities and polarities of
the connected sources. However, the BS increase was
slightly (~1.5 times) lower. Switching off the direct cur-
rent ~1 s before the application of a high-voltage pulse
did not change the character of the above dependences.
Hence, the preliminary passage of a direct current
with a density j = 0.5–1.6 mA/cm2 (depending on the
connection of the sources) through a water gap with
X18H10T stainless-steel electrodes for 15 s allows the
BS to be raised by a factor of ~1.5. As applied to EPFs,
this method allows either the operating voltage to be
increased by a factor of up to 1.5 at a constant length of
the water gap and the energy density to be raised by a
factor of up to 2.2, or a 1.5-fold decrease in the gap at
an unaltered operating voltage by improving the
device’s mass–dimension and performance characteris-
tics. In this case, it is possible to reduce the storage
impedance in the EPF and to extend its charging time;
this simplifies the design of the charging source and
reduces its energy loss.
This method for creating near-electrode layers with
increased conductivity can also be applied to glycerin,
ethylene glycol, spirits, and their mixtures with water.
When deciding to use this method for increasing the
BS, one should bear in mind that, for gap lengths of
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
~5 cm, a large area (>105 cm2) of the electrodes, and
ρ ~ 5 MΩ cm, high-power rectifiers for voltages of tens
of kilovolts and currents of tens of amperes are needed.
As was made clear later, similar independent studies
had been performed earlier in [57], and the results
obtained were close to those presented above. For
example, for a duration of test pulses of 1.5 µs, an inter-
electrode distance of 1 cm, and an area of the electrodes
of 30–150 cm2, Eb was ~1.7 times larger and its spread
is reduced by a factor of 2–3.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER MIXTURES
WITH ETHYLENE GLYCOL AND METHANOL
The possibility of using “slower” (with a pulse dura-
tion of >300 µs) inexpensive electromechanical stor-
ages (synchronous ac generators or turbine-driven gen-
erators with forced excitation) or inductive storages
(e.g., [58, 59]) rather than voltage pulse generators as
powerful intermediate high-voltage sources in high-
energy-capacity EPFs with water insulation is often
discussed in the literature. These storages have a higher
stored energy density per unit volume than capacitor
banks, thus allowing the dimensions and cost of an EPF
to be reduced. In the first case, the voltage must be
transferred to the EPF final storage (a power sharpener)
through a step-up transformer. Since it takes a long time
to charge the final storage, the relaxation time constant
τ = ρε of its electric insulation must be longer than the
charging time.
It is known that both the dissociation of water mol-
ecules and the ion mobility decrease as the temperature
T falls and ε increases; τ for purified water decreases by
a factor of ~5, when T falls from 20 to 0°ë. However,
pure water cannot be used at negative temperatures.
Therefore, a search was undertaken for mixtures of
water with such liquids that would possess suitable
characteristics at a freezing temperature of <0°ë. At
negative temperatures, the mixture will have a larger τ,
which may solve the problem of a slow charging pro-
cess in the EPF sharpener. In a frequency EPF operat-
ing mode in which it is very important that the heat
caused by inevitable energy losses in EPF units be
removed, this liquid at negative temperatures would
allow the simultaneous cooling of these units.
A water–ethylene glycol mixture seemed promising
for such applications [14]. Ethylene glycol is a two-
atom alcohol with the chemical formula
HOCH2CH2OH. At T = 20°C, its permittivity is ε = 38,
the density is 1.1088 g/cm3, and the freezing tempera-
ture id –115°ë. It is produced by oxidizing ethylene; as
a result, the final product is contaminated with acetic
acid, which dissociates in the solution and increases the
conductivity of ethylene glycol. Therefore, “fresh” eth-
ylene glycol has ρ ≈ 0.3 MΩ cm and a relaxation con-
stant τ = ρε = 11 µs.
