Science Notes Form 1 UNIT 1-9

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JC INTEGRATED SCIENCE NOTES
FORM ONE 2022
Unit 1-9
NAME……………………………………… CLASS……………..
PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

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UNIT 1.0 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

1.1.1.1 distinguish between science and technology.
1.1.1.2 evaluate the impact of technology on society.
1.1.1.3 discuss the influence of society on technology.
1.1.1.4 examine environmental and health issues related to technology.
1.1 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
SCIENCE: Can be described as the effort to discover and better understand how the world
works. It is a careful step by step process of studying the environment. Science is made up of
different branches eg biology, chemistry and physics.
science
Biology: The study of all living Chemistry: The study of Physics: the study of matter
things properties of matter and energy and how they
work together.
TECHNOLOGY: Can be described as the making of machines, objects and systems to meet
peoples’ needs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNOLOGY
It involves design
 It involves making, or producing

 It is shaped by society and its needs
 It is concerned with values such as economics and artistic
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
Pursues knowledge and understanding Makes objects and devices to meet peoples’
needs
Involves discovery through experimentation Involves design, invention and production
Is value-free Driven by society and value

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Involves science process skills like Involves technological skills construction,

hypothesizing, observing and measuring testing and problem solving
The impact of technology on the society
1. Improved transport (eg. Cars, airplanes, trains)
2. Better methods of communication (eg. Cell phones, internet, televisions)
3. Improved construction and manufacturing (eg. roads, bridges, buildings)
The influence of society on technology
1. Travel: people need more cars to move around quickly and safely.
2. Communication: more people need better methods of communication. This leads to

better equipment to be made.
Advantages of using technology
-creates jobs
-make travelling simple and quicker
-make communication simple and quicker
Environmental and health issues related to technology
-Natural resources such as fuel are being used up at a fast rate.
-Pollution to the environment.
-Global warming is increasing.
-Deforestation is taking place at high rate.
-Cause more accidents
QUESTION 1
State 3 importance of science
1……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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WORKING SAFELY IN THE SCIENCE LABORATORY
1.1.3.1 identify common hazards in a laboratory.

1.1.3.2 follow safety guidelines.
1.1.3.3 demonstrate appropriate safety techniques in manipulating equipment and
materials.
COMMON HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORY
Hazards are things that can cause danger or injury. These can be divided into three groups.
i. Biological hazards: These are hazards caused by dangerous animals or plants.
ii. Chemical hazards: These are caused by dangerous chemicals such as acids, alkalis
and other corrosive and irritant chemicals.
iii. Physical hazards: These are caused by physical objects such as electricity, fire,
polished or wet floors.
SAFETY GUIDELINES IN THE LABORATORY (laboratory rules)
CLOTHING
-wear goggles during experiments
-wear protective gloves during experiments
HANDLING CHEMICALS
-wash hands after using chemicals
-check the label of the chemical before use
-never smell chemicals directly
HEATING SUBSTANCES
-always use a water bath to heat flammable liquids

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-allow hot glassware to cool slowly
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
-always switch off an electrical device before disconnecting it
-insulate broken wires
ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES
-wash with cold running water when a chemical splashes on your skin or eyes
-wash with cold running water when burnt
OTHER RULES
-Never work alone in the laboratory.
-Report all the accidents.
-Do not eat in the lab
SAFETY SYMBOLS

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FIRST AID
a) What is first aid
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b) State 2 importance of first aid
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DOING SCIENCE
1.1.2.1 develop questions to form a hypothesis.
1.1.2.2 plan an investigation.
1.1.2.3 describe a sequence of events occurring in an investigation.
1.1.2.4. conduct an investigation.
1.1.2.5 infer relations of variables from experimental results.
1.1.2.6 draw conclusions based on observations.
HYPOTHESIS

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In science, a hypothesis is an idea or explanation that you then test through study and
experimentation. It is also regarded as a tentative guess
Alternative hypothesis (H1) is one that states there is a significant relationship between two
variables.
e.g Increase in temperature significantly increases the rate of transpiration
A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no significant relationship
between the two variables
e.g increase in temperature has no significant impact on the rate of transpiration
CONDUCTING AN INVESTIGATION
When scientists do an investigation, they follow the process of science.
IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM
SUGGEST A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION (HYPOTHESIS)
TEST THE HYPOTHESIS BY EXPERIMENTING
MAKE A CONCLUSION FROM THE EXPERIMENTS
During an investigation, science basic skills are followed. The scientific skills occur in the
following sequence:
Observation: use our senses and record anything of interest
Hypothesizing: making a careful guess of the problem
Formulating: making an explanation of the hypothesis
Measuring: taking measurements during experimenting
Sampling: taking a small piece to represent the rest
Controlling variables: keeping all other factors the same except the one being investigated
Comparing: looking at both the similarities and differences between things
Predicting: guess what will happen
Analyzing: breaking in parts to examine in details

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Generalizing: making a broad answer based on the results of the experiment
Making conclusions: making a final decision based on the results
Communicating: giving information to others about the results of the experiment
PRESENTING RESULTS
Results may be presented to others in a form of:
-writing
-graphs
-bar charts
PLOTTING A GRAPH
1. Label your axis properly (if they are not labelled for you)
2. Use a correct scale
3. Plot you points correctly using a cross or a dot
4. Join your points with a smooth line using a free hand (if it’s a curve)
5. Join your points with a ruler to make a straight line
1. Use the information below to plot a graph a graph of temperature of water at different
time intervals (5)
y axis 0 20 40 60 80 100 100 100 100

temp(oc)
x axis 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
time (mins)
2. Use the graph to estimate the amount of time needed to make the temperature of water 45
(oc)
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3. What was the temperature of water after 6.5 minutes?
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4. Explain what is happening between 10 and 16 minutes
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5. How long did water took to reach the boiling point?
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6. Suggest a suitable title for the graph
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1.2 MEASUREMENTS
1.2.1.1 define a scalar quantity.

1.2.1.2 define a vector quantity.
1.2.1.3 calculate the resultant of vectors acting along a straight line.
1.2.1.4 classify physical quantities into scalars and vectors.
SCALARS AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Scalar quantities: These are measurements with size [magnitude] only. e.g. length, area, mass,
temperature. etc.
Vector quantities: These are measurements with size and direction. e.g. Force, velocity.

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Resultant vectors
A resultant vector is the overall effects of the vectors acting on an object.
Example:
1. A car is moving at a speed of 110 km / h to the south direction. The wind is also moving
to the same direction at a speed of 20 km / h. Calculate the resultant vector.
CAR (11O Km / h)
WIND (20 Km / h)
RV=130Km/h
2. Tebogo is running at a speed of 20 Km / h to the east. The wind is blowing to the

opposite direction at a speed of 5 Km / h. Calculate the resultant vector.
20Km/h
5Km/h
RV=15Km/h
The size of an arrow represent the magnitude (size) of the vector and the arrow shows the
direction of the vector
QUESTION 1
Calculate the resultant force if a force of 100N and 50N act on opposite direction
Use arrows diagrams to illustrate
(3 marks)
MEASURING LENGTH
1.2.2.1 define length.

1.2.2.2 state the SI unit for length.
1.2.2.3 convert measurements in traditional and non-standard units into metres.
1.2.2.4 measure length to the nearest millimetre.
1.2.2.5 identify sources of error in the measurement of length.
1.2.2.6 estimate the length of common objects to the nearest centimetre.

