IRU 08204

 At the end of this section, we should be

able to:
·define Diplomacy
·discuss the scope of diplomacy
·trace the History and origin of diplomacy
·list the functions and qualities of
diplomats
·determine the relationship between
Western diplomacy and Pre-Colonial African
Diplomacy.
 Diplomacy is defined by one scholar as the
application of tact, common sense and
intelligence with foreign officials.

 Another definition says it is the

accomplishing of a country‟s national interest
in the International community through
peaceful means devoid of war.

 Another definition states that diplomacy is

the conduct of business between states by
peaceful means.
 Our working definition for this course
however will lay emphasis on Diplomacy
being a process through which the
business of states in the international
system is carried out by officials through
appropriate means, methods and
strategies that will enhance peace and
discourage wars.

 It is used to reach agreement, compromise

or settlement where actors‟ objectives are
in conflict or competition in the
international system.
 Diplomacy is a process, an action
involving actors in the international
system.

 The actors are appropriate officials

appointed for the process. They are
appointed in consideration of their
suitability for the task-through their
competence, educational background,
experience, tact, qualities etc.
 Diplomacy applies means, methods and
strategies in the process of getting things done.

 This implies that appropriate means should be

employed in appropriate circumstance
Negotiation, bargaining, financial inducements
and aids, exchange of presents, promise of
support and of course threat are all strategies of
diplomacy.

 The definition stresses the fact that there are

conflicting and competing interests in the
international system which must be reconciled in
a peaceful means for diplomacy to thrive.
 To sum up, in pursuing national
interest, the international
community should not be
thrown into chaos. Peace should
be maintained at all cost.

 For diplomacy to be effective,

war should not be the outcome.
Simply put, war is a failure of
diplomacy.
 Even though Diplomacy requires the
employment of tact, wit, intelligence
and common sense, it is not
cunningness or craftiness.
 A diplomat may be shrewd and quick
witted but it does not mean he is
cunning. Some people attribute
diplomatic to mean not being straight
forward. That they are cunning people
who hide their true intentions and
they are not straightforward.
 Diplomacy employs tact, shrewdness,
level-headedness, calculations, quick
wit, and apt response to issues,
reservation and of course a very deep
analytical mind.

 A diplomat should be quick to hear

but very slow to speak.

 These are just the type of qualities

required when dealing with many
people from diverse backgrounds
and cultures at official level.
 The study of Diplomacy as an academic
activity has been misunderstood over the
years.
 Some scholars think it is the summation of
a Nation‟s foreign policy while others see it
as merely projecting the interests of a
nation in the international community of
conflicting and competing interests.
 Yet others see it as a forerunner of the
newly emerging course referred to as “Peace
studies”.
 Suffice to say that Diplomacy as a field of study
has found a place in the curriculum of many
universities in Britain, Europe and the United
States.
 It is studied distinctly from other aspects of
International Relations.
 It is however imperative to state indisputably that
Diplomacy even though distinct from some other
units of International Relations is closely related
to International Relations.
 You should note that Diplomacy should not be
seen as isolated but integrated with all forms of
international relations – be it International
Economics, Trade, communication, Strategic
studies, Peace studies, Conflict Resolution, War,
National interest, foreign policy, or International
Law and Conventions.
 Diplomacy thrives in the projection of a
state‟s national interest in the International
community

 More than any other thing, International

Economics, trade and commerce shape a
nation‟s interest and the state always seek to
defend and maintain this through Diplomacy.
 Diplomacy and Communication must work
together to get desired diplomatic results for
a state.
 Strategic studies is an integral part of
diplomacy in order to get states‟ business
done.
 Peace studies and conflict resolution make
extensive use of diplomacy.

 Itis the undesirability of war that necessitates

Diplomacy.

 The foreign policy of a nation can only be

effectively carried out by sound diplomatic
tenets.