It turned out, however, that conventional water
deionization methods are also suitable for water–ethyl-
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES 161

ene glycol mixtures and allow the ρ of the mixture to be ε

raised to 60 MΩ cm at room temperature. The values of 90
0%
ε and loss tangent tan tan δ as functions of the electric
80
frequency f at 25°ë are presented below [14]: 40%
70
f, Hz 104 105 106 107 108 3 · 108 3 · 109 1010 60%
ε 42 41 41 41 41 39 12 7 60
80%
tagδ 3 0.3 0.03 0.008 0.045 0.16 0.78 1 50
q = 100%
The considerable losses at low frequencies are 40
explained by a large error in measurements, caused by
insufficient mixture deionization: the measurements –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
were performed before high-quality liquid-purification T, °C
systems had been widely introduced into practice.
A water–ethylene glycol mixture of 60 : 40 compo- Fig. 10. The mixture permittivity ε as a function of the mass
sition has a freezing temperature of –51°ë. Such a mix- content q and the mixture temperature T.
ture is often used as antifreeze for internal combustion
engines. The ε values of the mixture, depending on its
composition and temperature, are presented in the plots anomalous fall is caused by the charge injection from
in Fig. 10 [14]. The ε increment with falling tempera- the electrode surfaces into the liquid leading to an
ture is ~0.4%/°ë. increase in its effective conductivity from σ to σ + ψν,
where ψ is the time- and spatial-coordinate-dependent
The ε change is described by the Akerlof empirical density of injected charges with a mobility ν (see also
equation [14] Section 2.3).
ε = aexp(–bT), (27) A water–ethylene glycol mixture in EPFs has not as
where a and b are the constants tabulated for various q yet been used in practice. This is associated with a num-
values of the ethylene glycol content in the mixture. ber of additional technical difficulties and expenses, the
need to have a refrigerator as part of an EPF, and the
q, % 0 20 40 60 70 80 90 100 maximum expediency of operating units with this insu-
a 88.33 82.36 76.05 68.22 62.94 56.51 49.95 42.85 lation at negative temperatures of the ambient air. Oper-
b, 10–6 4720 4951 5296 5526 5572 5438 5319 5158 ational expenses increase under such conditions, and
the staff has to maintain the equipment at a uncomfort-
ably low temperature. Ethylene glycol irritates the skin,
Formula (27) was obtained at a frequency of 2 MHz, which must be protected during work.
and can be used down to the freezing temperature of
mixtures. The electrical properties of water–methanol
The data from Fig. 10 and formula (27) allow one to (CH3OH) mixtures were studied in [59]. The objective
choose a suitable concentration of ethylene glycol and was to test the possibility of using this mixture as an
an operating temperature of the mixture with the insulator in a secondary low-impedance, high-voltage
required ε value between 40 and 88. energy storage with an electrical length of ~40 ns; this
allows a reduction in the energy loss during its charging
In measuring BS, it was discovered that a large num-
ber of the bubbles that appear during a breakdown stick
to the electrode surfaces. These bubbles disappear in Table 9. Breakdown electric field Eb for a mixture versus
almost 24 h. The electric fields in breakdowns were the ethylene glycol concentration q in water, temperature T,
measured from interference patterns using the Kerr and effective voltage action time tef
electrooptic effect. Table 9 lists the breakdown fields as
a function of the content q of ethylene glycol in water, Eb, W, 10–2
q, % T, °C tef, ms ε τ, ms
the temperature T, and the effective time tef of the volt- kV/cm J/cm3
age action; the corresponding values of ε, relaxation 130 0 0 0.25 88 0.67 6.6
time τ (calculated from low-voltage measurements),
and energy density W at these parameters are also pre- 160 40 25 0.10 67 0.20 7.6
sented. 160 40 –11 0.40 79 2.70 9.0
It happened, however, that, at fields E > 50 kV/cm, 160 60 30 0.18 58 0.30 6.6
the voltage across the open electrodes of capacitors 140 60 –23 0.97 77 15.0 6.7
insulated by such a mixture declined much more rap- 210 80 25 0.45 49 1.4 9.6
idly than followed from τ measurements at low E. It
was assumed that the mobility of charge carriers might 170 80 –10 1.00 60 23.0 7.7
depend on high fields. It was then discovered that this 270 95 28 0.20 40 2.50 12.9

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

162 GERASIMOV
Table 10. Comparative characteristics of H2O + methanol and H2O + ethylene glycol mixtures
Mixture q, % T, °C τ, ms td, ms
H2O + methanol 34 –13 2.23 1.05
34 –22 3.71 1.59
H2O + ethylene glycol 40 –11 2.7 0.4
60 –23 15.0 0.97
for a few microseconds from an inductive storage with
a superconducting coil made, in particular, from a new
material, MgB2. It was mentioned above that many of
the ions impairing the EPF characteristics were injected
into the H2O –ethylene glycol insulation; therefore, it
was desirable that a more efficient mixture be selected.