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Length is a distance from one point to another.
Instruments for measuring length

-ruler, click wheel, odometer, measuring tape
Units of length
-millimeter (mm)
-centimeter (cm)
-meter (m)
-kilometer (km)
Conversion of units
1cm = 10mm
1m = 100cm
1km = 1000 m
÷ 10 ÷100 ÷1000
mm cm m km
x10 x100 x1000
MEASURING AREA
1.2.3.1 estimate the area of a regular shape.

1.2.3.2 determine the area of an irregular object.
An area is the measure of the size of the surface
Units of area
-Square millimeter (mm2), Square centimeter (cm2), Square meter (m2), Square kilometer (km2)
1. Area of a regular shape
FORMULA

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AREA = LENGTH X WIDTH
Calculate areas of the following shapes
a. b.
2 cm
12m
5 cm 10 m
A=LXW
𝟏
A = 𝟐 (B X H)
2. Area of an irregular shape (a leaf)
Steps
-Trace a leaf on a graph paper
-Count the number of full squares. Record the number.
-count the number of fractional squares. Divide the number by two and record.
-Add the two numbers.
Example:
Full squares= ______
Fractional squares = ______ ÷ 2 = ____
Total area = _____ + _______ = ______ square units
MEASURING MASS
1.2.5.1 define mass

1.2.5.2 state the SI unit for mass

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1.2.5.3 measure mass of different objects.

1.2.5.4 read the scale of a balance to the nearest gram.
1.2.5.5 identify sources of error in the measurement of mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
Instruments
triple beam balance, lever arm balance, electric balance, bathroom scale
units are:
milligrams (mg), grams (g), tonnes
Conversions
1 g = 1000 mg
1 kg = 1000 g
Using a triple beam balance

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MEASURING VOLUME
1.2.4.1 define volume

1.2.4.2 read accurately the scale of a measuring cylinder to the nearest cubic
centimeter /milliliter [cm3/ml].
1.2.4.3 measure the volume of irregular floating and sinking objects using displacement.
1.2.4.4 identify the possible sources of error
1.2.4.5 estimate the volume of a substance.
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object

Units of volume
- Cubic millimeter (mm3)
-Cubic centimeter (cm3)
-Cubic meter (m3)
-Cubic kilometer (km3)
- Litres
- Millilitres
1cm3=1ml
1 l = 1000ml

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1. volume of a regular object (cube)
Formula
Volume = length X width X height
Calculate volume of the following boxes
a) 5cm
(3)
(3)
2c 3cm
10cm
10 m
(3)
5m
12m
2. Volume of liquids
A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of liquids.
A measuring cylinder
Precautions taken when using a measuring cylinder
-put the measuring cylinder on a flat surface

-take the reading at the bottom of the meniscus
-understand the scale

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-avoid parallax errors
3. Volume of an irregular object (stone)
a) Displacement method
-pour water into the measuring cylinder and take the reading
-tie the stone with a string and gently lower it in the measuring cylinder and take a
reading.
-Subtract the first reading from the second reading
Example
75cm3
25cm3
stone
V1 V2
Volume of a stone = V2 –V1

= 75 - 25
= 50cm3
b) Using a displacement can

-pour water into the displacement can until it come out of the spout
-wait until no drop comes out of the spout
-place the measuring cylinder at spout
-gently lower the stone into the water
-the water collected in the measuring cylinder is equal to the water of the stone

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4. Volume of a floating object (cork)
V = V3 –V2
V1 V2 V3
MEASURING DENSITY
1.2.6.1 define density.

1.2.6.2 calculate density for different substances.
1.2.6.3 use the hydrometer to measure densities of liquids.

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1.2.6.4 relate density to buoyancy.
Density is the amount of mass per unit volume
Formula
Mass
Density = (show your working)
Volume
1. Calculate a density of an object with a mass of 20g and a volume of 10cm3.
2. Calculate a density of an object with a mass of 50g and a volume of 100cm3.
3. An object has a density of 2g / cm3 and a mass 4g. Calculate its volume.
4. An object has a density of 10g / cm3 and a volume 5g. Calculate its mass.
NB. The density of pure water is 1g / cm3.Anything with a density less than that of water will
float in water and any object with a density greater than 1g / cm3 will sink in water
Measuring density of liquid
A hydrometer is used to measure the volume of a liquid.
Buoyancy is an upward force that makes objects to float on a liquid.
Factors affecting buoyancy
1. Density: When an object is less dense than the liquid, it will float. For example, a cock
floats on water.
2. Shape of the object: The shape of the object also determines buoyancy. For example, a
boat on top of water.
MEASURING TEMPERATURE
1.2.7.1 define temperature
1.2.7.2 state the SI unit for temperature

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1.2.7.3 make conversions between the Celsius scale, the Kelvin scale and the Fahrenheit
scale
1.2.7.4 Read the scale of a thermometer to the nearest degrees Celsius (°C).
1.2.7.5 Read the scale of a clinical thermometer to the nearest 0.1 °C.
1.2.7.6 Estimate temperature.
1.2.7.7 Demonstrate sensitivity and range using a variety of thermometers.
Temperature is the measure of how much cold or hot an object is.
Units of temperature
-Degree Celsius (0C)
-Kelvin scale (K)
-Fahrenheit (0F)
Conversions
From 0C to K: Add 273
From K to 0C: Subtract 273
1. How many K are there in 290C?
2. How many 0C are there in 550K?
3. Convert 00C to K
From 0C to 0F: Multiply by 1.8 the add 32

From 0F to 0C: Subtract 32 then multiply by 5 the divide by 9
4. How many 0C are there in 2120F?
5. How many 0F are there in 550C?
Instruments for measuring Temperature

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A thermometer is used to measure temperature. There are two types of thermometers.
1. Laboratory Thermometer
2. Clinical thermometer
A clinical thermometer
mercury
bulb Kink or constriction narrow curve
Functions of the parts
Part Function
Bulb Contain mercury or alcohol
Kink / Stop mercury from flowing back before the reading is taken
constriction/curve
Mercury / alcohol Expand and rises when hot, contract and drops when cold
Narrow tube (vacuum) The room for mercury or alcohol to expand or contract.
Using a clinical thermometer

 Shake the thermometer to bring the mercury to the bulb
 Wipe with alcohol to sterilize it (kill the germs)
Where it is placed in the body

 Under armpits
 Under the tongue
 Between the buttocks
The difference between a lab and a clinical thermometer

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A clinical thermometer A lab thermometer

-has a constriction/kink -has no constriction/kink
-start with 35 0C -start with -10 0C
-ends with 42 0C -ends with 110 0C
-measures to the nearest 0.1 0C -measures to the nearest 10C
MEASURING TIME
1.2.8.1 Read the scales of a stopwatch or a stop-clock to the nearest second.

