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Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
YOUR NOTES
AS Chemistry CIE
2. Inorganic Chemistry
CONTENTS
2.1 The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity
2.1.1 Period 3 Elements: Physical Properties
2.1.2 Period 3 Elements: Structure & Bonding
2.1.3 Period 3 Oxides
2.1.4 Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides: Acid/Base Behaviour
2.1.5 Period 3 Chlorides
2.1.6 Period 3 Elements: Electronegativity & Bonding
2.1.7 Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides
2.1.8 Chemical Periodicity of Other Elements
2.2 Group 2
2.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides & Carbonates
2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates & Carbonates
2.2.4 Group 2: Physical & Chemical Trends
2.2.5 Group 2: Trends in Solubility of Hydroxides & Sulfates
2.3 Group 17
2.3.1 Physical Properties of the Group 17 Elements
2.3.2 Chemical Properties: Halogens & Hydrogen Halides
2.3.3 Reactions of the Halide Ions
2.3.4 The Reactions of Chlorine
2.4 Nitrogen & Sulfur
2.4.1 Nitrogen and its Compounds
2.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides
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All elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number from left to right
Atomic radius
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The atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an YOUR NOTES
atom
The atomic radius is measured by taking two atoms of the same element, measuring the
distance between their nuclei and then halving this distance
In metals this is also called the metallic radius and in non-metals, the covalent radius
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The graph shows a decrease in atomic radii of Period 3 elements across the period
Across the period, the atomic radii decrease
This is because the number of protons (the nuclear charge) and the number of electrons
increases by one every time you go an element to the right
The elements in a period all have the same number of shells (so the shielding effect is the
same)
This means that as you go across the period the nucleus attracts the electrons more
strongly pulling them closer to the nucleus
Because of this, the atomic radius (and thus the size of the atoms) decreases across the
period
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The diagram shows that across Period 3, the elements gain extra electrons in the same
principal quantum shell
Ionic radius
The ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an ion
Metals produce positively charged ions (cations) whereas nonmetals produce negatively
charged ions (anions)
The cations have lost their valence electrons which causes them to be much smaller than
their parent atoms
Because there are less electrons, this also means that there is less shielding of the outer
electrons
Going across the period from Na+ to Si4+ the ions get smaller due to the increasing nuclear
charge attracting the outer electrons in the second principal quantum shell nucleus
(which has an increasing atomic number)
The anions are larger than their original parent atoms because each atom has gained one or
more electrons in their third principal quantum shell
This increases the repulsion between electrons, while the nuclear charge is still the same,
causing the electron cloud to spread out
Going across P3- to Cl- the ionic radii decreases as the nuclear charge increases across the
period and fewer electrons are gained by the atoms (P gains 3 electrons, S 2 electrons and
Cl 1 electron)
Ionic radii of ions of Period 3 elements table
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Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and increasing of outer
electrons across the period
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The diagram shows the electron configuration of the ions of Period 3 elements and their
relative sizes
Melting point
Melting points of the elements across Period 3 table
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Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and increasing of outer
electrons across the period
A general increase in melting point for the Period 3 elements up to silicon is observed
Silicon has the highest melting point
After the Si element the melting points of the elements decreases significantly
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity refers to how well a substance can conduct electricity
Unlike the melting points, the electrical conductivity of the Period 3 elements shows a clear
trend
Going across the period, the electrical conductivity of the elements decreases
significantly
Trends in electrical conductivity across Period 3 table
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Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and increasing of outer
electrons across the period
The above trends can be explained by looking at the bonding and structure of the elements
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The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions arranged
in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a 'sea' of delocalised electrons
around them
Metal cations form a giant lattice held together by electrons that can freely move around
The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence shell of the
atoms
Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will donate two and
Al three electrons
As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na
This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger number of
negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger compared to a 1+ ion and the
smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al
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Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in which each Si atom is YOUR NOTES
held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds
P, S, Cl and Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple molecules (P4, S8, Cl2 and Ar
as a single atom)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between the molecules,
there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces
Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the melting point of S is
higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S8 molecules compared to the smaller P4
molecule)
Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity decreases going across the Period 3 elements
Electrical conductivity decreases Period 3 elements table
Going from Na to Al, there is an increase in the number of valence electrons that are
donated to the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
Because of this, in Al there are more electrons available to move around through the
structure when it conducts electricity, making Al a better electrical conductor than Na
Due to the giant molecular structure of Si, there are no delocalised electrons that can
freely move around within the structure
Si is therefore not a good electrical conductor and is classified as a semimetal (metalloid)
The lack of delocalised electrons is also why P and S cannot conduct electricity
Exam Tip
Intermolecular forces are forces between moleculesIntramolecular forces are
forces within a molecule
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The sodium melts into a ball and moves across the water surface until it disappears YOUR NOTES
Hydrogen gas is given off
The solution formed is strongly alkaline (pH 14) due to the sodium hydroxide which is
formed
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The Pauling scale shows the electronegativities of the elements in the periodic table.
