Magnetic, Dielectric &

Superconducting Materials

Mr. Abhishek Gupta

Assistant Professor, AKGEC
Ghaziabad
 Magnetic, Dielectric &
Superconducting Materials

Magnetic, Dielectric & Superconducting Materials:

Ferromagnetism – domain theory – types of energy –
hysteresis – hard and soft magnetic materials – ferrites –
dielectric materials – types of polarization – Langevin-Debye
equation – frequency effects on polarization –
dielectric breakdown – insulating materials – Ferroelectric
materials – superconducting materials and their properties.
Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic Dipoles
 Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that
is nonpermanent and persists only while an external
field is being applied.
• It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to an applied magnetic field.
• The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is
extremely small, and in a direction opposite to that of
the applied field.
• When placed between the poles of a strong
electromagnet, diamagnetic materials are attracted
toward regions where the field is weak.
 Diamagnetism

The atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic material

with and without a magnetic field. In the absence of an
external field, no dipoles exist; in the presence of a field,
dipoles are induced that are aligned opposite to the field
direction
 Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is found in all materials, but

because it is so weak, it can be observed only
when other types of magnetism are totally
absent. This form of magnetism is of no
practical importance.
 Paramagnetism
• For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole
moment by virtue of incomplete cancellation of electron spin
and/or orbital magnetic moments.
• In the absence of an external magnetic field, the orientations of
these atomic magnetic moments are random, such that a piece of
material possesses no net macroscopic magnetization.
• These atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and paramagnetism
results when they preferentially align, by rotation, with an
external field.
• Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered
nonmagnetic because they exhibit magnetization only when in the
presence of an external field.
 Paramagnetism

Atomic dipole configuration with and without

an external magnetic field for a paramagnetic
material.
 Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials possess a
permanent magnetic moment in the
absence of an external field, and manifest
very large and permanent magnetizations.
These are the characteristics of
ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by
the transition metals iron (as BCC -ferrite),
cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth
metals such as gadolinium (Gd).
 Ferromagnetism
In a ferromagnetic material, coupling
interactions cause net spin magnetic
moments of adjacent atoms to align
with one another, even in the
absence of an external field. The
maximum possible magnetization, or
saturation magnetization Ms, of a
ferromagnetic material represents
the magnetization that results when
all the magnetic dipoles in a solid
piece are mutually aligned with the
external field
 Anti-Ferromagnetism

Anti-ferromagnetic materials show patterns of magnetic

spin with neighbouring atoms spin arranged in opposite
directions. Typically antiferromagnetism is exhibited at
low temperatures. As spins cancel each other out,
mostly this results in paramagnetic behavior but can
also show in ferrimagnetic behavior.
 FERRIMAGNETISM

Ferri magnetic material have two sets of magnetic

dipole moments pointing in opposite directions. The
magnetic moments do not cancel each other out
becauses the dipole moment in one direction is smaller
than the other. Ferrimagnetism is like ferromagnetism.
 Magnetic domain
A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in
which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. This means
that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are
aligned with one another and they point in the same
direction. When cooled below a temperature called the Curie
temperature, the magnetization of a piece
of ferromagnetic material spontaneously divides into many
small regions called magnetic domains. The magnetization
within each domain points in a uniform direction, but the
magnetization of different domains may point in different
directions. Magnetic domain structure is responsible for the
magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials
like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.
Magnetic domain
 Why Magnetic domain forms?
• A piece of magnetic material such as iron spontaneously
divides into separate domains, rather than exist in a state
with magnetization in the same direction throughout the
material, is to minimize its internal energy.
• A large region of ferromagnetic material with a constant
magnetization throughout will create a large magnetic
field extending into the space outside itself (diagram a,
right).
• This requires a lot of magnetostatic energy stored in the
field. To reduce this energy, the sample can split into two
domains, with the magnetization in opposite directions in
each domain.
 Why Magnetic domain forms?