1.2.8.2 Identify sources of error in measuring time.
1.2.8.3 Estimate time to the nearest minute.
1.2.8.2 Identify sources of error in measuring time.
1.2.8.3 Estimate time to the nearest minute.
Time is the measure between two events
Units of time
-seconds
-minutes
-hours
-days
-weeks, months, years, decades, centuries etc.
Conversions
1 min = 60 sec
1 hour = 60 min =3600 sec
1 day = 24 hrs
1month = 4weeks, 1year =12 months, decade = 10 years, century = 100 years.
Sources of error when measuring time

-Forgetting to restart the stop watch to zero
-Not being able to stop the stop watch exactly when the event ends
STANDARD INTERNATIONAL UNITS (S.I. Units)

These are standard units of measurements used world-wide.
QUANTITY S.I. UNIT

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1. Length Meter (m)

2. Area Square Meter (m2)
3. Mass Kilogram (Kg)
4. Volume Cubic Meter (m3)
5. Density Kilogram per Meter cubic (Kg / m3)
6. Temperature Kelvin(K)
7. Time Seconds (Sec)
UNIT 2.0: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1 LIVING MATTER

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2.1.1.1 identify basic principles of classification of living things.
2.1.1.2 construct simple keys to classify living things.
Living organisms can be classified as either plants or animals. There are seven characteristics of life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. MOVEMENT-they can move from one point to another
2. GROWTH-their cells multiply leading to an increase in size.
3. SENSITIVITY-they respond to external environment for survival.
4. REPRODUCTION-they produce new species.
5. EXCRETION-they remove waste products from their bodies.
6. RESPIRATION-they combine food and oxygen to release energy.
7. NUTRITION/FEEDING-they need food for respiration.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS USING A KEY
Classificationis placing plants or animals into groups.
LIVING THINGS
PLANTS ANIMALS
FLOWERING PLANTS NON-FLOWERING PLANTS INVERTEBRATES VERTEBRATES

Mollus
Arthropods
annelids
DICOT MONOCOT
LICHENS MOSSES FERNS
MAMMALS BIRDSFISHREPTILES AMPHIBIANS

*A key is used to help us understand and classify matter better.
State characteristics of monocots and dicots plants

Monocots

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Dicots
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PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
2.1.2.1 describe the cell as the basic unit of life in plants and animals.

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2.1.2.2 identify a variety of animal and plant cells.

2.1.2.3 identify the main parts of a plant cell and of an animal cell.
2.1.2.4 state the functions of the main parts of a plant cell and of an animal cell.
2.1.3.5 describe differences and similarities in structure and function between plant
and animal cells.
2.1.3.1 relate the structure of a cell to its function.
2.1.3.2 prepare wet mount slides of simple plant and animal cell.
2.1.3.3 use a microscope to examine slides of plant and animal cells.
2.1.4.1 describe a multi-cellular organism.
2.1.4.2 describe a unicellular organism
2.1.4.3 define the terms “tissue, organ, system and organism”
2.1.4.4 explain the function of systems in plants and animals.
A cell is a basic unit of life. Cells are so small that they cannot be seen with a naked eye therefore a
microscope is used to study a cell. Organisms can be grouped depending on their cellular count namely:
 Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell. Example, bacteria, fungi, virus.
 Multi cellular organisms are made up of more than one cell. Example, people, dogs, plants
An animal cell
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
A plant cell
Cell membrane
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Vacuole
Similarities
They both have a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane

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Functions of the parts of the cell
Nucleus: control activities in the cell, contain genetic materials

Cell membrane: control things entering and leaving the cell or selectively semi-permeable.
Cytoplasm: this is where activities of the cell take place
Cell wall: gives a plant cell its shape, protect and support
Chloroplast: contain chlorophyll. This chlorophyll traps light needed for the process of photosynthesis.
Vacuole: stores food and water for the cell
The difference between a plant and an animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell

 Have a cell wall  No cell wall
 Have chloroplasts  No chloroplasts
 Have a big vacuole  Have small or no vacuole
 Have a fixed shape  Its shape is not fixed
Cell specialization
Different cells perform different functions in the organism
Examples of specialized animal and plant cells
Specialized Animal cells

Cell function
1. Red blood cell Transport oxygen around the body.
2. White blood cells Fight against diseases.
3. Nerve cells Transport information around the body.
4. Muscle cells Move some parts in the body.
5. Sperm cell reproduction
Specialized Plant cells
Cell function

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1. Phloem cells Transport food around the plant
2. Xylem cells Transport minerals and water from the soil up the plant
3. Guard cells Open and closes the stomata.
4. Palisade cells They are found on the leaves. This is where most
photosynthesis takes place.
5. Root hair cells
Absorption of water and mineral salts
TISSUES
A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to carry out a certain function.
Examples of tissues
Animals Plants
-Muscle tissue - phloem tissues
-Epidermis (the outer layer of the skin) -xylem tissues
-Bones -leaf epidermis
ORGANS
Organs are a group of several tissues working together to carry out a special function.
Examples of organs
Animals Plants
-The heart -leaves
-The lungs -roots
-The stomach -stem
SYSTEM
A system is a group of organs working together for a common goal.
Examples of systems
Animals Plants
-Digestive system -root system
-Circulatory system -shoot system
-Reproductive system -Reproductive system
-Nervous system -transport system
SUMMARY
CELLS TISSUES ORGANS SYSTEM ORGANISM

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THE MICROSCOPE
Cells are very small to be seen with a naked eye. A microscope is used to enlarge and magnify cells
1. Label parts
A ……………………………
B …………………………….
C …………………………..
2. Name the type of mirror used in the microscope
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2.2 ENERGY FLOW IN LIVING THINGS

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2.2.1.1 explain the importance of the structure of a leaf in photosynthesis.

2.2.1.2 describe the structures in a leaf that help in exchange of gases in plants.
The function of a leaf is photosynthesis – to absorb light and carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates.
External Structure of a leaf
Leaves are adapted in several ways to help them perform their function.
Features of leaves:
Adaption Purpose
Large surface To absorb more light

area
Thin Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into leaf cells
Chlorophyll Absorbs sunlight
Network of veins transport water and food substances
Stomata Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf

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THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
The internal structure of the leaf is also adapted to promote efficient

photosynthesis:
Structure of a leaf
Adaption Purpose
Epidermis is thin and To allow more light to reach the palisade cells
transparent
cuticle made of wax To prevent loss of water through leaves
Palisade cell layer at To absorb more light. Site for photosynthesis

top of leaf
Spongy layer Air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through

the leaf, and increase the surface area
Guard cells To open and closes stomata
Vascular bundles Xylem-transport water & mineral salts

Phloem-transport food substance

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2.2.2.1 describe the process of photosynthesis.

2.2.2.2 write a word equation for photosynthesis.

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2.2.2.3 investigate the production of oxygen and carbohydrates by green plants.

2.2.2.4 test a leaf for starch using an appropriate method.
2.2.2.5 explain the importance of photosynthesis to all life.
Photosynthesis is a process whereby green plants use light from the sun to make their own food.
Photo means light
Synthesis means building up
Word equation for photosynthesis
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll
The importance of photosynthesis to life on Earth

 It’s a source of food for all living organisms
 Oxygen produced through photosynthesis is used by both plants and animals for
respiration.
 Photosynthesis prevents global warming by using carbon dioxide.
*The glucose produced is then changed and stored as starch in the leaf.
Testing a leaf for starch

1. Boil the leaf in water
Reason:: to break open the cells
2. Put the leaf in alcohol in the hot water bath.

Reason:: to remove chlorophyll/decolorize the leaf
3. Wash the leaf in warm water

Reason:: to soften the leaf and wash off the alcohol
4. Put the leaf on top of a white tile and add iodine solution
Results: If the leaf changes blue-black, it means starch is present.
Illustration

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Questions; explain why a white tile is used

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place

 Chlorophyll
 Sunlight
 Carbon dioxide
 Water
Experiment: Is oxygen produced during photosynthesis?
Conclusion
If the gas relights the glowing splint, it means that is oxygen is produced. This shows that
oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

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RESPIRATION
2.2.3.1 define respiration.