Oxygen has a higher electronegativity than any of the Period 3 elements which is why the
Period 3 elements will have positive oxidation states and the oxygen a negative oxidation
state in the oxides of Period 3 elements
The Period 3 elements therefore have positive oxidation states in their oxides and the
oxygen has a negative oxidation state of -2
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Exam Tip
Since aluminium oxide does not react or dissolve in water, the oxide layer protects
the aluminium metal from corrosion.
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The acidic and basic nature of the Period 3 elements can be explained by looking at their
structure, bonding and the Period 3 elements’ electronegativity
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Structure, bonding & electronegativity of the Period 3 elements table YOUR NOTES
The difference in electronegativity between oxygen and Na, Mg and Al is the largest
Electrons will therefore be transferred to oxygen when forming oxides giving the oxide an
ionic binding
The oxides of Si, P and S will share the electrons with the oxygen to form covalently
bonded oxides
The giant ionic and giant covalent structured oxides will have high melting points as it is
difficult to break the structures apart
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Al can also react with acidic solutions to form a salt and water YOUR NOTES
This behaviour is very typical of an ionic bonded metal oxide
This behaviour of Al proves that the chemical bonding in aluminium oxide is not purely ionic
nor covalent: it is amphoteric
Period 3 hydroxide
NaOH is a strong base and will react with acids to form a salt and water:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2 is also a basic compound which is often used in indigestion remedies by
neutralising the excess acid in the stomach to relieve pain:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and can acts both as an acid and base:
Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)
Exam Tip
Electronegativity is the power of an element to draw the electrons towards itself in a
covalent bond.For example, in Na2O the oxygen will draw the electrons more
strongly towards itself than sodium does.
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The diagram shows water molecules breaking down the giant ionic structure of NaCl and
MgCl2 to form hydrated ions
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium chloride exists in two forms:
AlCl3 as a giant lattice and with ionic bonds
Al2Cl6 as a dimer with covalent bonds
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When water is added to aluminium chloride the dimers are broken down and Al3+ and Cl-
ions enter the solution
The highly charged Al3+ ion becomes hydrated and causes a water molecule that is bonded
to the Al3+ to lose an H+ ion which turns the solution acidic
The H+ and the Cl- form hydrogen chloride gas which is given off as white fumes
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The hydrated aluminium causes a water molecule to lose a H+ ion turning the solution acidic
Silicon chloride
SiCl4 is hydrolysed in water, releasing white fumes of hydrogen chloride gas in a rapid
reaction
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
The SiO2 is seen as a white precipitate and some of the hydrogen chloride gas produced
dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
Phosphorus(V) chloride
PCl5 also gets hydrolysed in water
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(g)
Both H3PO4 and dissolved HCl are highly acidic
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As the atomic number increases going across the period, there is an increase in nuclear YOUR NOTES
charge
Across the period, there is an increase in the number of valence shells however the
shielding is still the same as each extra electrons enters the same shell
As a result of this, electrons will be more strongly attracted to the nucleus causing an
increase in electronegativity across the period
Bonding & structure of Period 3 elements
The table shows that going from Al to S the bonding changes from metallic to covalent and
the structure changes from giant to simple structure
Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions arranged in a giant lattice in
which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons around them
Since Al donates three electrons into the sea of delocalised electrons to form an ion with +3
charge, the electrostatic forces between the electrons and the aluminium ion will be very
strong
The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence shell of the
atoms
Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will donate two and
Al three electrons
As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na
This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger number of
negatively charged delocalised electrons are much larger compared to a 1+ ion and the
smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
Since there are more electrons in a metallic lattice of aluminium compared to sodium and
magnesium, aluminium is a better electrical conductor
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Metal cations form a giant lattice held together by electrons that can freely move around
Si is a non-metallic element and has a giant molecular structure in which each Si atom is
held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds
There are no delocalised electrons in the structure of Si which is why silicon cannot conduct
electricity and is classified as a metalloid
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The diagram shows the giant molecular structure of silicon where silicon atoms are held YOUR NOTES
together by strong covalent bonds
Phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine argon re both non-metallic elements that exist as simple