 Diplomacy is conducted in accordance with

International Law and Conventions.
 For Diplomacy to flourish, there are
practitioners officially appointed to perform
diplomatic functions.
 Appointed officials must be instilled with
certain characteristics and qualities which
must include the following among others:
 Sound Bargaining power
 Good negotiation skill
 Tact (consideration)
 Intelligence
 Shrewdness (smartness)
 Humility (Humbleness)
 Sound Analytical mind
 Quick wit.
 Apt response to issues
 Self-initiative
 Level-headedness
 Common sense
 Eloquence
 Decency
 Sociability
 The diplomat needs all these qualities among
others to effectively perform his/her functions
amongst which are:
(i) Representation: A diplomat/envoy/ambassador
or emissary is the „eyes‟ and „ears‟ of his state,
people, culture and country in another country.
(ii) Negotiation and Bargaining: He is the
instrument of dialogue for his people. They should
know when to sound tough or compromise. They
should be firm or soft as the situation requires and
at his own discretion.
(iii) Extraction of Information: This has to be
cautiously performed so that the envoy will not be
labeled a spy or be accused of espionage activities
by his host country. A diplomat has to reveal
helpful information concerning the host country to
his home country. He has to be very careful in
doing this.
 The history of Diplomacy can be traced from
the earliest times through;

 The medieval periods to

 The Italian-city states system and
 Pre-Colonial period.

 Various historical epochs of Diplomacy can be

listed as follows;
Diplomacy, even though not in
the official form, originated with
human existence. The history of
mankind is full with forms of
Diplomacy. Even in the Bible
records, there were diplomatic
relations between the Israelites
and other Semitic peoples of the
land of Canaan. The Quran also
stress the existence of diplomatic
relations between the Arabs and
the other peoples of the world.
After the primitive society, came
the medieval European system
which manifested at the collapse
of the Holy Roman Empire. The
period was characterized by
ethnic, religious, political and
ideological wars. It was in fact
referred to as the Dark Ages. The
spread of Islam however put a
check on the total collapse of
diplomacy then.
 By the late 15th century, the Italian
city States established permanent
diplomatic missions (i.e. embassies),
career diplomats and complete
privileges and immunities that went
with them. By this period the Greeks,
Egyptians, Assyrians and the Romans
only established adhoc envoys.
 Some scholars have argued that the
Italian city state system is the bridge
between the medieval and the modern
International Society and State System.
 Thetreaty of Westphalia which
ended the thirty-year war,
which engulfed Europe, also
gave impetus to modern
Diplomacy. The Treaty of
Westphalia. This treaty gave
credence to the concepts of:
 Sovereign statehood

 International law

 Diplomacy

 Balance of power
The Concert System which was an
epoch-making event in European
periodic summit or conference
system meant to discuss or settle
matters bothering on common
interest is another annals in the
World Diplomatic History. The
concert system started in 1815
when the Napoleonic wars nearly
routed the whole of Europe.
 What is the Concert
System of Diplomacy?
The Peace Conference which
was convened after the First
World War (i.e. The Versailles
Treaty) is another annal. The
Versailles Treaty encouraged
the notion of self-
determination in the modern
International system.
 Pre-colonialAfrica too could trace the
origin of its Diplomatic relations to
early times of African existence until
the period of the Trans Atlantic trade
in slaves, ivory, beads and other
goods. Treaties were ratified solemnly,
widely accepted protocol regulated
negotiations, sanctions were provided
for the observance of treaties and
embassies were sent to Europe with
emissaries performing official
diplomatic duties.
 These diplomatic activities
went on in the pre-colonial
period covering a period of
four or five hundred years up
to the last decade of the
nineteenth century before the
partition and the
establishment of colonies.
 African diplomacy is a political process under
which African states are interconnected with
official relations in the framework of the
international environment.
 The idea that African diplomacy presents a
distinct form or style of diplomacy is rather
recent, because the majority of African states
gained political independence only during the
past five decades. Indeed, the youngest
member of the United Nations (UN) is an
African state, South Sudan, which achieved its
sovereign status as recently as July 2011.
 When the UN was founded in 1945,
Africa had the least representation in
the organization: a mere four (Egypt,
Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa) out
of 51 founding member-states. This
profile has changed dramatically and,
in the second decade of the twenty-
first century, Africa has more
sovereign states than any other region
in the world, amounting to more than
25 percent of the UN membership.
 An historical perspective is essential to explain the guiding
themes in African diplomacy:
 The quest for justice and equality in international relations;
 The overriding imperative of development and peace for the
continent;
 The inclination towards diplomacy that plays up African
solidarity, unity, and integration.
 The history of marginalization: a relationship vis-à-vis the
rest of the world that infers continental vulnerability.
 In a contemporary African diplomacy is not
just born of negative experiences but
infused with traditional values that Africans
and the diaspora share:
 A whole approach to the passage of time
 Respect for cultural tradition and authority
 Preference for collective, slow decisions,
and the prioritization of community rather
than individuals.
The latter approach finds expression in
concepts that promote societal selflessness,
such as;

 Harambee (Swahili word for “pulling

together”)

 Ubuntu (Nguni word for “being human”).