A domain which is too big is unstable, and will divide into

smaller domains. But a small enough domain will be stable
and will not split, and this determines the size of the domains
created in a material. This size depends on the balance of
several energies within the material.
 Energies involved in the domain
growth
The total internal energy of the domain structure in a
ferromagnetic material is made up from the following
contributions.
1. Exchange energy
2. Crystalline energy
3. Domain wall energy
4. Magnetostriction energy.
 Energies involved in the domain
growth
1. Exchange energy
Exchange energy is defined as, “ The
interaction energy which makes the
adjacent dipoles align themselves”
 Energies involved in the domain
growth
2. Crystalline energy
 Energies involved in the domain
growth
3. Domain wall energy
Based on the spin alignments, two types of Domain walls may arise,
namely
1. Thick wall : When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if
the direction of the spin changes gradually as shown figure,
2. Thin wall : When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, as
shown in fig.
 Energies involved in the domain
growth
4. Magnetostriction energy.
When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffer a
change in dimensions. This phenomenon is known as
Magnetostriction. The work done by the magnetic field
against these elastic restoring forces is called magnetoelastic
energy or Magnetosrictive energy.
HYSTERESIS
HYSTERESIS
 HYSTERESIS

A hysteresis effect is produced in which the

B field lags behind the applied H field, or
decreases at a lower rate.
 Hard and Soft magnetic materials
Both ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials
are classified as either
soft or hard on the
basis of their hysteresis
characteristics.
 Soft magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials are used in devices that are subjected
to alternating magnetic fields and in which energy losses
must be low; one familiar example consists of transformer
cores. For this reason the relative area within the hysteresis
loop must be small; it is characteristically thin and narrow.
Consequently, a soft magnetic material must have a high
initial permeability and a low coercivity. A material possessing
these properties may reach its saturation magnetization with
a relatively low applied field (i.e., is easily magnetized and
demagnetized) and still has low hysteresis energy losses.
 Hard magnetic materials
Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent magnets,
which must have a high resistance to demagnetization. In
terms of hysteresis behavior, a hard magnetic material has a
high remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux density, as
well as a low initial permeability and high hysteresis energy
losses.
 Dielectric Behavior
A dielectric material is one that is electrically insulating
(nonmetallic) and exhibits or may be made to exhibit an
electric dipole structure; that is, there is a separation of
positive and negative electrically charged entities on a
molecular or atomic level. As a result of dipole interactions
with electric fields, dielectric materials are used in capacitors
 DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
• Dielectric strength is the minimum voltage which when
applied to an insulating material will result in the
destruction of its insulating properties.

• Electrical appliances/apparatus is designed to operate

within a defined range of voltage. If the operating
voltage is increased gradually at some value of voltage,
the breakdown of the insulating materials will occur.

• The property which attributes to such type of break

down is called the dielectric strength.
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
The ratio of capacity of storing the electric charge by an
insulating material to that of air is called dielectric
constant of the material.

Every insulating material has the property of storing

electric charge ‘Q’ , when a voltage V is applied across
it. The charge is proportional to the voltage applied i.e.
QαV and we get Q=CV

Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor which was

formed by placing the material between the conductors
across which voltage is applied.
 DIELECTRIC LOSS
Electrical energy absorbed by the insulating material
and dissipated in the form of heat when an alternating
voltage is applied across it is called dielectric loss.
 Insulator
• The Insulator is a material that retards the flow of
electricity. There are different insulators used in the
electrical and electronic component and assemblies. Some
of the insulators are Porcelain, plastic, ceramic, polymer
etc.
• The materials which have very high resistivity i.e. offers a
very high resistance to the flow of electric current.
Insulating materials plays an important part in various
electrical and electronic circuits.
• In domestic wiring insulating material protect us from
shock and also prevent leakage current.

• So insulating material offers a wide range of uses in

engineering applications.
 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION
OF AN INSULATOR
1. Operating condition : Before selecting an insulating
material for a particular application the selection should
be made on the basis of operating temperature, pressure
and magnitude of voltage and current.

