Lecture 1

Fundamentals of
telecommunications

Objectives of telecommunications
Signals and messages
Telecom network
Network architecture
Message communication
Communication quality issue
 Telecommunications - what is it?

Telecommunications is a domain of human activity

that concerns transferring messages over
geographical distances with the use of signals
 Messages vs signals

A message is every factor that reduces level of

unawareness (ignorance) of a given phenomenon
(abstract concept)
Examples:
A sentence: „Today, at this place the ambient themperature is plus
33 Celsjus degrees” – reduce ignorance on intesity of some
physical phenomenon
A message is the status of the set of two varicoloured light
indicators at a pedestrian crossing – reduce ignorance on
whether street crossing is allowed
A message is the sentence: „A guitar cord emmits the sound C in
the lowest octave” - reduce ignorance on intesity of some
physical phenomenon.
 Messages versus signals

In telecommunications a signal is considered to be a

course of physical quantity in time. Displaying in time any
conventional sign is also considered a signal

audio

video
 Messages versus signals

message interpretation
 Messages versus signals

In reality a human learns messages in the result of

observation of a signal (signals) and then proper
cathegorization of observational results
(when conventional signal – through recognition)

Examples:
A message on themperature level is learned through observation of a
thermometer display
A message on permission to cross the street is learned from observation of
a lighitng status of a street semaphore.
Role of signals in telecommunications.
Signal to message mapping

signal interpretation

message

message primary carrier

Role of signals in telecommunications.
Signal to message mapping

message

signal

… or …

message message articulation via

symbols
 Role of signals in telecommunications.
Signal to message mapping

Humans/computers express messages via properly

designed signals
(any conventional sign can be considered a signal)

Example:
A message on a temperature can be expressed using alphanumeric
symbols e.g. +10,5
A message on a permission to enter a pedestrian crossing can be
expressed using logical symbols TRUE/FALSE (1/0)
 Telecommunications – forms of messages

Typical carriers of messages:

• script letters
• speech
• music and other sounds
• still pictures
• movies
• alphanumeric data
• measurements

Telecommunications accounts
for message format not
interpreting its content (meaning).
 Telecom services

Transfer of … Service name

Speech sounds Telephony
Script signs Telegraphy
Still pictures Telecopy
Video pictures Television
Conventional signs Signallization
Measurement values Telemetry
Control data/signals Telecontrol
Digital data Teledata
 Fundamental problems in telecommunications

1. Transmitt a signal (signals) representing a message

(messages) over a distance with sufficient exactness of signal
reproduction at the receiving side

2. Provide service to very large number of customers on a

global scale at acceptable economical costs
 Fundamental concepts in telecommunications

1. Point-point transmission – telecommunication channel

2. Telecommunication network
 Communication channel

message interference
signal
Message source

receipent
Message
transmitter physical medium receiver

signal estimate
message
estimate
Communication channel – a 2-point connection that allows
communication between the parties. Every message sent by a sender
reaches receiving side (is received)
 Fundamental problems in telecommunications

1. Transmitt a signal (signals) representing a message

(messages) over a distance with sufficient exactness of signal
reproduction at the receiving side

2. Provide service to very large number of customers on a

global scale at acceptable economical costs
 The proces of a message transfer

Exchange of messages can happen in a point – to – point

relation, in the simplest case

Goals:
• transfer over distance
• deliver with no distortion of meaning, despite interference
 Communication channel

message interference
signal
Message source

receipent
Message
transmitter physical medium receiver

signal estimate
message
estimate
Communication channel – a 2-point connection that allows
communication between the parties. Every message sent by a sender
reaches receiving side (is received)
Two concepts of message transfer
Analog method
interpretation

Digital method

decoding
interpretation
Analog method of message transfer to a receipent

interpretation
Explosion!
Represented by analog
signal
Analog communication

interference

Represented by analog
signal
 Message transfer

Usually long distance

transfer of a message a primary signal is not
expressed by effective
<10m ….
 Analog communication of a message

A signal representing a interference

transfer
message

conversion

Conversion to an
intermediate signal

Indispensable conversion to an intermediate signal:

- changes energy form
- changes a quantity that represents the signal
 Analog communication of a message

transfer
message

re- interference
conversion

Interpretation =
A signal representing a learning the
message message
 Quality of the analog transfer

Analog communication channel:

• After reconversion the received signal differs from the

transmitted one (interference)
– result of physical interference in the physical channel
• Receipent learns the message upon interpretation of
(distorted) signal
– interpretation can be wrong
• Interpretation unknown to telecomm equipment 
assesment of the quality of transfer shall be based on a
degree of distortion of the received signal
 Quality of analog communication

interference

Represented by analog
Represented by analog

signal
signal

received signal power

SNR 
noise power
 The concept of transmitt message digitally
continuous discrete

Amount of messages Amount of messages

= =N

OFF

ON
 The concept of transmitt message digitally
continuous discrete

Amount of messages Amount of messages

= =N

messages are represented message can be completely

by a continuous real value represented by an element
signal – cannot be simpler form a set of discrete
signals - code
 The concept of transmitt message digitally

Code examples

Message code#1 code code #3 code#4

#2
- el. signal #1 Symbol b1b0 el. signal #2
Green 0V  01
Red 1V  00
Yellow 2V  11

Assigning symbols to messages is a convention. Can be arbitrary.