2.2.3.2 distinguish between respiration and breathing.
2.2.3.3 write the word equation for respiration.
2.2.3.4 describe the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration in plants.
2.2.3.5 discuss the effects of deforestation on the environment.
Respiration is the breaking down of food with the use of oxygen to release energy.
 It takes place in the cytoplasm and the mitochondria of plant and animal cells.
 Energy released during respiration is used for: Reproduction, growth, cell division,
movement e.t.c
Word equation for respiration
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
The difference between respiration and photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION
 Build up process  Breaking down process
 Take place in green  Take place in
leaves mitochondria
 Use carbon dioxide  Produces carbon
dioxide
 Use water  Produces water
 Uses energy  Produce energy
 Produces oxygen  Uses oxygen
 Glucose is formed  Glucose is broken
down
 Takes place in plants  Take place
only during the day continuously in all
living organisms

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The relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
Respiration and photosynthesis work together to maintain the balance of gases in the
atmosphere. That is to say they keep the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide constant in the
atmosphere. The products of respiration are the reactants of photosynthesis and vice versa
The effects of deforestation
When trees are cut down, there will be nothing that will absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. This excess carbon dioxide will then form a layer in the atmosphere. This layer will
prevent heat from escaping from earth. This causes temperatures to rise and change the
weather. The climate become hotter and drier and rain may not fall easily. All these are known
as global warming.

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TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
2.2.4.1 describe the transport of end products of photosynthesis in plants.
2.2.4.2 demonstrate the transport of water and mineral salts in plants.
Food, water and minerals are carried around the plant in tubes called the Vascular bundles.
There are two types:
i. Phloem tissues: transport food around the plant. The movement in the phloem
tissues can be upwards or downwards depending on where food is needed.
ii. Xylem tissues: transport water and minerals up the plant from the roots.
Cross-section of a stem

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TRANSPIRATION
2.2.4.3 define transpiration.
2.2.4.4 investigate conditions that affect the rate of transpiration.
Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant through the stomata on the leaves.
Importance of transpiration
 allows more water and minerals to be absorbs

 it cools the plant
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
1. Temperature: when temperature is high, transpiration rate will also be high.
2. Humidity: when the atmosphere is humid, transpiration rate will be low.
3. Wind: when it is windy, transpiration rate will be high
4. Size of leaves: big leaves loses a lot of water
5. Thickness of cuticle: thick cuticle prevent a lot of water from being lost
6. Number of stomata: many stomata in a leaf will make a plant lose a lot of water

39
NUTRIENT CYCLE
2.2.5.1 describe the nitrogen cycle in terms of nitrogen fixation by root nodules
and lightning, animaland plant nutrition, nitrogen in the air and denitrification
2.2.5.2 describe the carbon cycle in terms of animal and plant nutrition,
combustion, respiration,decomposition and formation of fossil fuels
Most living matter are made up of the following elements: Carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur, oxygen
phosphorus
A) CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is found in the atmosphere and is a major part of most structures in living organisms e.g
cell wall
Questions
1. Which process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?
2. Name 2 processes that add carbon back into the atmosphere
3. How do animals obtain carbon from plants

40
B) NITOGEN CYCLE
Plants use nitrogen to form proteins which are eaten by animals. Plants do not use 78%
of nitrogen in the atmosphere directly, so they depend on soil nitrates as a source of
nitrogen
Questions
1. What is the % of Nitrogen in the atmosphere? ……………………………………..
2. A……………………… B……………………… C …………………………… D…………………………………………
3. What is the role of the following bacteria in the cycle

a) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
b) Denitrifying bacteria
c) Nitrifying bacteria
4. Give 2 examples of plants that have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules
5. Define the term ammonification

41
2.3 MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES
2.3.1.1 define the term “ natural resource”.
2.3.1.2 identify important natural resources found in Botswana.

2.3.1.3 discuss the importance of conserving natural resources.
2.3.1.4 demonstrate ways of conserving natural resources.
2.3.2.1 explain the importance of recycling to conservation.
2.3.2.2 use safe methods for recycling resources.

2.3.2.3 explore the business potential of recycling resources.
DEFINITION
NATURAL RESOURCES: Are materials fond naturally that can be used to help in the economic
development of a country. Examples are soil, water, timber, fossil fuels, minerals, plants,
animals and people.
Natural resources are defined as any source of anything that can be provided by nature
Natural resources Importance

Land For growing crops, building, used for cattle and beef production
Water Dissolving substances, transport for boats & canoes, hydroelectric
power
People Provide labour and new ideas
minerals Source of income, create employment, source of revenue
Wildlife[plants & Promote tourism, provide medicine and meat
animals]
Forests and trees Provide fuel, food and medicine
CONSERVATIONS OF NATURALRESOURCES
CONSERVATION implies proper use and management of natural resources. That is using
resources wisely to stop extinction since some of them are non-renewable.
WAYS OFCONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES
NATURAL RESOURCES WAYS OF CONSERVATION

wildlife Introduce wildlife parks & national reserves, use hunting license
water
forests Introduce a tree planting scheme to ensure renewal of plant species
minerals Control extraction of minerals for future generation

42
fuels Use alternative sources of energy eg wind, sun, firewood instead of

coal which is non-renewable.
Renewable resources are resources that can be replaced eg water, air,tidal, waves, biomass,
biogas, sun etc
Nonrenewable resources cannot be replaces eg fossil fuels [coal, oil & natural gas]
RECYCLING
Means using a material or items more than once. Materials that can be recycled are paper,
glass, aluminium, iron & steel, water and plastics.
ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING
 Conserves natural resources

 Saves energy and time
 Reduces pollution in the environment
 Reduces carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and reduces global warming
 Wastes less land in landfill sites
 Creates more jobs
 Makes us take responsibility for waste we make
Business potential of recycling
 Using old tyres to make mats, feeding toughs
 ……………………………………………..
 ………………………………………………
 ………………………………………………
Other conservation measures
 World environmental day
 Effective laws (legislation)
 National parks and game reserves
 Using alternative energy sources
 Education and training

43
UNIT 3.0: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
3.1 – The Nature of Matter

3.1.1.1 define matter.
3.1.1.2 identify the physical properties of matter.
3.1.1.3 describe the nature of matter in terms of particles called atoms.