2. Easy in shaping : Shape and size is also important affect.

3. Availability of material : The material is easily available.

4. Cost : Cost is also a important factor.

 A brief overview
1. CONDUCTORS The substances through which electric
current can flow easily are called conductors. e.g. Silver,
gold, copper, aluminum etc. Conductors have a large number
of free electrons. Generally metals have a large number of
free electrons, So all metals are good conductors.
2. INSULATORS Those substances through which electric
current cannot pass easily are called insulators. e.g. Glass,
Mica, dry Air, Bakelite etc.
3. SEMICONDUCTORS The substances whose resistivity lies
between the resistivity of conductors and insulators are
called semiconductors. e.g. Germanium, Silicon, Carbon etc.
 A brief overview
4. RESISTIVITY Resistivity is the resistance between the two
opposite faces of a cube having each side equal to one
meter. Resistivity of

CONDUCTORS 10-8 to 10-3 ohm-m

INSULATORS 1010-20 ohm-m

SEMICONDUCTORS 100-0.5 ohm-m

5. INSULATION RESISTANCE The resistance offered to the

flow of electric current through the material is called
insulation resistance.
FACTORS AFFECTING INSULATION
RESISTANCE
1. TEMPERATURE As the temperature of the insulating
material rises its insulation resistance keeps on falling.
2. MOISTURE Insulation resistance is reduced if the
material absorbs moisture, so insulation material should
be non hygroscopic.
3. APPLIED VOLTAGE Applied voltage also affects
insulation resistance.
4. AGEING Ageing reduces the insulation resistance. As age
of insulation material is increased the insulation
resistance decreases.
List of some common insulating
materials
• ACRYLIC
• CERAMIC
• EPOXY/FIBERGLASS
• GLASS
• MELAMINE
• MICA
• NOMEX
• NYLON
• P.E.T. (Polyethylene terephthalate)
• POLYESTER (MYLAR)
• PVC (Polyvinyl cloride)
• SILICONE/FIBERGLASS
• SILICONE RUBBER
• THERMOPLASTICS
• ELECTRICAL INSULATING PAPERS, TAPES, and FOAMS
• POLYSTYRENE
• Porcelain
• Plastic
 Porcelain
• It is a material that resists electrical current at
eminent temperature. Porcelain has good
dielectric strength, anticorrosive.
• Porcelain metal is desirable for tension
applications (high and low). It is widely used in
chemical processing industries.
• Used in dental restoration applications, lab
applications, microwave ovens etc.
 Plastic
• Plastics do not conduct electricity and hence it is the
best insulator for various applications.
• They have widely used household goods like lights, hair
dryers, vacuum cleaner, washing machine, refrigerator
and many more.
• Plastics are used for electrical insulation and wiring
shields.
• They are also employed for heat insulation
requirements. They are used in toasters, fat roasters,
coffee kettles, switches, vending machines etc.
 Ceramic
• This material is used in areas like textiles, aerospace,
electrical, electronics, mechanical and many more.
• Ceramic is used in high-temperature devices, electrical
appliances, thin film circuits, heating elements,
microwave ovens etc.
• They are used in high speed spindles for cutting the
PCBs (Printed Circuit boards), brushless motors,
vehicle electrical, and heat exchangers etc.
• They are also used in healthcare (medical components
and sensors), pacemakers, dental, hearing and medical
implants etc.
 Mica
• Mica is an ore used as an electronic insulator
• It is the best insulator used in fire extinguisher,
pipe insulation, roofing industry, gaskets, sports
equipment, and also for making microscopic
samples.
• The flow of electricity depends on the material
and metal used in semiconductors, conductor,
and an insulator. Hence, proper selection of
conductor and insulator is required based on the
metallic properties.
 Why electrical insulation is
required
• Electrical shock caused by the flow of current through the human body
can result in physiological effects raging from fatal injuries resulted by
involuntary moments to death from ventricular fibrillation (the rhythmic
pumping action of the heart ceases) or muscular contraction.

• DC voltage up to 40 volts and AC voltage up to 60 volts are considered

safe limits, in the best circumstances, for the human body, but beyond
this is consider a hazard, and to prevent it electrical insulation is
required. Resistance to the electrical current is measured in ohms.