Methanol has a permittivity ε = 33.6 at 20°ë, which
changes almost linearly from 47.5 at –60°ë to 27.45 at
+50°ë, and a loss tangent tan tan δ ≈ 0.04 at frequen-
cies of 10 and 100 MHz [60]. The BS for degassed
methanol is ~88 kV/cm, the freezing temperature is
−93.9°ë, and the density at 20°ë is 0.7924 g/cm3.
Methanol is toxic and penetrates through the skin.
A capacitor with coaxial tubular stainless-steel elec-
trodes (37 and 50 mm in diameter) was manufactured
for the experiments. It was placed in a chamber filled
with an H2O + methanol mixture that could be cooled
to –50°ë. To obtain the required resistivity ρ (the value
is not given), the mixture was continuously circulated
through a deionization filter (the type is not specified).
A voltage with a rise time of 6 µs to the flat pulse top
was applied to the capacitor every ~4 min.
The following parameters were measured as func-
tions of the mass concentration q(%) of methanol in
water and the mixture temperature T(°ë) for E = 2–
122 kV/cm: the time of voltage decay by 37%, i.e., the
effective field strength duration td; the time of voltage
decay by 63%, i.e., the medium relaxation constant τ ≈
ρε; the breakdown field Eb; the maximum stored energy
density W; and the operating energy density A = Wtd (the
best parameter for characterizing the insulation). The
maximum concentration q was 34% in order to avoid
the possible combustion of the mixture during break-
downs.
The measured mixture characteristics are presented
as a series of plots. The principal results are listed in
Table 10 in comparison to the same data for the H2O +
ethylene glycol mixture from [14]. The latter mixture at
–11°C and q = 40% has larger τ and Eb values than the
H2O + methanol mixture at –13°C and q = 34%. How-
ever, the methanol mixture has larger td and A. At
−22°C, td and A are also larger for H2O + methanol than
for H2O + ethylene glycol at –23°C and q = 60%. The
td-to-τ ratio shows that the number of charges injected
into an H2O + methanol mixture is inferior to that for
H2O + ethylene glycol.
These measurements allowed the authors [59] to
conclude that an H2O + methanol mixture is the insula-
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Eb, kV/cm ε W, 10–3 J/cm3 A, 10–6 J s/cm 3
121 71 46 48
118 76 47 74
160 79 90 36
140 77 67 65
tor of choice for secondary storages charged in milli-
second times. Although the maximum field Eb = 125
kV/cm in this mixture is lower than Eb = 160 kV/cm in
the other, with allowance for the injection of a smaller
number of ions into the methanol mixture, a storage
unit with this insulation will be more efficient during
charging and transferring the energy to the load, since
the energy density A has a maximum of 74 × 10–6
J s/cm3 at –23°C.
4. WATER PURIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR EPF
The principles of the design, operation, technologi-
cal processes (mechanical purification, desalinization,
deaeration, regeneration of ionites, etc.), and the main-
tenance of the units of water purification systems
(WPSs) in heat and nuclear power stations and central
heating plants have been outlined in several books (e.g.,
[54, 61, 62]). However, no descriptions of WPSs and
their features for large EPFs are available from the lit-
erature, although more than 50 such EPFs with water-
insulated units have been described since 1970 (e.g., 39
EPFs and their characteristics are listed in [14]).