3.1.1.4 describe the structure of an atom in terms of neutrons, protons and electrons.
MATTER: Is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is made up of tiny invisible particles
called ATOMS.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Matter has mass

 Matter has volume (occupy space)
 Matter is made up of tiny particles called ATOMS
 Matter has density
 There are 3 states of matter (solid, liquid & gas)
ATOM
What is an atom?
Is the smallest particle of matter.
The building block of matter

44
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
Part of atom location charge

Proton nucleus positive
Neutron nucleus No charge
electron In the shell negative

45
ARRANGEMENT OF PATICLES OF MATTER
3.1.1.5 explain the physical properties of gases, liquids and solids in relation to
particle arrangement.
3.1.1.6 demonstrate expansion, compressibility and contraction of gases, liquids and
solids.
3.1.2.1 interpret changes of state in terms of rearrangement of particles.
3.1.2.2 demonstrate changes of state of matter.
There are three states of matter namely; solids, liquids and gases
 Particle arrangement in each state
Description of particle arrangement in relation to the kinetic theory of matter
solids liquids gases

- particles are closely packed -particles are loosely -particles are further apart from
particles are neatly pack packed each other
-no space between particles
- no movement of particles -particles can move -particles are free to move

from one place to the other, slightly into small -particles move randomly into
particles can only vibrate available space available space
within a fixed position

46
-particles are attracted to one -cohesive forces are -cohesive forces between the
another by a strong cohesive weaker compared to particles are weaker
forces solids
Properties of matter solid liquid Gas

Mass High mass High mass low mass
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No Fixed volume
Density High densities High densities low densities
shape Definite shapes indefinite shapes indefinite shapes
hardness Very hard Not hard like solids Cannot be felt
compressibility incompressible Almost Highly compressible
incompressible
Heat expansion Little expansion More expansion than High expansion
solids because the particles
can move freely
DEMONSTRATION OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
 Note when a substance is heated it expands but contacts when cooled.
Fig 6.4 Expansion and contraction of solids

47
Before heating the ball passes through the ring easily but after heating it gains heat energy and it
expands so it does not pass through the ring easily but if you cool the ball it looses heat energy
and it contracts and then passes through the ring again
Fig 6.5 Expansion and contraction of liquids

48
Fig 6.6 Expansion and contraction in gases
The balloon inflates after heating because the particles expands and gain more kinetic energy and
move faster to available space.
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPRESSIBILITY
The above activities show that solids are not compressible, liquids are almost incompressible and
gases are highly compressible.

49
CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER
LIQUID B
A c D
SOLID E GAS
PROCESSES
A: freezing B: condensation C: melting D: evaporation/boiling E: sublimation F: sublimation

50
DIFUSSION
3.1.3.1 define diffusion.
3.1.3.2 describe diffusion of particles in fluids.
3.1.3.3 demonstrate diffusion in fluids.

3.1.3.4 identify diffusion in everyday life.
Is the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
until the particles are equally distributed
 Diffusion occurs in fluids only [ie both liquids and gases]

 It is fastest in gases than liquids because the particles have more kinetic energy and are
far apart ie gases flow easily.
a) Diffusion in gases

51
b. Diffusion in liquids
Uses of diffusion daily
1. Using a perfume
2. Spraying air freshener
3. Spraying insecticides
4. Smell good food cooking in a house

52
SCIENCE OF WATER
3.1.4.1 investigate physical properties of pure water.
3.1.4.2 conduct a chemical test for water.
3.1.4.3 state the chemical constituents of a water molecule.
3.1.4.4 explain the anomalous expansion of water on cooling.

3.1.4.5 describe effects associated with the anomalous expansion of water.
3.1.4.6 investigate the significance of the anomalous expansion of water to lives of
marine animals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 It is colourless
 It is a solvent
 It is tasteless
 Pure water boils at 100 0C and melts at 0 0C
 Is a good evaporative coolant
 It has a high surface tension
 Universal solvent implies that many substances can dissolve in water.
CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER
Use: cobalt chloride paper (blue in colour)

Positive result: pink
DESCRIPTION: The cobalt chloride paper changes from blue to pink in the
presence of water.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF WATER MOLECULE
Water is made up of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. The symbol of water is
H2O.
ILLUSTRATION
H H

53
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER: Liquids expand when heated and contract when
cooled. However when water is cooled it contracts, but only if it reaches at temperature of 4 OC.
As it is cooled further, the temperature drops, the water begins to expand. Eg ice expands when
cooled.
EFFECTS OF THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER.
The fact that ice is less dense compared to water means that it floats on liquid water. This implies
that water freezes from the surface. Therefore pools can freeze at the surface while the water at
the bottom is still a liquid. This is because the ice floating on the water stops convection currents
from spreading the heat. The layer of floating ice acts as an insulator to the water below. As a
result, pools never freeze at the bottom.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER TO THE

LIVES OF THE MARINE MAMMALS
The fact that water never freezes at the bottom implies that marine (sea) animals could not freeze
to death and become extinct. The anomalous expansion of water helps to keep life in water safe.
When the surface of water freezes, the marine animals move downwards to liquid water at the
bottom. They are kept warm because heat cannot be lost from water because the water at the
bottom is insulated by floating ice.

54
3.2 ACIDS AND BASES

3.2.1.1 define the terms “acid, base and alkali.”
3.2.1.2 list the common properties of acids, bases and alkalis.
3.2.1.3 define an acid-alkali indicator.

3.2.1.4 prepare acid-alkali indicators from plant material.
3.2.1.5 interpret the colour of a universal indicator when placed in an acidic, neutral
or alkaline solution.
3.2.1.6 describe the corrosive and hazardous effects of concentrated acids and
concentrated alkalis.
3.2.1.7 classify household chemicals asacidic, alkaline or neutral.
3.2.1.8 correctly interpret safety symbols and instructions on labels.
3.2.1.9 demonstrate safe storage of hazardous chemicals.
3.2.1.10 take appropriate action during accidents involving common chemicals in
the home.
ACID
 Is a substance that dissolves in water to give a pH less than 7
Examples of acids
Organic acids-made from Mineral/laboratory/industry

plants
-Lemon juice -hydrochloric acid
-orange -sulphuric acid
-tartaric -nitric acid
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
1. All acids have a sour taste

2. Acids turn blue litmus red
3. Have a pH less than 7
4. Acids react with active metals to form salt and hydrogen gas
5. Acids react with carbonate to form water, salt and carbon dioxide gas
6. Acids react with bases [alkalis] to form salt and water. This process is called
neutralization
7. Acids are corrosive

55
BASES
 A base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide and react with an acid to produce salt and
water only.
Examples of bases
Calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, copper oxide, sodium hydroxide commonly known as
sodium hydroxide.
ALKALI
 An alkali is a soluble base { a base that dissolves in water}. It reacts with an acid to
produce salt and water.
Examples of alkalis are sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
PROPERTIES OF BASES/ALKALIS
1. Bases and alkalis neutralize acids to form salt and water

2. They have a slippery or soapy feel
3. They turn a red litmus blue
4. They have a pH greater than 7
5. They have a bitter taste
Note that the difference between an alkali and an insoluble base is that alkalis are soluble in
water but insoluble bases cannot dissolve in water.
AN ACID-ALKALI INDICATOR
An indicator is any substance that changes colour when placed in acid or alkali solutions.
Common indicators are litmus paper, pH scale/pH meter, universal indicator solution
A) LITMUS
Blue litmus Red litmus

acid Turns red Remains red
alkali Remains blue Turns blue
neutral Remains blue Remains red

56
B) pH SCALE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
N
Increasing acidity increasing alkalinity
1. strong acid: pH 1
2. weak acid: pH 6
3. neutral: pH 7
4. strong alkali: pH 14
5. weak alkali: pH 8
C) UNIVERSAL INDICATOR SOLUTION
 Deep red in a strong acid

 Orange in a weak acid
 Yellow in an weaker acid
 Green in neutral solution
 Blue in a weak alkali
 Purple in a strong alkali
DANGERS OF CONCENTRATED ACIDS AND ALKALIS
 Concentrated acids can corrode many metals such as iron and steel
 Concentrated sulphuric acid will char most organic substances
 Concentrated alkalis will dissolve the fat and flesh of human body and cause severe skin
and flesh damage
 Unknown acids and alkalis should never be tasted
STORING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS
 Each container must be clearly labeled to show which chemical is inside

 Poisonous, dangerous or flammable chemicals containers must carry a large, clear
warning symbol
 Never store any chemical or poisonous chemical in ordinary containers such as cold drink
bottles, empty jam, children will think it is safe and eat or drink it.
 Never store flammable substances close to any source of heat
 Acids or corrosive substances must never be stored in metal containers because they
could corrode through the metal and leak out.
 The containers with dangerous or poisonous substances should be stored in a locked
cupboard and key should be kept somewhere safe.