The South African government‟s most recent
foreign policy document (“White Paper” of
May 2011) is titled “Building a Better World:
The Diplomacy of Ubuntu.”
 “Already we endeavour to base
our policies on principles of
human equality, dignity and
justice. The manner in which we
express them must demonstrate
that we accept the equality and
dignity of all other peoples and
nations, at the same time as we
demand a recognition of these
things for ourselves”.
 “Indeed, if it did, we should have no
friends left – for our policies differ in
some respects even from those of our
closest friends! For example, Guinea
does not recognise Biafra and Tanzania
does; Egypt allows her citizens to take
part on the Federal side of the Nigerian
war, while Tanzania calls for a halt in the
supply of weapons to Federal Nigeria.
Yet we do not, nor should we, regard
Guinea or the U.A.R. with hostility. We
know they are our friends with whom we
disagree on particular issues”.
 The Relationship between Western
European Concept of Diplomacy and
Pre-colonial African Diplomacy.

 We shall do this by drawing a parallel

between the definition of Diplomacy
and some aspects of Pre-Colonial
African Diplomacy.
 If diplomacy is the conduct of
business between states by peaceful
means, then Pre-Colonial Africa was
no stranger to diplomacy. This is
because in Africa before the colonial
period, diplomacy as carried out was
the same as elsewhere in the World.
Treaties were negotiated, frontiers (of
trade and authority more often than of
territory) were delimited, past
disputes were settled and potential
crisis argued away.
Inthe definition of Diplomacy,
officials are appointed to carry
out the business and so also
Pre-colonial African diplomacy
made use of emissaries,
envoys and representatives to
facilitate the easy conduct of
diplomatic relations.
Diplomacy is guided by
International law and
conventions which is binding
on actors and so also in the
Pre-Colonial African
experience, customary African
laws which were acceptable to
all actors were formulated to
guide diplomatic relations.
 the concepts and scope Pre-colonial
African Diplomacy (are) quite linked as
they permeate the whole issue of Pre-
colonial African life in relation to Pre-
colonial trade, international relations,
Geopolitics, Government, Customary
laws, Contact Economics, Commercial
frontiers and even missionary activities
across the African frontiers.
 For competence in a subject such as Pre-
colonial African Diplomacy, it calls for a
clear understanding of the concepts you
will encounter in the course.
 For example one scholar had this in his
mind;
„„International relations in pre-colonial
(Africa) were conducted in accordance with
customary law, which exhibited broadly
similar characteristics over a wide area.
Trade and politics, linking the coast, the
forest and the Savannah led to the
development of diplomacy in the more
centrally-organized states‟‟.
 The concept above which also
highlights the scope of pre-colonial
African Diplomacy takes cognizance
of the following facts:
The existence of a customary law
Similar characteristics over a wide
geo-political area.
External trade, commerce and
economy.
Centrally organized states.
“In Africa during the pre-
colonial period, several groups
of states maintained
relationship with one another in
time of peace at an official level
and on a more or less regular
basis”.
The existence of organized states
and governments as actors in
pre-colonial African Diplomacy.
The existence of peace conducive
for diplomatic relations.
The existence of an official level
of interaction.
Long standing diplomatic
relations between African states.
 The concept of international
relations evolved in Western
Europe where it has been subject
of much study.