A series of accelerators with water insulation (RIUS-3V,
LIU-10, LIU-30, I-3000, STRAUS, STRAUS-2,
LIU-10M) has also been developed at RFNC–VNIIEF,
and other facilities with the same insulation are being
developed.
Several small WPSs, used primarily in studies of
various aspects of the water BS, have been described in
the literature.
Along with water deionization, one of the main
functions of a WPS for EPFs is removing gases from
the water (see Subsection 1.4.7). Almost 100% of the
carbon dioxide dissolved in water forms a weak and
low-stability carbonic acid through a reversible CO2 +
H2é H2CO3 reaction. The acid decomposes
–
mainly into H+ and HC O 3 ions and can saturate the ion
exchange anionite resins in the WPS quite quickly,
making them inoperative. Therefore, all WPSs are
equipped with degasifiers (deaeration columns (DCs)),
in which air is rarefied and part of the gas is removed
from the liquid.
It was proposed in [16] that the degree of water
degassing η during experiments be calculated using the
formula
η, % = 100[1 – ( p – pw)/760], (28)
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES
3 5
9
Fig. 11. Schematic of the water purification system for preparing water–ethylene glycol mixtures: (1, 6) water pumps; (2) reservoir
with liquids; (3) DIC with a mixed resin layer; (4) thermostat (heat exchanger); (5) test chamber with a discharge test gap; (7) DC;
(8) vacuum pump; and (9) coolant.
where p and pw, Torr, are the pressure of the residual gas
in the DC and the partial pressure of water vapors at the
operating temperature.
Paper [12] presented a simplified scheme of a WPS
for experimental studies of the water BS for a field of
150–500 kV/cm with a pulse duration of 2–10 µs (see
also Subsection 1.4.5). The WPS contained the follow-
ing units: a pump with a water circulation rate of
>8 l/min; a deionization column (DIC) with a mixed
resin layer; a DC with a vacuum pump equipped with a
trap with dry ice at the pump inlet for protecting it from
water vapors; a thermostat for maintaining a specified
water temperature; a UV sterilizer for preventing the
growth of bacteria in water; and a test chamber with
electrodes. All of the WPS tubes were made of polyvi-
nylchloride, the water pump had a nitrided rotor, and
the DC had a Plexiglas body. The test facility, including
the WPS, had the minimum number of metal parts aside
from the electrodes of the breakdown gap, a copper
tube in the thermostat, and the stainless-steel electrodes
in the water resistance sensors; there were also no glass
components. The degree of water degassing was calcu-
lated using formula (28) and exceeded 90%.
Water was processed in the WPS for 3 h before mea-
surements and was circulated continuously during the
experiments. The total amount of water in the facility
was 80 l. A resistivity of ρ = 18 MΩ cm was maintained
constant at T = 25°ë; during the night, ρ fell to 2–
3 MΩ cm. No other information on the WPS is pre-
sented.
Paper [14] briefly describes a WPS (Fig. 11)
designed to treat and prepare water–ethylene glycol
mixtures with different mass compositions in order to
measure their permittivity ε, breakdown strength, and
relaxation time. The WPS had two loops. The main
loop included a reservoir with a liquid, circulated by a
pump through the DIC to the thermostat and then to the
test chamber with electrodes. The second loop was
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
163
4 8
7
autonomous and ensured circulation of the mixture
between the test chamber and the degasifier to achieve
maximum removal of gases from the mixture.
As the temperature fell, the mixture viscosity
increased along with the solubility of the gas in it.
Degassing must therefore be conducted at a positive
temperature (T ≈ 25°ë), i.e., before the mixture is
cooled to the operating temperature. It turned out in
practice that it is useful to conduct the deaeration pro-
cess at a temperature of down to +5°ë and, only after
this, to shut off the degassing loop, isolating it from the
other systems. When selecting pipelines and pumps of
the mixture preparation system that have the required
characteristics, one must consider the decrease in the
liquid circulation velocity resulting from an increase in
its viscosity. Polycarbonate (Lexan) and polysulfon
were found to be the most suitable polymer materials
for the system, since they absorb practically no water.