molecules (P4 , S8 , Cl2 and Ar as single atoms)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between the molecules
there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces
The lack of delocalised electrons means that these compounds cannot conduct electricity
The diagram shows the simple molecular structure of phosphorus with covalent bonds
between the atoms
The diagram shows the simple molecular structure of sulfur with covalent bonds between
the atoms
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The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions arranged
in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
around them
The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence shell of the
atoms
Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will donate two and
Al three electrons
As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na
This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger number of
negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger compared to a 1+ ion and the
smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al
Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in which each Si atom is
held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds
P, S, Cl and Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple molecules (P4, S8, Cl2 and Ar
as single atom)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however between the molecules
there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces
Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the melting point of S is
higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S8 molecules compared to the smaller P4
molecule)
The presence of a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons also determines whether the element is a
good conductor or not
Going across the period the electrical conductivity of the elements decreases due to lack
of delocalised electrons
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Going across Period 3, their chlorides and oxidised become more covalent and their
structure shifts from a giant ionic to a simple molecular structure
Their reactions with water become more vigorous as a result of this as it becomes easier to
hydrolyse the chlorides and oxides
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The diagram shows a flowchart of how to use the position and/or properties of an element to
make predictions about its behaviour
Worked example: Deducing the position of an element in the Periodic
Table
Answer
Break the question down and systematically approach the question
Step 1: ‘Element X forms a chloride, which reacts with water to form a solution of pH 1’
The low pH of the solution formed suggests that the chloride is a non-metallic chloride
(group 13 to 17)
Step 2: ‘The oxide does not dissolve in or react with aqueous sodium hydroxide’
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Since aluminium oxide does reaction with sodium hydroxide, element G cannot be Group 13 YOUR NOTES
Step 3: It forms an oxide which has a melting point of 1610 °C’
This suggests a giant molecular (covalent) structure which corresponds to Group 14
Step 4: Element X cannot be carbon (which is in Group 14) as carbon dioxide is a gas
whereas the element X oxide is a solid (with a melting point of 1610 °C)
Step 5: Element X is therefore a Group 14 element in Period 3 or lower
Note that this is an example of predicting the position of an element based on its physical
and chemical properties
Worked example: Predicting physical and chemical properties of selenium
Answer
Step 1: Selenium is a nonmetal in Group 16 and if compared to sulfur, its structure is
predicted to be a simple molecular structure
Step 2: Physical properties of simple molecular structures are low melting points, do not
conduct electricity and are insoluble in water
Step 3: Chemical properties are:
Reaction with water: simple molecules do not react with water
Reaction with oxygen: reacts with oxygen to form an oxide of SeO2 (if compared with
sulfur)
Reaction with chlorine: reacts with chlorine to form simple molecule of SeCl2 which
can react with the water vapour in air to form hydrogen chloride (if compared with
sulfur)
Note that this is an example of predicting the chemical and physical properties of an
element based on its position in the Periodic Table
Worked example: Determining an unknown chloride compound
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Answer
Answer 1:
Group 1 and 2 chlorides react with water to form colourless solutions of pH 6.5-7
Group 15 chlorides on the other hand react with water to form strong acidic solutions
Element X therefore belongs to Group 15 of the Periodic Table
Answer 2:
Group 15 chlorides gets hydrolysed in water, therefore this is a hydrolysis reaction
Answer 3:
The white fumes that are given off during this reaction is hydrogen chloride gas
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Group 2 reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid & dilute sulfuric acid chemical
equations
The reaction of all metals with oxygen follows the following general equation:
2M(s) + O2(g) → 2MO(s)
Where M is any metal in Group 2
Remember than Sr and Ba also form MO2
The reaction of all metals with water follows the following general equation:
M(s) + 2H2O(l) → M(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Except for, Be which does not react with water
The reaction of all metals with dilute HCl follows the following general equation:
M(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction of all metals with dilute H2SO4 follows the following general equation:
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Exam Tip
Learn the general equation for the reaction with oxygen, water and dilute HCl/H2SO4
and the exceptions instead of memorizing the entire table!