 Ithas been hardly touched upon

by students of the indigenous
institutions of Pre-colonial Africa
and its history.
 Despite this neglect and the
unwritten nature of many of the
historical sources, there is
abundant evidence of formal
relations at the highest
governmental levels between the
different peoples of Africa in the
pre-colonial period, and there is
even some evidence of the
existence of an interstate system.
 Itis this concept of formal
relations between pre-colonial
African peoples that informs
the concept of pre-colonial
African Diplomacy. Of course,
this relations transcends
periods of peace and war with
intermediary phases of tension
and negotiation.
 We can of course argue,
reasonably too, that while pre-
colonial African Inter-group
relations pre-supposes the entire
interstate relations at all times,
either during the time of war or
peace, pre-colonial African
Diplomacy is only a part of its
inter-group relations which
usually thrived in times of peace.
 InternationalRelations or inter-
group relations, as applicable to
Pre-colonial African Scenario on
the other hand covers and
transcends war and peace, tension
and negotiation.
 There are various ways in which
the inter-group relations of Pre-
colonial Africa were based and the
tool of diplomacy might be used
to anticipate crisis within the
international system regarding
African communities.
 We see here that in Africa before the
imperial period, the subject matter of
international relations seemed to have
been much the same as with what
obtained in other areas of the world. Since
one of our earlier definitions stresses that
diplomacy is the conduct of business
between states by peaceful means, it is
thus evident that pre-colonial Africa was
well – versed in diplomatic tenets within
the scope of Pre-colonial African Inter-
group relations
a simple definition of geopolitics
as “the global set of relationship
that a continent assumes in
interacting with other regions of
the world in the course of the
struggle and competition for
power, influence, and economic
resources”.
The set of relationships should
be globally acceptable.
 There is international
interaction between global
actors.
There is the struggle and
competition for power, influence
and economic resources.
 It shows that Africa, especially
sub-Saharan Africa, has been more
of a pawn in the hands of outsiders
than an independent player in
pursuit of the region‟s self-
interest. This is clearly evident in
the history of the transatlantic
slave trade during the pre-colonial
period and even during the
colonial rule.
 Africa had always been
vulnerable to outside
interference, manipulation and
control.
 It is difficult to prove that
Africa had been an
independent player in the
control of its destiny in the
international community.
 this
is more so because of the rise
of modern Europe in about the
seventeenth century and its
incursion into Africa in pursuit of
economic exploitation.
 We can safely posit that in pre-
colonial Africa, there was still a
semblance of the concept of
geopolitics fashioned in line
within the context of pre-colonial
African diplomatic tenets. We shall
thus attempt to highlight the
concept of geopolitics in relation
to the pre-colonial African
experience.
In Pre-colonial Africa, the global
sets of relationships are made
acceptable by conducting relations
in accordance with customary laws,
which reflect broad similar
characteristics over a wide area.
 Inter-African
embassies enjoyed a
degree of prestige and immunity
comparable to that which protected
European diplomacy.
 A widely accepted protocol regulated
negotiation.

 Treaties were solemnly concluded and

sanctions were provided for their
observance.

 Embassies were exchanged.

 North Africa, the Arab world and the

Islamized states exchanged embassies and
envoys.
 There were diplomatic relations
with both Muslims and Europeans
which tended to increase the
influence in West African politics
and society of the literate elites.

 The indigenous system of

international relations guided by
these set of relationships was
flexible and effective.
Another highlight of the
concept of geopolitics is the
struggle and competition for
power, influence and
economic resources. In
international affairs, interest,
more than anything else is the
dominant factor that shapes
foreign policy.
 It may be national interest,
regional interest or communal
interest as the setting may call
for. Interest shapes the foreign
policy of international actors. We
should however note that the
competition for resources and
wealth is always the foremost of
these interests, with this comes
power and influence.
 Pre-colonial Africa is no exception.
Trade and politics, linking the coast,
the savannah and the desert led to
the development of diplomacy.
Transatlantic trade and trade in other
goods created economic frontiers
which attracted the Europeans.
Commercial activities boomed during
this period and sound diplomatic ties
also developed to sustain the
economic prowess of pre-colonial
Africa.
 Africa‟s Development or African crisis?
 There is, it seems consensus that Africa‟s
Development is in crisis.
 Various literatures have been produced
concerning Africa's crisis
 Scholars debates and insights have been
common
 The global crises of 1970s and 1980‟s
 African condition has been engulfed with forms
of poor economy, social and physical
infrastructures decay, ecological problems and
other disasters; famine, diseases
 Its common to see gradually crumbling
of political, social order and legitimacy.
 All these represents the deepening crises
with governments responses,
international financial agencies and
Institutions.
 The internal dynamics in Africa are
reinforced, strengthened and repeatedly
complicated by external forces and
overall global dynamics.
 Various economic packages that are
externally, internally administered and
offered as a solution to Africa's crises.
 The external packages are
championed by the WB, IMF in the
name of Structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) or the Economic
Reform Programme (ERP)
 These programmes were introduced
by many African countries
 They stress in the expansion of
market-based principles
 By crisis we refer to a situation in which a
system or structure begins to experience
serious breakdown in the process of
reproducing itself in the form previously
considered normal.
 The Africa‟s crises are multi-dimensional
 Five features can be used to explain the
dimensions
 Experience of extensive divisions and
ongoing civil wars and conflicts
 Divisive tendencies as a result of colonial
legacies like artificial boundaries, languages
and consciousness.
 Not on the basis of indigenous language but
on the basis of being Anglophone,
Francophone, Lusophone etc.


