Types of Earth Orbits

Orbit – Introduction
• An orbit is a regular, repeating path that an object in space takes around another one.
• An object moving around a planet in an orbit is called a satellite.
• There are several types of Earth orbit, and each offers certain advantages and capabilities.
• There are many factors that decide which orbit would be best for a satellite to use, depending on what the
satellite is designed to achieve.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

• An orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface. It is normally at an
altitude of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less above Earth (Source: NASA)
• LEO satellites do not always have to follow a particular path around
Earth in the same way – their plane can be tilted. This means there
are more available routes for satellites in LEO, which is one of the
reasons why LEO is a very commonly used orbit.
• LEO is most commonly used for satellite imaging
• It is also the orbit used for the International Space Station (ISS) and Hubble Space Telescope.
• Particularly well-suited to all types of remote sensing, high-resolution earth observation, and scientific
research, as data can be acquired and transmitted rapidly.
• Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per second; at this speed, a satellite takes
approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth, meaning the ISS travels around Earth about 16 times a day.
• Individual LEO satellites are less useful for tasks such as telecommunication, because they move so fast
across the sky and therefore require a lot of effort to track from ground stations.
• Instead, communications satellites in LEO often work as part of a large combination or constellation of
multiple satellites to give constant coverage

Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)

• Objects in GSO have an orbital speed that matches the Earth’s rotation, yielding a consistent position over a
single longitude.
• GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) is a kind of GSO. It matches the planet’s rotation, but GEO objects only
orbit Earth’s equator.
• GSO and GEO are used for telecommunications and Earth observation.

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

• Spacecraft in geostationary Earth orbit are positioned 35,786 kms above Earth’s surface, precisely over the
equator.
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• GEO circle Earth above the equator from west to east following Earth’s
rotation – taking 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds – by travelling at
exactly the same rate as Earth. This makes satellites in GEO appear to
be ‘stationary’ over a fixed position.
• In order to perfectly match Earth’s rotation, the speed of GEO satellites
should be about 3 km per second at an altitude of 35 786 km.
• This allows a terrestrial antenna to always point toward the same
device in space. That’s why this type of satellites is perfect for always-
on communication services like TV and phones.
• It can also be used by weather monitoring satellites, because they can continually observe specific areas to
see how weather trends emerge there.
• Many high Earth-orbiting satellites monitor solar activity, track magnetic and radiation levels in space
around them
• Satellites in GEO cover a large range of Earth so as few as three equally-spaced satellites can provide near
global coverage.

What type of satellite is used to monitor cloud cover?

Satellites in geostationary orbit provide observations of cloud patterns that are used to calculate wind speeds.

Medium Earth Orbit

• Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO. It is
similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used
by a variety of satellites with many different applications.
• Typically at an altitude of about 5,000 to 20,000 km. Positioning and navigation services,
like GPS, extensively use MEO type of satellites.
• Compared to LEO spacecraft, MEO ones require fewer devices to give
worldwide coverage, but their time delay is longer and their signals are
weaker.
• Two medium Earth orbits are notable: the semi-synchronous orbit and
the Molniya orbit.

MEO - Semi-synchronous orbit

• It is a near-circular orbit (low eccentricity) 26,560 km from the center of
the Earth (about 20,200 km above the surface).
• A satellite at this height takes 12 hours to complete an orbit.
• In 24-hours, the satellite crosses over the same two spots on the equator
every day. This orbit is consistent and highly predictable.
• It is the orbit used by the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.

MEO - Molniya orbit

• It is the second common medium Earth orbit
• A Molniya orbit is a highly inclined and highly elliptical semi-synchronous orbit
• The Molniya orbit combines high inclination (63.4°) with high eccentricity (0.722) to
maximize viewing time over high latitudes.
• Each orbit lasts 12 hours, so the slow, high-altitude portion of the orbit repeats over
the same location every day and night.

Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO)

• An HEO is oblong, with one end nearer the Earth and other more
distant. Satellites in HEO are suited for communications, satellite
radio, remote sensing and other applications.

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Polar Orbit
• Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south
rather than from west to east, passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
• Satellites in a polar orbit do not have to pass the North and South Pole
precisely; even a deviation within 20 to 30 degrees is still classed as a
polar orbit.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes
between 200 to 1000 km.
• Polar orbit is used for satellites providing reconnaissance (military
surveillance), weather tracking, measuring atmospheric conditions, and
long-term Earth observation.

Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO)

• SSO is a particular kind of low earth polar orbit, at an altitude of 600 to 800
km above the Earth.
• Satellites in SSO, travelling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun.
• They are synchronized to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun
• This means that the satellite always visits the same spot at the same local time
• This type of satellite ideal for earth observation and environmental monitoring
(change detection).
• Scientists use image series like these to investigate how weather patterns emerge, to help predict weather
or storms; when monitoring emergencies like forest fires or flooding; or to accumulate data on long-term
problems like deforestation or rising sea levels.
• Often, satellites in SSO are synchronized with dawn or dusk – they will never have the Sun at an angle
where the Earth shadows them.
• But because of their lower orbital altitude, SSO type of spacecraft can only cover a smaller region at once
and need more machines to do so continuously.

Transfer orbits and Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)

• Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit
to another.
• When satellites are launched from Earth and carried to space with
launch vehicles, the satellites are not always placed directly on their
final orbit, instead placed on a transfer orbit.

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• The most frequent type of satellite transfer orbit is a

geostationary one utilized to migrate from a transition orbit to
GEO
• Rockets carrying payload to GEO drop it off at transfer orbits, which
are halfway points on the path to its final position.
• Then a satellite’s engine fires to reach its destination orbit and
adjust its inclination
• This shortcut allows the machine to reach geostationary orbit with minimal resources.
• In transfer orbits, the payload uses engines to go from an orbit of one eccentricity to another
• Orbits have different eccentricities – a measure of how circular (round) or elliptical (squashed) an orbit is.
In a perfectly round orbit, the satellite is always at the same distance from the Earth’s surface – but on a
highly eccentric orbit, the path looks like an ellipse.
• The point farthest away from the Earth on the blue elliptical orbit is called the apogee and the point closest
is called the perigee.

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