Nylon and Delrine (formaldehyde resin) were unsuit-
able, since they absorb a great deal of water.
Schemes of two versions of a WPS for studying the
effect of mechanical particles on water BS were pre-
sented in [53]. These particles were grains of the ion
exchange resins that entered the interelectrode gap,
which had a high pulse field. The influence of these
grains on the drop in BS was discussed in Section 2.4.
The WPS from [16] taken as the basic model was mod-
ified to allow the possibility of pumping water to the
test chamber through any combination of three filters
connected in series: F1, retaining particles with dimen-
sions of >30 µm; F2, retaining particles with dimen-
sions of >0.5 µm; and F3, an organic filter (the dimen-
sions of the retained particles are not specified). They
were of the following types: macropure, Barnstead #
D0836 with a mixed resin layer; ultrapure D1, Barn-
stead # D0809; organic free, Barnstead # D0820; and
the outlet filter retaining particles of >0.2 µm (0.20 µm
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
164 GERASIMOV
filter, Barnstead # D0749). High and stable Eb parame-
ters were obtained with these filters (see Section 2.4).
Large EPFs with a volume of insulating water of
several cubic meters and more need additional sealed
reservoirs of sufficient volume. They initially store
water, which is usually taken not from the water supply
line (ρ ~ 3 kΩ cm) but from turbine condensers of ther-
mal power stations (ρ > 30 kΩ cm). The reservoirs
allow additional treatment of water in the WPS before
it fills the EPF units and is subsequently added to the
units if necessary; they also contain water pumped in
from the units when the latter are dismantled for pre-
ventive maintenance.
In order to obtain the required deionization and
degassing characteristics, the water circulated through
the EPF units usually passes through several parallel
purification loops with variants of parallel–series con-
nections. Since the water BS decreases as a result of
microbubbles forming from gases dissolved in the
water and from the rapid absorption of gases from the
air, it is necessary to ensure how leakproof the EPF and
WPS units are, along with the connecting pipelines and
fittings. It is desirable that all of the EPF and WPS units
allow rarefaction in them down to a few Torrs before
they are filled with water. The components must be pro-
duced from metals that do not corrode in water (as a
rule, from stainless steel) and polymer materials that
weakly adsorb water and do not reduce its BS.
äì-2-8-˜ë cationite and ÄÇ-17-8-˜ë anionite
produced in grains with dimensions of 0.4–1.25 mm are
the materials most frequently used in DICs for electro-
physical facilities. The grains swell in water, and the cat-
ionite and anionite densities become equal to ~1.15 g/cm3
and 1.08 g/cm3, respectively. This must be taken into
consideration, since it is best to apply a DIC with a
mixed layer. Water must be therefore fed into it from
top down, but not vice versa; otherwise, resins will be
distributed along the height according to their densities.
The design, operation, and characteristics of the DIC
are similar to those of the WPSs of thermal power sta-
tions, as well as the techniques and equipment for ionite
regeneration [54, 61, 62].
The DC is one of the most important units of a WPS.
The reliability of EPFs depends largely on an appropri-
ate DC design and operating mode. To remove water-
dissolved gases from the liquid, it is required that water
be naturally spread and flow downward in the form of
thin layers (monomolecular layers are preferable) in the
rarefied DC volume. Water ring pumps usually produce
the rarefaction. Water spreading is achieved using “col-
umn apparatuses” or “packed columns”, conventional
installations in chemical technology. They serve to
develop the contact surface between the interacting
phase flows and thus to increase the absorption, mass
exchange, heat exchange, and other efficiencies. The
packings themselves are loaded either in bulk (irregular
packings) or in a certain order (regular packings) on the
bearing plates (grids) in the apparatuses and serve to
INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
develop the surface. Packings are manufactured from
metals, glass, polymers, ceramics, and other materials.
Packings in the form of Rashig rings with a typical
diameter and height of 50 mm are the most widespread.
Most important are the designs of the bearing plates and
the redistributers of the liquid, as these affect the
regime and stability of the operating columns. The
operating principles of the columns and DCs, their
operating regimes and structures, and calculations of
their characteristics are presented in detail in [63] and
are not considered here.