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Remember that:
oxide + water → hydroxide
And that calcium hydroxide is also called limewater
Reactions of Group 2 metals with acid
The Group 2 metals will react with dilute acids to form colourless solutions of metal salts
For example, they will form colourless solutions of metal chlorides if reacted with
hydrochloric acid
When metals react with an acid, the by-product of this reaction is hydrogen gas
Group 2 metal element reactions with dilute acids table
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When some of Group 2 metals react with sulfuric acid rather than hydrochloric, an insoluble
sulfate forms
Going down the group, the Group 2 sulfates become less and less soluble
Calcium sulfate is sparingly soluble, but strontium sulfate and barium sulfate are
insoluble
Reactions of Group 2 oxides with acid
Group 2 sulfates also form when a Group 2 oxide is reacted with an acid
The insoluble sulfates form at the surface of the oxide, which means that the solid oxide
beneath it can’t react with the acid
This can be prevented to an extent by using the oxide in powder form and stirring, in which
case neutralisation can take place
Remember that:
oxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → salt + water
oxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
Reactions of group 2 hydroxides
The Group 2 metal hydroxides form colourless solutions of metal chlorides when they
react with a dilute acid
The sulfates decrease in solubility going down the group (barium sulfate is an insoluble
white precipitate)
Group 2 hydroxide reactions with dilute acids table
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Remember that:
hydroxide + dilute acid → salt + water
hydroxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
Reactions of group 2 carbonates
All Group 2 carbonates (except for BeCO3) are insoluble in water
All Group 2 carbonates will form soluble chloride salts, water and carbon dioxide gas when
reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid
The carbonates of Ca, Sr and Ba form as an insoluble sulfate layer on their solid
carbonates which stops any further reaction after the initial bubbling (effervescence) of
carbon dioxide gas is seen
Group 2 carbonate reactions with dilute acids
Remember that:
carbonate + dilute hydrochloric acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
carbonate + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
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The graph shows that both the first and second ionization energies decrease going down the
table
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The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the first outer electron of an YOUR NOTES
atom
The second ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the second outer electron
of an atom
The graph above shows that going down the group, it becomes easier to remove the outer
two electrons of the metals
Though the nuclear charge on the nucleus increases going down the group (because there
are more protons), factors such as an increased shielding effect and a larger distance
between the outermost electrons and nucleus outweigh the attraction of the higher
nuclear charge
As a result of this, the elements become more reactive going down the group as it gets
easier for the atoms to lose two electrons and become 2+ ions
This trend is shown by looking at reactions of the Group 2 metals:
With dilute hydrochloric acid: bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off much faster
indicating that the reactions become more vigorous
With oxygen hydrochloric acid: the metals get more reactive with oxygen down the
group (Ba is so reactive, that it must be stored in oil to prevent it from reacting with
oxygen in air)
Physical trends
Going down the group, the elements become larger as the outer two electrons occupy a
new principal quantum shell which is further away from the nucleus
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The atomic radius of the Group 2 elements increases going down the group due to the YOUR NOTES
addition of an extra principal quantum shell
The graph shows a increase in atomic radius going down the group
The melting point of the elements decreases going down the group as the outer electrons
get further away from the nucleus
This means that the attraction between the nucleus and the bonding electrons decreases
causing a decrease in melting point
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The graph shows a decrease in melting point going down the group
As you go down the group, the density of the alkali earth metals increases
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Answer
Property 1:
Since, Ra is in Group 2, it will form an ion with +2 charge to give Ra2+
Property 2:
The Group 2 oxides and hydroxides have general formula XO and X(OH)2 respectively where X is
the Group 2 element.