When mapping is not known messages cannot be recognized from
symbols
Represented by a
discrete signal
Digital communication channel

interference

Represented by a
discrete signal
 Digital method for message transfer to a receipent

interpretation Explosion!

decoding
Explosion!
 Digital communication of a message

Digital channel
interference transfer

articulation
Interpre-
tation conversion
symbol /
signals Signals with discrete
features

Required conversion to „discrete” intermediate signals:

- reduced susceptability to interference
- sufficiently differing each from other (recognition)
 Digital communication of a message

Digital channel incidentally

transfer erroneous

re- Symbol
conversion recognition
(detection) (decoding)

signal representing a
message in the channel

symbols /
signals
correct message
 Quality of transfer

Digital communiction channel:

• After reconversion a code of a message can differ from the

one transmitted (error)
– Effect of (random) interference to the signal in the physical
channel
– An error is a random effect
• Receipent receives a code that can be wrong
– Wrong code, after recognition, brings wrong message
• „intensity” of (random) error can be assessed by
probability of their occurence
• Better designed signals in a channel – less probalility of
error
 Quality of transfer in a digital communication channel

interference

Represented by a
Represented by a

discrete signal
discrete signal

Preceived message transmitted message

Digital vs. analog transfer of messages
 Telecom network
1
8
2
Telecom
subnetwork p-p connections
delimitation between nodes
3
Uses
7
commutation 4
techniques and
resources 6
sharing 5
a node

Connection of message processors (nodes) with the aim to

share on the use of resources
 Network specificity - topologies

star ring tree

„everyone with connected rings a mesh (practical

everyone” example)
 Consequences of geographical extent

Hierarchical physical structure of telecom networks

Differentiated needs = various technical solutions in different

parts of a network (need interoperability)
 Hierarchical physical structure

distribution Connects distribution

nets with the core (100
km, hundreds signals /
medium data volume)
Connects isolated
subscribers (a few km,
one signal / low data access Connects access nets
volume) (over-regional,
thousands signals /
very high data volume)
core
Specific problems in telecommunications – how solved

Subscriber
lines (twisted
pairs) Inter-exchange links (carry
multiple connections)

Goal 2a: Provide service to very large number of

customers on a global scale
 Specific problems in telecommunications – how solved

Switch (exchange)
Commutation NN
Router

n(n-1)/2 connections n connections

Reduces the number of connections

 Specific problems in telecommunications

Subscriber
lines (twisted
pairs) Inter-exchange links (carry
multiple connections)

Goal 2b: provide service [ ] at acceptable

economical cost
Optimally utilise limited resources of the network:
- p-p connections
- radio frequency bands

Eg. fiber connection: a single 64kbps channel or 140Mbps =

1920 calls
 Specific problems in telecommunications – how solved

Multiplexer
N1 commutation (multiplexing)

Increase usage
effectiveness of
connections (especially
long distance)

The aim for the use of commutation is to gain on effectiveness

of network resources use
 Specialization in telecommunications

Domains of telecom knowledge

conversion transmission commutation

… + telcomm engineering
i.e signal processing and message
coding
Why digital may outperform analog?

continuous

discrete

green red yellow

t
Ts>0
 Why digital may outperform analog?

Continuous

V0 Es=V2t0
V

t
 t0

• Signalling time = 0
• Even very close to zero energy interference
changes information content
 Why digital may outperform analog?

continuous

discrete
V
green red yellow
Es=V2Ts>0
t
Ts
 Digital communication of a message

Finite number of signals – more effective distinction from

each other, despite distortion
Digital communication of a message

Tolerance to interference
induced distortion!
 Digital vs. analog transfer of messages

?
Example: a picture transmitted by analog means. What
it tells?
 Digital vs. analog transfer of messages

On average 3 from 100 pixels

picture = 36
black pixels
from 5185

iterference:

blackened
+
+
 Digital vs. analog transfer of messages

transfer
Interpre-
tation

present

absent
+
5185 interferring pulses
 Digital vs. analog transfer of messages

1V
6
P ( z  U p )  1.9 10
z=51850.03 @  z  155 .5

0.083V
Un_yes=51850.083V
0V
Up=½51850.083V

5185 Un_no=0V
 Digital vs. analog transfer of messages

1V

6
P  1.9 10
@  z  63.3

0.083V
Un_r=51850.083V
0.0415V
0V Up_gr=¾51850.083V
Up_yg=¼51850.083V
5185 Un_y=0V
 Digital transfer of a message

Message transfer arranged in the form of transferring of

message code bits provides the best resistance of the
transfer effect to interference
 Message coding cont.

Binary coding

Binary coding format is common in digital systems

i  bk-1,bk, ….., b0 i=0,..,I-1

bl ={0,1} l=0,…,k-1
k - the length of a sequence (code)

2k different messages can be coded in a k-bit sequence. To

have a non-ambigous mapping:

2kI
 Binary symbols (code) representation by signals

Every bit can be associated with an analog (pulse) signal

High state

Forbidden state

Low state
 Discrete data representation by signals
111 code (message A)
000 code (message B)
s0
Here an example how 3-bit
data can be represented by a
s1 signal

 s0 t  b0 
s2  s t    b 
 1   1
 s 2 t  b2 

T
Analog to digital conversion (ADC)

ADC DAC
 Analog to digital conversion
PODSTAWY TECHNIKI MIKROPROCESOROWEJ

 Value expressed via binary sequences:

cn  bk-1bk-2...b1b0
bl{0,1} l=0...k-1 k-sequence
length

 k-element sequence can code 2k values

 Signal transfer by analog vs digital means

If at the transmitting end cannot interpret a message from

the signal  use digital communication for signal transfer
and leave interpretation to a receipent
Signal transfer by digital vs analog means
 Next topic:
Description of
telecommunication signals