 This is closely related to the first factor.
 Politics in Africa is characterized by fragile but
authoritarian and over-extended state
formations with weak roots in civil society.
 Its controlled by an insecure, non-hegemonic
political elite who are dependent on the state for
accumulation and who utilize both corruption
and patronage as media of bargaining,
negotiation and legitimation.
 Rulers adopts a political style that divides their
citizens along ethnic, economic, religious and
even racial lines.
 This goes together with an increasing
environmental degradation
 Fastest growing population s found in Africa
 Population pressure especially is Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) combines with the fragile tropical
ecology accelerates ecological degradation.
 Its normal to see desertification, erosion,
deforestation, pollution of all sources and the
dumping of toxic wastes
 Culture as a total ways of life in African
senses is losing ground so fast
 We have a bigger culture crisis as a result of
colonial heritage, modernization, and the
influence of western media.
 It can be reflected with the loss of language,
collective and personal integrity
 Cultural irredentism and chauvinism,
religious fundamentalism and adherence to
syncretic religious movements
 Its what complicates other factors
 Poverty has always been the problem of Africa
 There is decline in production
 Famine, hunger, diseases and bad
environmental conditions have been normal
leading to more poverty prone situations in
Africa
 More African countries have failed to come
out of debt crisis even though they had
various packages
 To quote Claude Ake, “the
Crisis of Africa‟s development
process is crisis of “purpose”,
“ideas”, “images” of , and
“interests” in development.
 Developmental diplomacy theories
are concepts that seeks to explain
the relationship between donor
and recipient countries in terms
of promoting economic
development and reducing
poverty in recipient countries.
 When applied to donor-recipient country
relations, developmental diplomacy theories
can help explain the dynamics of these
relationships.
 WHY THEORIES ARE IMPORTANT IN EXPLAINING
THE RELATIONSHIP?
 They can help us understand the way the
international systems work, as well as how
nations engage with each other and view the
world.
 Theory influences the policy makers‟ view of
the world in ways that impact policy
development and, by extension, defense
strategy.
 Theory helps us to explain the world
of international relations. Theory is
central to explaining the dynamics of
world politics, whether one is
interested in regionalism, identity,
security, or foreign policy. To put it
more graphically, there is no hiding
place from theory; there is no
alternative but to engage with issues
concerning causation, interpretation,
judgment, and critique.
 They provide opportunities for scholars to
draw generalizations and conceptualization
that cut across historical events. These
generalizations provide a platform for the
formulation of explanatory paradigms on
such issues as the causes of war,
imperialism etc. without having to describe
specific historical wars, alliances, crisis and
other issues. It is the possibility of drawing
such generalizations and concepts, building
explanatory models and paradigms, which
underlines the importance of theoretical
study of international relations etc.
 Without theory, there can be no
structure to data (or to our
prescriptions for action). With no
structure, data is just noise. All very
interesting maybe, but it doesn't
allow us to draw any conclusions or
prescriptions. Theories are tools
of interpretation (why did X happen?
What does it mean?), prediction (what
will happen in future?)
and recommendation (in light of this,
what should we do?).
 Modernization theory is a theory used to
explain the process of modernization within
societies.
 The theory looks at the internal factors of a
country while assuming that, with assistance,
"traditional" countries can be brought to
development in the same manner more
developed countries have.
 Modernization theory attempts to identify the
social variables which contribute to social
progress and development of societies, and
seeks to explain the process of social
evolution.
 Modernization theory is subject to criticism
originating among socialist and free-market
ideologies, world-systems theorists,
globalization theory and dependency theory
among others.
 Modernization theory not only stresses the
process of change but also the responses to
that change.
 It also looks at internal dynamics while
referring to social and cultural structures and
the adaptation of new technologies.
 The following are the modernization theories
for development.
 Rostow's theory of economic growth is one of
the more structuralism models of economic
growth, whereby his main thesis is that it is
logical and practically possible to identify
stages of development to classify society
according to those stages.
 Whereby he distinguished the stages by
considering productive capacity and
technology, manufacturing industry,
transport and saving for investment and
trade, these stage are as follows;-
 Traditional society, this stage is
characterized by subsistence
agriculture or hunting &
gathering; almost wholly a
"primary" sector economy, limited
technology, a static or 'rigid'
society, lack of class or individual