In concluding this section, we should note the fol-
lowing: In the WPSs of thermal power stations, sedi-
ments usually consisting of microorganisms, calcium
and magnesium carbonates, etc., form on the inner sur-
faces of pipelines on the side from which cold water is
fed [64]. This leads to increased hydraulic resistance in
the pipes and a reduction of their efficiency of opera-
tion. The most efficient method for preventing biologi-
cal pollution is chlorinating the cooling water by dop-
ing it with reagents that contain active chlorine
(calcium hypochlorite or other hypochlorites). Micro-
organisms precipitating on walls or being in water die
and are easily washed away by the water flow. Spore
bacilli also penetrate from the air into the WPSs of
EPFs. Under favorable moisture and heat conditions,
they actively multiply inside the WPS pipelines and
units, forming gel-like layers (mucus) up to 1 mm thick
on their surfaces and on the EPF high-voltage elements.
The total number of known spore bacilli is 400; they are
present in all natural water basins, are not pathogenic,
and are therefore virtually uncontrollable. Analyses of
samples of the mucus from WPSs of EPFs at VNIIEF
have revealed the presence of >20 spore types. The
influence of this layer on the BS has not been studied;
however, the mechanical particles that are not washed
away by the water flow penetrate into it and stick to the
high-voltage parts. This can reduce the water BS.
Therefore, during the disassembly of EPF high-voltage
units for preventive maintenance, the surfaces of their
parts are mechanically cleaned of mucus and rinsed.
The mucus considerably reduces the capacity of the
grid filters at the DIC inlets and outlets, and the grids
must also be periodically cleaned of mucus. Of course,
spores will reduce the water flow more intensely
through mechanical filters with submicron and micron
mesh dimensions. Unfortunately, the chlorination of
water or the injection of acids into it in the WPS pipes
of EPFs is prohibited. The WPS in [16] included a UV
sterilizer to prevent microorganisms from growing in
the water. However, the sterilizer characteristics are not
presented and the effect obtained is not reported.
5. COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF COAXIAL STORAGES WITH DIFFERENT
INSULATING MEDIA
Installations for studying nuclear fusion or creating
ultrahigh-power bremsstrahlung pulses for radiation
Vol. 48 No. 2 2005
 WATER AS AN INSULATOR IN PULSED FACILITIES 165

investigations must have an output impedance of ~1 Ω Table 11. Parameters of a coaxial line
in order to produce a pulse current of ≥1 MA in a load
at a voltage of several megavolts. Let us analyze and Parameters Water (ε = 80) Oil(ε = 3) Air (ε = 1)
compare the electrical and geometrical parameters of a/b 1.65 2.72 1.65 2.72 1.65 2.72
the coaxial storage units (cylindrical coaxial lines)
l, m 1.68 1.68 8.66 8.66 15.0 15.0
needed to solve this task, if insulating media with dif-
ferent ε are used in them. Um, MV 3.69 5.18 8.33 11.78 10.95 15.49
After an ideal coaxial line charged to a voltage U is Z, Ω 3.4 6.7 17.35 34.66 30.0 60.0
switched to a matched load R, it must transfer a con- a, m 1.21 1.41 2.74 3.2 3.61 4.21
stant power P for a time t equal to the double electrical b, m 0.73 0.52 1.66 1.18 2.19 1.55
length tl (4). The wave impedance Z of the line (5) and
Insulator vo- 4.9 9.0 127.9 241.1 388.1 721.9
R are matched when condition lume, m3
R=Z (29)
is met.