57
ACTIVITY
Classify the following house hold chemicals into acids, alkalis and neutrals
 Water
 Vinegar
 Table salt
 Milk
 Lemon juice
 Tartaric
 Dish wash


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UNIT 4.0 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
4.1 Human Growth and Development
4.1.1.1 describe the functions of parts of the female reproductive system.

4.1.1.2 describe the functions of parts of the male reproductive system.
4.1.1.3 distinguish between the male and the female sex cells
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PART FUNCTION
OVARY -Produces eggs (ovum)
-produces female sex hormones
OVIDUCT (FALLOPIAN TUBE) -it is where fertilization take place
UTERUS (WOMB) -where the babe grows until birth
CERVIX -closes the uterus during pregnancy
VAGINA -receives penis during sexual intercourse
-the babe passes through during birth

59
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PART FUNCTION
PENIS -deposit sperms into the vagina
URETHRA -transport sperms and urine out of the body
GLANDS -produce a liquid for sperm to swim in

SPERM DUCT -carry sperms from testes to urethra
EPIDIDYMIS -store sperms
TESTES -produce sperms
-produce the male sex hormones
SCROTUM -contains the testes

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SEX CELLS (gametes)

Male sex cell
The male sex cell is called a sperm. It is produced in millions per ejaculation.
Female sex cell
The female sex cell is called an ovum. It is produced once in 28 days.
The difference between a sperm and an ovum
sperm Ovum
-have a head and a tail -does not have a head and a tail
-smaller than an ovum -bigger than a sperm
-it can swim -it cannot swim

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PUBERTY
4.1.2.1 describe changes that occur at puberty.

4.1.2.2 describe the menstrual cycle.
4.1.2.3 state the three hormones responsible for changes at puberty.
4.1.2.4 describe the functions of each hormone responsible for changes at puberty.
4.1.2.5 define menopause.
This is a change from childhood to adulthood and become sexually mature.
CHANGES IN BOYS
-
-
-
-
-
-
CHANGES IN GIRLS
-
-
-
-
-
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstruation is the release of the lining of the uterus and a dead ovum as a bloody discharge
through the vagina.

62
DAY 1-5: menstruation take place (period)
DAY 6-12: uterus wall rebuild and a new egg is formed
DAY 13-15: an egg is released from the from the ovaries (this period is known as a fertile
period)
DAY 15-25: the uterus ready for implantation
DAY 26-28: if fertilization have not taken place, the wall of the uterus start to break down.
HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES AT PUBERTY
HORMONES are chemical substances which control the activities of one or more organs. They
are produced in the glands

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Hormone Where produced Function

Testosterone testes For male secondary sexual
characteristics
Oestrogen ovary Rebuilds the lining of the
uterus that break down
during menstruation
progesterone ovary Prepares the lining for
implantation
MENOPAUSE: This is a stage in life of a woman when the menstrual cycle stops forever.

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4.2 FAMILY PLANNING
4.2.1.1 list the different methods of birth control

4.2.1.2 discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of birth
control.
4.2.1.3 discuss the implications of family planning in the light of family size.
4.2.1.4 identify outlets that provide family planning advice and services.
A couple needs to plan on how many children they need to have so that they can be able to
take care of them:
 The best education
 Enough food
 Good health
 Good shelter
Contraceptives are used to help a couple achieve this plan. Contraceptives are devices used to
prevent pregnancy.
METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL
METHOD HOW IT WORK ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

ABSTINENCE -no sexual -100% effective -requires extra ordinary self
intercourse at all -no STI’s control
CONDOM -collect sperms -prevent both STI’s and -can rupture (burst)
during sexual pregnancy -easily destroyed by heat
intercourse -some people are allergic to latex
PILL -prevent ovulation -highly effective -can be forgotten

-does not need any -can have side effects
preparations before sexual
intercourse
-readily available at clinics
DEPO-PROVERA -prevent ovulation -highly effective -may bring change to the

INJECTION -does not need any menstrual cycle
preparations before sexual -may have some side effects
intercourse
-readily available at clinics
-only done four times a
year

65
SPERMICIDE -kills sperms -supports other method of -must be applied before every sex
birth control when they fail act
their function.
STERILISATION -cutting of -100% effective -only suitable for people who do

oviducts(tubaligati -does not interrupt sex act not want children any more
on) -done through an operation
-cutting of sperm -may be expensive
ducts(vasectomy)
DIAPHRAGM -prevent sperms -no side effects -may develop holes
from entering the -protect the cervix against -requires a doctor to fit
womb infections
-highly effective with a
spermicide
INTRA UTERINE -prevent -no preparation before sex -cannot prevent STI’s
DEVICE (IUD) OR implantation -replaced after a long time -can have side effects
LOOP -highly effective -can only be inserted by a doctor
-can be removed when a -can come out of position
couple want a child
FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES
The following are outlets that provide family planning advices services:
 Guidance and counseling units
 Clinics
 Hospitals
 Social workers

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4.3-SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS
4.3.1.1 define the concept “sexually transmitted infections” (STIs)

4.3.1.2 describe signs, transmission and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases:
syphilis, gonorrhoea,
herpes and thrush.
4.3.1.3 discuss AIDS as a sexually transmitted infection.
4.3.1.4 describe the medical conditions of advanced HIV and AIDS.
4.3.1.5 distinguish between being HIV positive and having AIDS.
4.3.1.6 identify opportunistic infections associated with HIV and AIDS
4.3.1.7 identify programmes in place for the treatment of HIV and AIDS conditions.
SEXUAL TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI’s)
DISEASE CAUSE SYMPTOMS TREATMENT

-white patches on the mouth and Anti-fungal cream
tongue [violet cream,
-discharge from penis or vagina iodine cream,
THRUSH FUNGUS -a burning sensation when urinating nystatin cream
-itching in the vagina
-inflammation on the tip of the penis or
vulva
-a burning sensation when urinating antibiotics

-a green or yellow discharge (pus-like)
GONORRHOEA BACTERIA -pain in the lower abdomen
-uncomfortable feeling in the urethra
GENITAL HERPES VIRUS -a painful blister like sores on the sex Anti-viral drugs to
organs, mouth and inner thighs. make the virus
-swollen glands in the groin dormant
-cold sores -no treatment
-burning sensation during urination
syphilis BACTERIA Chancre antibiotics