• Metals react with very little resistance to the flow of electrical current
and are called conductors. As previously mentioned, materials like
asbestos, porcelain, PVC, dry wood react with a high resistance to flow
of electrical current and are called insulators.
 Application of insulating
materials
Cables and transmission lines:
• Insulating material is generally used as a protective coating on
electrical conductor and cables.
• Cable cores which touch each other should be separated and
insulated by means of insulation coating on each core, e.g.
polyethylene, cross linked polyethylene-XLPE, polyvinyl
chloride-PVC, Teflon, silicone etc.
• Hanging disk insulators (bushings) are used in high voltage
transmission bare cables where they are supported by
electrical poles.
• Bushings are made from glass, porcelain, or composite polymer
materials.
 Application of insulating
materials
Electronics systems:
• All electronic appliances and instruments widely
contain PCB (printed circuit boards) having
different electronics components on them.
• PCBs are manufactured of epoxy plastic and
fiberglass. All electronics components are fixed on
the insulated PCB board.
• In SCR (semiconductor rectifiers), transistors and
integrated circuits, the silicon material is used as a
conductive material and can be converted into
insulators using a heat and oxygen process.
 Application of insulating
materials
Power systems:
• Transformer oil is widely used as an insulator to prevent
arcing in transformers, stabilizers, circuit breakers, etc.
• The insulating oil can withstand insulating properties up
to a specified electrical breakdown voltage.
• Vacuum, gas (sulfur hexafluoride), and ceramic or glass
wire are other methods of insulation in high voltage
systems.
• Small transformers, power generators, and electrical
motors contain insulation on the wire coils by the means
of polymer varnish. Fiberglass insulating tape is also used
as a winding coil separator.
 Application of insulating
materials
Domestic portable appliances:
• All hand held electrical appliances are insulated to
prevent their user from electrical shock hazard.
• Class 1 insulation contains only basic insulation on the
wire and the metal body is earthed at the main
grounding system. The third pin on the power plug
shall be for the grounding connection.
• Class 2 insulation denotes a device with "double
insulation." All internal electrical components shall be
totally enclosed within an insulated body which will
prevent any shorting with conductive parts.
Application of insulating materials
Electrical cable insulating tape:
• PVC tapes are widely used to insulate electrical wires and other live
conductive parts. It is made of vinyl as it stretches well and provides
effective and long-lasting insulation. Electrical tape for class H
insulation is made of fiberglass cloth.

Personal protective equipment:

• PPE protects humans from the hazards of shock with electrical circuits.
• PPE such as insulating head protection, eye and face protection, and
insulating gloves are necessary for protection against all common
electrical hazards.
• Insulated tools and protective shields are must for an electrician's safe
working. Dielectric shoes (non-metallic safety footwear) or electrical
hazard footwear is made with non-conductive, electrical
shock-resistant soles and heels.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF
OPERATING TEMPERATURE
1. CLASS ‘Y’ INSULATION - 90 ºC, paper, cardboard
2. CLASS ‘A’ INSULATION - 105 ºC , cotton, silk
3. CLASS ‘E’ INSULATION - 120 ºC , pvc
4. CLASS ‘B’ INSULATION - 130 ºC , mica, asbestos, glass
5. CLASS ‘F’ INSULATION - 155 ºC , polyurethane, epoxides
6. CLASS ‘H’ INSULATION - 180 ºC , silicon, rubber
7. CLASS ‘C’ INSULATION - >180 ºC, ceramics, poly tera
fluoro ethylene
 Ferroelectric materials
• Ferroelectric materials Exhibit spontaneous polarization—that
is, they polarize in the absence of an electric field.
• By inverting the direction of applied electrical field, the
direction of polarization of these materials can be inverted or
changed. This is called switching.
• It can also maintain the polarisation even once the field is
removed. These materials have some similarities over
ferromagnetic materials which reveal permanent magnetic
moment.
• The hysteresis loop is almost same for both materials. Since,
there are similarities; the prefix is same for both the materials.
But all the ferroelectric material must not have Ferro (iron). All
the ferroelectric materials exhibit piezoelectric effect.
Ferroelectric materials
 Ferroelectric materials
Polarization and Hysteresis Loop
Ferroelectric materials
Examples of Ferroelectric Materials
BaTiO3
PbTiO3
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
Triglycine Sulphate
PVDF
Lithium tantalite etc.
Application of Ferroelectric
Materials
Thermistors
Oscillators
Non-volatile memory
Filters
Capacitors
Light deflectors
Transchargers
Electro-optic materials
Modulators
Piezoelectrics
Display etc