Chapter#6

Database Management System

Notes

 Schema and Catalog Concepts:

 SQL introduced the concept of a schema to group together tables and other constructs
belonging to the same database application.
 A schema includes tables, types, constraints, views, and other elements.
 Schemas are created using the CREATE SCHEMA statement.
 Not all users can create schemas; privileges must be granted by the system administrator
or DBA.
 A catalog is a named collection of schemas and typically includes a default schema like
INFORMATION_SCHEMA to provide information on all schemas and elements.
 CREATE TABLE Command:
 Used to create a new relation (table) by specifying its name, attributes, and initial
constraints.
 Attributes include name, data type (numeric, character string, etc.), and constraints (e.g.,
NOT NULL).
 Entity integrity, key, and referential integrity constraints can be specified within the
CREATE TABLE statement or added later using ALTER TABLE.
 Base tables are physically created and stored by the DBMS, while virtual relations
(created by CREATE VIEW) may or may not correspond to physical files.
 Attribute Data Types and Domains:
 Basic data types include numeric, character string, bit string, Boolean, date, and time.
 Numeric types include integers, floating-point numbers, and formatted numbers.
 Character-string types can be fixed-length or varying-length, and case-sensitive.
 Bit-string types can be fixed or varying length, preceded by a 'B' to distinguish them.
 Boolean types have values TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN due to SQL's three-valued
logic.
 Date and time types have specific formats for representation.
 Domains can be created to specify common data types, improving schema readability and
allowing for easier changes.

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  SQL also supports user-defined types (UDTs) using the CREATE TYPE command.
 Attribute Constraints and Defaults:

 Constraints like NOT NULL ensure that attribute values cannot be NULL.
 Default values can be specified for attributes using the DEFAULT clause.
 The CHECK clause restricts attribute or domain values based on specified conditions.
 Key and Referential Integrity Constraints:

 Primary keys are specified using the PRIMARY KEY clause, while alternate keys are specified
using the UNIQUE clause.
 Referential integrity is maintained using the FOREIGN KEY clause, which specifies
relationships between tables.
 Actions for handling integrity violations include RESTRICT, SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET
DEFAULT, specified with ON DELETE or ON UPDATE.
 Naming Constraints:

 Constraints can be given names using the CONSTRAINT keyword, which helps in identification
and management.
 Constraints on Tuples using CHECK:

 Additional constraints on individual tuples can be specified using the CHECK clause.
 More general constraints can be specified using the CREATE ASSERTION statement.

 Attribute Constraints and Defaults:

 Constraints like NOT NULL ensure that attribute values cannot be NULL.
 Default values can be specified for attributes using the DEFAULT clause.
 The CHECK clause restricts attribute or domain values based on specified conditions.
 Key and Referential Integrity Constraints:
 Primary keys are specified using the PRIMARY KEY clause, while alternate keys are
specified using the UNIQUE clause.
 Referential integrity is maintained using the FOREIGN KEY clause, which specifies
relationships between tables.
 Actions for handling integrity violations include RESTRICT, SET NULL, CASCADE,
and SET DEFAULT, specified with ON DELETE or ON UPDATE.
 Naming Constraints:
 Constraints can be given names using the CONSTRAINT keyword, which helps in
identification and management.
 Constraints on Tuples using CHECK:
 Additional constraints on individual tuples can be specified using the CHECK clause.
 More general constraints can be specified using the CREATE ASSERTION statement.

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  Substring Pattern Matching: SQL allows for pattern matching within string attributes
using the LIKE operator, where % represents an arbitrary number of characters and _
represents a single character.

 Arithmetic Operators: Standard arithmetic operators such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division can be used in SQL queries, primarily for numeric values or
attributes with numeric domains.

 Concatenation Operator: The || operator can be used to concatenate string values in SQL
queries.

 Comparison Operator: The BETWEEN operator can be used to specify a range of values
for comparison, as demonstrated in Query 14.

 Ordering Query Results: SQL allows for ordering the result of a query using the ORDER
BY clause. Results can be ordered in ascending (default) or descending order based on
one or more attributes.

 INSERT Statement: The INSERT statement is used to add new tuples (rows) to a relation
(table) in the database. It can either insert a single tuple or multiple tuples, and values
must be provided in the same order as specified in the table schema.

 DELETE Statement: The DELETE statement removes tuples from a relation based on
specified conditions in the WHERE clause. If no WHERE clause is provided, all tuples
from the relation are deleted.

 UPDATE Statement: The UPDATE statement modifies attribute values of selected tuples
in a relation. It uses the SET clause to specify the attributes to be modified and their new
values, and the WHERE clause to select the tuples to be updated.

 Complex Retrieval Queries: SQL supports various techniques for specifying complex
retrieval queries, including nested queries, aggregate functions, grouping, joined tables,
outer joins, case statements, and recursive queries.
 SQL Programming Techniques: SQL provides methods for writing programs in
different programming languages with embedded SQL statements to access databases.
Techniques include embedded SQL, SQL/CLI, SQL/PSM, JDBC, and SQLJ.
 Transaction Control Commands: SQL includes commands for specifying units of
database processing for concurrency control and recovery purposes, discussed in Chapter
20.
 Privilege Management: SQL offers language constructs for granting and revoking
privileges to users, controlling access to SQL commands and database objects, covered in
Chapter 20 for security and authorization.
 Triggers: SQL allows for creating triggers, actions automatically triggered by events like
database updates, discussed in Section 26.1 as part of active database concepts.
 Object-Relational Capabilities: SQL incorporates features from object-oriented models,
enhancing relational systems with capabilities like complex-structured attributes, abstract
data types (UDTs), object identifiers, and type operations, detailed in Chapter 12.

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  Interactions with New Technologies: SQL and relational databases can interact with
technologies such as XML and OLAP/data warehouses, covered in Chapters 13 and 29,
respectively.

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