-pimple or blister of sex organs, mouth
HIV and AIDS -VIRUS [HIV] -extreme loss of weight -No treatment
-continuous diarrhea however the use
-persistent swollen glands of ARV can
-night sweats prolong lives.
-short of breath

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QUESTION
1. Describe the medical conditions of advanced HIV and AIDS.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………(4)
2. Distinguish between being HIV positive and having AIDS.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..(2)
PROGRAMS IN FOR TREATMENT OF HIV/AIDS
 ARV: Anti-Retroviral
 PMTCT: Prevention From Mother To Child Transmission

OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV AND AIDS
 Tuberculosis
 Pneumonia
 Diarrhea
 Cancer
PROTECTION AGAINST HIV/AIDS
 Abstaining from sex

 Be faithful
 Using condom
 Immediate treatment

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6.6-Caring for Persons with HIV and AIDS

6.6.1.1 explain the need for counselling of people caring for AIDS patients at home.
6.6.1.2 demonstrate safe and healthy ways of caring for a person with AIDS.
COUNSELLING OF PEOPLE CARING FOR AIDS PATIENTS
When people have to care for those with AIDS, they are subjected to a lot of stress and worry.
This stress and worry is caused by a number of factors such as watching the loved one suffer,
concern about the future, cost, time and effort put in taking care of the sick.
Counseling can help in the following ways:
 It can help the care-giver to remove the uncertainty about what the future holds
because they receive information from the counselor about what will happen to the
patient as the disease progresses.
 It gives the care giver someone to talk to about their worries and concerns
 Practical advice received from counselors gives the care-giver confidence. It will also
benefit the patient.
 Counsellor can introduce support groups to help and advice. This helps in reducing the
burden of caring for a person with AIDS.
SAFE AND HEALTHY WAYS OF CARING FOR A PERSON WITH AIDS
 Preparation- get clear, written instructions about what has to be done to care for the
patient.
 Take care of yourself- Look after your own health as a care giver by making sure that
you get the rest and exercise you need.
 Providing care to the patient- Patients should have regular exercise, eat a healthy diet
and avoid alcohol and cigarettes.
 Preventing the AIDS patient from getting infections- keep the environment and
personal items clean and hygienic, the food fresh and washed before given to the
patient.
 The care-giver should wear gloves if they have to touch any body fluids or dress any
wounds or sores.
 All wastes should be disposed off properly
 Syringes and needles should only be used once and they should be disposed off in a
sealable container.

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4.4-Human Development and Care

4.4.1.1 describe the process of fertilisation.
4.4.1.2 identify signs of pregnancy.
4.4.1.3 describe development of the embryo in terms of zygote, ball of cells (blastula or
morula) and
foetus.
4.4.1.4 identify placenta, amnion and umbilical cord.
4.4.1.5 describe the functions of the placenta, amnion and umbilical cord.
4.4.1.6 state conditions leading to multiple births.
4.4.1.7 discuss ante-natal care of a pregnant woman which contributes towards a healthy
development of
the baby.
4.4.1.8 describe nutritional needs of a pregnant woman.
4.4.1.9 describe the main stages of birth.
FERTILISATION (conception)
The fusion of the male sex cells ( sperm ) with the female sex cell (ovum) to form a zygote. It
takes place in the fallopian tube.
PREGNANCY
Period between fertilization and birth. The normal duration of pregnancy in humans is 9
months (about 37 weeks-260 days). Pregnancy is also known as gestation.
TEST FOR PREGNANCY

The presence of a hormone called Human Chorionic Gonodotrophin in urine is used in a clinical
pregnancy test.
SIGNS OF PREGNANCY
 MISSED MENSTRUAL PERIODS
 MORNING SICKNESS
 SWOLLEN BELLY
.
 INCREASE IN BODY MASS
 TENDERNESS OF BREASTS
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.
IMPLANTATION
This is the process whereby the fertlised egg (zygote) attaches itself to the wall of the uterus.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE
During fertilization, the sperm and the ovum form one cell called the zygote. This cell then
divides into many cells. The ball of cells developed is known as morula. From about 4 days, the
cells that make the morula start to rearrange and become a hollow ball called the blastocyst.
Sperm
1 cell 2 cells 4 cells ball of cells
Egg fertilized egg morula blastocyst

(3-4 days)
INSIDE THE WOMB
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS
PARTS FUNCTION
AMNION (amniotic -contains the amniotic fluids
sac) -produces the amniotic fluid
AMNIOTIC FLUID -protects the foetus from external shocks.
-bathes the babe.
PLACENTA -allows the exchange of materials from mother to the foetus and vice versa.
UMBILICAL CORD -transport materials from mother to foetus and vice versa.

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Materials carried from mother to the foetus are:

-oxygen
-nutrients
-antibodies
Materials carried from foetus to the mother are:
-carbon dioxide
-urea
-uric acid
The diagram below shows a model used represents the development of a foetus in the
uterus. Use it to answer question 6.
1. (a) What structures in a human being do the stone and the water in the model represent?
Stone…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(2)
(b) What is the function of the part represented by the plastic bag?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(1)
(c) How long is the gestation period of a human being?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(1)
STAGES OF BIRTH
1. CONTRACTION OF MUSCLES
The muscles of the uterus wall contract to push the baby out. This is known as labour pains.
2. BREAKING OF THE WATERS

The contraction of the muscles causes the amniotic sac to break. This releases the amniotic
fluids through the vagina.
3. DILATION OF THE CERVIX

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The cervix increases in diameter to make room for the baby to pass through.
4. DELIVERY OF THE BABY

The pushing of the mother and the contraction of the uterus walls forces the baby to come out.
5. DELIVERY OF THE AFTER BIRTH

Some minutes after delivery, the placenta and the umbilical cord are pushed out from the
uterus through the vagina.
MULTIPLE BIRTHS
IDENTICAL TWINS
One egg is released and gets fertilized by one sperm. The fertilized egg then split into two forming 2
separate babies.
-the babies share the placenta, same sex, look alike
FRATERNAL TWINS/non identical

They are formed when two eggs are released at the same time and fertilized by two sperms.
-the babies do not share the placenta, may be of different sex, and may not look alike
ANTE NATAL CARE-care before birth

THE DO’S
-attend ante natal clinics/check ups
-follow a sensible diet/balanced diet
-avoid intoxicating substances (drugs and alcohol)
-exercises regularly to improve blood circulation
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN
NUTRIENT FUNCTION
PROTEIN Building tissues in the fetus
CALCIUM For strong bones of the fetus
IRON For the formation of red blood cells

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CHILD CARE
4.4.2.1 compare breast-feeding to bottle-feeding.