mum voltage) using formulas (29)–(37). This line
The coaxial line must operate at the greatest possi- transmits an energy Y = 100 kJ (a power of 1 TW) in a
ble field strength Em that does not cause an unsanc- pulse with a duration t = 100 ns to a matched load. Let
tioned insulation breakdown. The maximum voltage to us assume that a water-insulated coaxial line has the
which the coaxial line must be charged is therefore negative polarity of the central electrode, which is con-
equal to ventional practice in accelerating electron beams. In
Um = bEm ln(a/b), (30) order to simplify comparison of the parameters of coax-
where a and b are the radii of the outer and inner con- ial lines with the three types of insulation, we take Em =
ductors, respectively. After the coaxial line is connected 100 kV/cm in all cases, which is close to the operating
to load R, the voltage Um across them is divided into field values (although, according to (13), the water BS
two equal parts and remains constant during the time is higher than the oil BS by 20% (the corresponding
the wave travels forward and back along the coaxial factors K = 600 and 500 from (13)).
line; this determines the line length The calculation results are listed in Table 11. It fol-
l, Ï = 1.5 × 108tε–0.5. (31) lows from these data that, when a 1-TW pulse is trans-
mitted from a coaxial line to a matched load Z, lines
The current through the load and the pulse power are with oil or gaseous insulation must be charged to volt-
defined by the expressions ages that are too high, compared to the voltage of a
I = Um/2R, (32) coaxial line with water insulation. As a result, the reli-
ability of these facilities is low. The creation of high-
2 2
P = U m /4R = 4.16 × 10–3b2 E m ln(a/b). (33) energy-capacity charging devices at such output volt-
ages, and of other EPF units, is a rather complex scien-
After time t elapses, the load receives the entire tific and technical problem.
energy Y initially stored in the line capacitance C:
In addition, coaxial lines with oil and gaseous insu-
2 2 –1
Y = 0.5CU m = 0.25U m tR lation have conductors of great lengths and diameters.
(34) Arranging them requires rooms and buildings with cor-
–3 2 2 0.5
= 4.16 × 10 b E m tε ln ( a/b ). responding dimensions. The advantages of water-insu-
lated coaxial lines are also obvious if these parameters
It follows from (30) that, if a/b = e ≈ 2.72, then, at are considered.
specified a and Em values, voltage Um reaches a maxi-
mum at the coaxial line: In view of the combination of water characteristics
and taking into account its low cost, incombustibility,
Um = Ema/e. (35) nontoxicity, and simplicity and safety of handling,
In this case, water is the most suitable insulating medium for obtain-
ing high-power electric pulses.
Z = 60ε–0.5. (36)
It should be noted that, when the central electrode
It follows from (33) that, for given Em, ε, and a, the has a positive polarity, the water BS is lower than the oil
maximum power in R is attained at a/b = e0.5 ≈ 1.65; BS by a factor of 1.67 (K = 300 and 500). This means
i.e., that, when the water-insulated coaxial line is calculated
2
Pm = 7.66 × 10–4 E m a2ε0.5. (37) for the prior parameters of the pulse transmitted to the
load, the radii of its electrodes also increase by a factor
Let us calculate the electrical and geometrical of 1.67, and the insulation volume increases by a factor
parameters of a coaxial line with water, transformer oil, of ~2.8. Even in this case, the radii will be smaller than
and compressed air insulations for two values: a/b = for an oil-insulated coaxial line, all other advantages
1.65 (the maximum power) and a/b = 2.72 (the maxi- being the same.

INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Vol. 48 No. 2 2005

166 GERASIMOV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to M.V. Volkov for his help in
preparing the illustrations and V.B. Antonovich for
some useful discussions of a number of issues related to
water purification systems.
APPENDIX
EPF, electrophysical facility
BS, breakdown strength
VGC, vapor–gaseous cavity
DFL, double forming line
TDFL, twin double forming line
SFL, storage forming line
CL, coaxial line
TD, solid dielectric
GEs, gradient electrodes
WPS, water purification system
DIC, deionization column
DC, deaeration column (degasifier)
E, electric field
Eb, electric field at any breakdown
Es, electric field at a breakdown over the SD surface
in water
Ew, electric field at a breakdown of a pure water
layer
ε, relative permittivity
tan δ , loss tangent
W, electric energy density
f, frequency of voltage changes (pulse repetition
rate)
T, temperature
ρ, resistivity
σ, conductivity
R, active resistance
q, concentration of the substance dissolved in water
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