Therefore, radium oxide is RaO and radium hydroxide is Ra(OH)2
Property 3:
Radium is below barium so its atomic radius is larger than the atomic radius of barium.
This means that radium’s outermost electrons are even further away and are therefore even
more easily removed than barium’s outermost electron pair.
The first ionization energy is between 450-480 kJ mol-1
Property 4:
Radium’s outermost electrons are even further away than in barium and are therefore more
easily removed making radium more reactive than barium.
Property 5:
The Group 2 hydroxides become more soluble going down the group.
Radium hydroxide will therefore be more soluble than calcium hydroxide.
Property 6:
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The Group 2 sulfates become less soluble going down the group. YOUR NOTES
Radium sulfate will therefore be less soluble than strontium sulfate.
Property 7:
The general equation for the reaction of Group 2 oxides with dilute hydrochloric acid is:
XO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → XCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
where X is the Group 2 element
The reaction of radium oxide with dilute hydrochloric acid is therefore:
RaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → RaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Property 8:
Radium sulfate will be formed in this reaction, however the solubility of Group 2 sulfates
decreases going down the group, therefore a white precipitate of radium sulfate will be formed
in this reaction
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YOUR NOTES
Going down the group, the solubility of the hydroxides increases which means that the
solutions formed from the reactions of the Group 2 metal oxides and water become more
alkaline going down the group
Group 2 sulfates
The solubility of the Group 2 sulfates decreasing going down the group
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The colours of the Group 17 elements get darker going down the group
Volatility
Volatility refers to how easily a substance can evaporate
A volatile substance will have a low melting and boiling point
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YOUR NOTES
The melting & boiling points of the Group 17 elements increase going down the group which
indicates that the elements become less volatile
Going down the group, the boiling point of the elements increases which means that the
volatility of the halogens decreases
This means that fluorine is the most volatile and iodine the least volatile
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A covalent bond is formed by the orbital overlap of two atoms and the attraction of
electrons towards the nuclei; The bigger the atom, the weaker the covalent bond
The bond strength of the halogen molecules therefore decreases going down the group
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YOUR NOTES
The bond enthalpies decrease indicating that the bond strengths decrease going down the
group
Bond enthalpy is the heat needed to break one mole of a covalent bond
The higher the bond enthalpy, the stronger the bond
An exception to this is fluorine which has a smaller bond enthalpy than chlorine and
bromine
Fluorine is so small that when two atoms of fluorine get together their lone pairs get so
close that they cause significant repulsion counteracting the attracting between the
bonding pair of electrons and two nuclei
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The lone pairs on fluorine get so close to each other in a fluorine molecule that they cause YOUR NOTES
repulsion which decreases the bond strength
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The diagram shows that a sudden distribution of electrons in a nonpolar molecule can cause
an instantaneous dipole. When this molecule gets close to another non-polar molecule it
can induce a dipole as the cloud of electrons repel the electrons in the neighbouring
molecule to the other side
The more electrons there are in a molecule, the greater the instantaneous dipole-induced
dipole forces
Therefore, the larger the molecule the stronger the van der Waals’ forces between
molecules
This is why as you go down the group, it gets more difficult to separate the molecules and
the melting and boiling points increase
As it gets more difficult to separate the molecules, the volatility of the halogens decreases
going down the group
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YOUR NOTES
Going down the group, the van der Waals’ forces increase due to an increased number of
electrons in the molecules which means that the volatility decreases
Exam Tip
Instantaneous induced – induced dipole forces are a type of van der Waals’ forces.