economic mobility, with stability
prioritized and change seen
negatively.
 Pre-conditions to "take-off",
which is characterized by external
demand for raw materials initiates
economic change, development of
more productive, commercial
agriculture & cash crops not
consumed by producers and/or
largely exported
 Widespread and enhanced investment
in changes to the physical
environment to expand production
(i.e. irrigation, canals, ports)
 Increasing spread of technology and
advances in existing technologies,
changing social structure, with
previous social equilibrium now in
flux, individual social mobility begins,
development of national identity and
shared economic interests.
 Take off, under this stage of economic
growth is being endowed by
manufacturing begins to rationalize and
scale increases in a few leading
industries, as goods are made both for
export and domestic consumption, the
"secondary" (goods-producing) sector
expands and ratio of secondary vs.
primary sectors in the economy shifts
quickly towards secondary, textiles &
apparel are usually the first "take-off"
industry, as happened in Great Britain's
classic "Industrial Revolution"
 Drive to maturity, Rostow tried to explain
how the development of economic
encompasses a diversification of the
industrial base; multiple industries expand
& new ones take root quickly,
manufacturing shifts from investment-
driven (capital goods) towards consumer
durables & domestic consumption, rapid
development of transportation
infrastructure, large-scale investment in
social infrastructure (schools, universities,
hospitals, etc.)
 Age of high mass consumption, it is
being attributed by the industrial base
dominates the economy; the primary
sector is of greatly diminished weight
in economy & society, widespread and
normative consumption of high-value
consumer goods (e.g. automobiles),
consumers typically (if not
universally), have disposable income,
beyond all basic needs, for additional
goods.
 Nurkse vicious circle of poverty states that a
society is poor because it is poor. A society
with low income has both low level of serving
and low level of consumption.
 Nurkse was in favor of attaining balanced
growth in both the industrial and agricultural
sectors of the economy.
 He recognized that the expansion and inter-
sectoral balance between agriculture and
manufacturing is necessary so that each of
these sectors provides a market for the
products of the other and in turn, supplies
the necessary raw materials for the
development and growth of the other.
 Nurkse's theory discusses how the poor size
of the market in underdeveloped countries
perpetuates its underdeveloped state.
 Nurkse has also clarified the various
determinants of the market size and puts
primary focus on productivity.
 According to him, if the productivity levels
rise in a less developed country, its market
size will expand and thus it can eventually
become a developed economy.
 Apart from this, Nurkse has been nicknamed
an export pessimist, as he feels that the
finances to make investments in
underdeveloped countries must arise from
their own domestic territory.
 Under this theory Schumpeter explained
model of development that, the generating
force is provided by the entrepreneurships,
the process is innovation and the goal is the
establishment of a position of a wealth and
power of entrepreneur.
 The entrepreneurs disturb this equilibrium
and are the prime cause of economic
development, which proceeds in cyclic
fashion along several time scales.
 In fashioning this theory connecting
innovations, cycles, and development.
 Schumpeter also thought that the institution
enabling the entrepreneur to purchase the
resources needed to realize his or her vision
was a well-developed capitalist financial
system, including a whole range of
institutions for granting credit.
 One could divide economists among, those
who emphasized "real" analysis and regarded
money as merely a "veil" and those who
thought monetary institutions are important
and money could be a separate driving force.
Both Schumpeter and Keynes were among the
latter.
 Proposed by Harvey Leibenstein in 1960,
argues that there are some limiting factors
which can cause that gape approach as
follows:- low productivity, poor soil and
tropical climate, technological backwardness,
un favorable demographic features in the
form of large and low population, low
education and cultural level, predominant
subsistence agricultural economy with poor
credit and marketing facilities.
 Leibenstein proposed the creation
of entrepreneurs and identified
their two main roles
(1) Act as a gap filler
(2) They should act as an input
completer
 The theory suggests that poorer
countries can achieve development
and economic growth by following the
path of modernization taken by more
developed countries.

 Donors may support this process by

providing aid for infrastructure,
education, and other development
initiatives.
 This theory suggests that donor-recipient
relationships are based on a desire to
promote economic development and
modernization in recipient countries.

 According to them, donor countries provide

aid and assistance in order to help recipient
countries achieve economic growth and
improve their living standards.

 Modernization theory argues that this

dynamic can be beneficial to recipient
countries, as it can help them move from
traditional to modern societies.