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The halogens’ ability to accept an electron (their oxidising power) therefore decreases YOUR NOTES
going down the group
With increasing atomic size of the halogens (going down the group) their electronegativity,
and therefore oxidising power, decreases
The reactivity of halogens is also shown by their displacement reactions with other halide
ions in solutions
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from a halide solution of the
less reactive halogen
Eg. The addition of chlorine water to a solution of bromine water:
Cl2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
The chlorine has displaced the bromine from solution as it is more reactive which can
be summarised in the following ionic equation:
Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
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The thermal stability of the hydrogen halide decreases going down the group as their bonds
become weaker due to the increased atomic radius of the halogens
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The diagram shows that going down the group the ionic radii of the halogens increases
Going down the group, the halide ions become larger
The outermost electrons get further away from the nucleus
The outermost electrons also experience more shielding by inner electrons
As a result of this, the outermost electrons are held less tightly to the positively charged
nucleus
Therefore, the halide ions lose electrons more easily going down the group and their
reducing power increases
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YOUR NOTES
The reducing power of the halide ions increases going down the group
Exam Tip
The ionic radius is a measure of the size of an atom’s ion.
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A silver halide precipitate is formed upon addition of silver nitrate solution to halide ion
solution
Dilute followed by concentrated ammonia is added to the silver halide solution to identify
the halide ion
If the precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia the unknown halide is chloride
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute but in concentrated ammonia the unknown
halide is bromide
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute nor concentrated ammonia the unknown
halide is iodide
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YOUR NOTES
Silver chloride and silver bromide precipitates dissolve on addition of ammonia solution
whereas silver iodide doesn’t
Reaction of halide ions with silver nitrate & ammonia solutions table
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Apparatus set up for the reaction of sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid
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Exam Tip
It gets easier to oxidise the hydrogen halides as you descend Group 17: the halides
become stronger reducing agents
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The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +1 in ClO-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
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YOUR NOTES
The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +5 in ClO3-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
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The disproportionation reaction of chlorine with water in which chlorine gets reduced to HCl
and oxidised to HClO
Chloric(I) acid (HClO) sterilises water by killing bacteria
Chloric acid can further dissociate in water to form ClO-(aq):
HClO(aq) → H+(aq) + ClO-(aq)
ClO-(aq) also acts as a sterilising agent cleaning the water
Exam Tip
Adding chlorine to a water supply is an effective way to make the water safe to drink
as it forms the sterilising agent HClO which in turn dissociates in water into another
sterilising agent, ClO-(aq)
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Reactivity of Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and the main unreactive gas in air
78% of air is nitrogen gas
The lack of reactivity of nitrogen gas can be explained by looking at its intramolecular
bonds
Intramolecular bonds are the bonds within a molecule
Bonding in nitrogen
The electron configuration of a nitrogen atom is 1s2 2s2 2p3
To achieve a full outer shell of electrons, it needs to gain three electrons
Nitrogen atoms therefore form a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms in
which they share three electrons with each other
The diagram shows a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms to achieve a full
outer shell of electrons
The bond enthalpy of the nitrogen triple bond is 1000 kJ mol-1
This means that 1000 kJ of energy is needed to break one mole of N2 triple bond
As it is so difficult to break the nitrogen triple bond, nitrogen and oxygen gas in air will not
react with each other
Only under extreme conditions will nitrogen gas react (eg. during a thunderstorm)
Polarity of nitrogen
The electrons in a nitrogen molecule are shared equally between the two nitrogen atoms
Therefore, nitrogen molecules are nonpolar molecules
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YOUR NOTES
Since the electronegativity of the two nitrogen atoms is the same, the will pull the electrons
towards them equally so overall the molecule is nonpolar
Due to the lack of polarity, nitrogen gas is not attracted to or likely to react with other
molecules the way polar molecules would
Exam Tip
Nitrogen is very unreactive due to the lack of polarity and strength of its triple bond.
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YOUR NOTES
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) are mixed together and then
heated
NH4+ acts as an acid (proton donor) and OH- acts as a base (proton acceptor)
This acid-base reaction can be used to test if an unknown solution contains ammonium
ions
If the unknown solution does contain ammonium ions, it will react with calcium hydroxide to
form ammonia gas
This ammonia gas will turn damp red litmus paper blue
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the apparatus set up for the preparation of ammonia gas from an
ammonium salt and calcium hydroxide
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the formation of PAN from the photochemical reaction between VOCs
and nitrogen oxide
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The diagram shows the formation of acid rain by the oxidation of nitrogen(IV) oxide
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