4.4.2.2 discuss nutritional needs of a lactating mother and of the baby.
4.4.2.3 describe the methods of immunisation of babies against: TB, measles, tetanus,
hepatitis B, and
DPT (diphtheria, polio and whooping cough).
4.4.2.4 discuss the importance of testing for HIV when pregnant.
4.4.2.5 evaluate the significance of Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT)
to the child
and the mother.
4.4.2.6 demonstrate proper methods of child-care.
There are two ways in which the babe can be fed with milk.
-breast feeding
-bottle feeding
Breast feeding Bottle feeding

-the milk is free -cost money
-the milk is always at the right temperature -may be too hot or too cold
-the chances of contamination are very low -utensils used may be contaminated
-the milk contains the right combination of -the nutrients vary.
nutrients (balanced diet).
-the milk contains anti bodies -no anti-bodies
-the milk is ready made -need to be prepared
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A LACTATING MOTHER
A lactating mother need to take a lot of fluids (eg. drinks, porridge, milk, water and fruit juices). This will
help her to produce enough milk.
She should avoid taking drugs as they may affect the baby.
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A BABY
the baby should be fed with breast milk or approved formula only.
Semi solid food such as strained fruits can be introduced to the baby.
Include more variety of vegetables and fruits.
TAKING CARE OF THE BABE
 Make the environment safe and hygienic.

 Provide good nutrition to the babe

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 Stimulate the baby regularly (play, talk and sing to the babe)
 Inspect the baby for any illness, if suspecting, take the babe to the doctor.
 Take the babe to the clinic for monthly check ups (weight gain or loss and temperatures are
recorded to monitor the health of the babe)
IMMUNISATION
This is a method used to prevent a disease before it attacks by making the body produce antibodies to
fight the disease.
2.5 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

2.5.1.1 Identify the different parts of a flower.

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2.5.1.2 Identify the reproductive parts of a flower.
2.5.1.3 Draw and label the reproductive parts of a flower.

2.5.1.4 State the functions of the reproductive parts of a flower.
THE STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
PART FUNCTION
ANTHER -produces the male sex cells
(the male sex cells are contained inside pollen grains)
FILAMENT -supports the anther
STIGMA -receives pollen
STYLE -directs the pollen tube towards the ovules.
OVARY -produces the ovules
PETALS -attract insects
SEPALS -protect the flower while it is still young
STALK -attaches the flower to the plant
The female parts of a flower

The stigma, the style and the ovary make up the female parts of a flower. They are collectively known as
the PISTL or CARPEL.

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The male parts of a flower

The anther and the filament make up the male parts of a flower. Together they are known as the
STAMEN.
POLLINATION and FERTILIZATION
2.5.2.1 describe the process of pollination.
2.5.2.2 distinguish between wind and insect pollinated flowers.
2.5.2.3 describe fertilization in flowering plants.

2.5.2.4 describe changes in a flower leading to seed and fruit formation.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

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Agents of pollination (these are things that transfer pollen)

-insects
-Wind
The difference between wind and insect pollinated flowers
Insect Wind
-Have large petals -Have small petals
-Have brightly coloured petals -Have dull coloured petals
-Petals contain nectaries -Petals contain no nectaries
-Petals have a sweet scent (smell) -Petals have no scent (smell)
-Pollen grains are sticky -Pollen grains are smooth
-The stigma is straight and stiff -The stigma is feathery
-Filaments and anthers are contained -Filaments and anthers are hanging
in the petals outside the petals
TYPES OF POLLINATION
SELF POLLINATION
This type of pollination takes place in the same flower or a different flower but in the same plant.
CROSS POLLINATION
It takes place in flowers of different plants but of the same species.
FERTILISATION
This is the fusion of the male sex cell and the female sex cell to form a zygote.
Changes to a flower after fertilization

-the ovary develops into a fruit and the ovules becomes seeds. All other parts dry and fall off.
The structure of a seed

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Functions of parts
PART FUNCTION
COTYLEDONS Provide food during germination
TESTA (seed coat) Protect the seed
PLUMULE Develops into a shoot
RADICLE Develops into roots
HILUM Scar where the seed was attached
MICROPYLE A hole where the seed absorbs water
SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL
2.5.3.1 Classify fruits and seeds according to their methods of dispersal.

2.5.3.2 Discuss the different methods of seed dispersal.
2.5.3.3 Explain the importance of seed dispersal to plant life.
Types of seed dispersal
-Wind dispersal -seeds are light, have wings, parachute like structure
-Water dispersal -seeds can float on water.
-animal dispersal-seeds have hooks and spikes.
-Mechanical dispersal/Self -mechanical force that shoots the seed away from plants.
QUESTION
State the importance of seed dispersal
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Types of fruits
1. Compound fruits (develop from more than one ovary a) Multiple fruits

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b) Aggregate fruits
2. Simple fruits (develop from one ovary) a) Fleshy fruits
b) Dry fruits
]\

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Unit 5.0 FORCE ,MOTION & ENERGY
5.1- Energy Forms and Energy Changes

5.1.1.1 define the term “fossil fuels”
5.1.1.2 explain the origins of fossil fuels.
5.1.1.3 discuss the importance of fossil fuels.
5.1.1.4 distinguish between renewable energy sources and non-renewable energy
sources.
5.1.1.5 describe methods of harnessing alternative sources of energy.
5.1.1.6 discuss the importance of conserving energy.
5.1.1.7 identify alternative energy sources available in Botswana.
5.1.1.8 evaluate the feasibility of harnessing different sources of energy in Botswana
in terms of
financial and environmental implications.
5.1.1.9 explore the business potential of harnessing alternative energy sources in
Botswana.
FOSSIL FUELS
Fuels that comes from the remains of dead plants and animals over millions of years ago. eg coal, crude
oil and natural gas
Crude oil can be made to make many different kinds of fuel: eg petrol, paraffin and diesel used as fuel.
FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels were formed about 300 millions years ago. There were formed from the remains of dead
animals and plants that were turned into organic matter as sediments were deposited on top of them.
The organic matter was then turned into fossil fuels by the pressure and heat that acted on them over
time.
ORIGIN OF FOSSIL FUELS
Coal was formed from the remains of dead plants over millions of years. The plant remains became
covered by layer of rock deep in the ground. As the plant remains were put under pressure and high
temperature for a long time, the plant remains were slowly changed into coal.
Oil and natural gas were formed from the remains of very small sea water animals over millions of years,
the surface of the earth changed and the dead anima materials became buried deep underground. The
pressure of layers of rock changed the remains into crude oil. Natural gas was also formed at the same
time and collected in space above oil.

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The importance of fossil fuels
1. Used to power machines eg mining machines, computers, television

2. Used to prepare the food
3. Used to heat our homes during cold conditions
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Renewable sources of energy Non-renewable sources of energy

Can be replaced, cannot get finished Cannot be replaced ,can get finished
eg solar energy, tidal, waves, bio-gas, biomass eg coal, oil, natural gas
IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING ENERGY
Conservation of energy means that it is used carefully and not wasted. Energy is conserved in order to
avoid depletion. So alternative sources of energy are preferred ahead of non-renewable sources of
energy as fuel.
WAYS OF HARNESSING ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY
 Solar energy: harnessed using solar panels, solar cells
 Biomass: Cow dung
 Wind: using wind mills
 Hydropower: water in dams
QUESTION
State 3 sources of alternative energy sources in Botswana
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..
THE FEASIBILITY OF HARNESSING DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ENERGY IN BOTSWANA
Feasibility means weigh up the cost against benefits
Two important questions
1. Will be the cost of harnessing be acceptable?
2. What are the environmental implication? Will the energy source damage the environment?
Is mining coal feasible in Botswana?

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Is Hydropower feasible in Botswana?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Is solar energy feasible in Botswana?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
What are the business potential of harnessing alternative energy sources in Botswana?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
ENEGY FORMS AND SOURCES
5.1.2.1 identify sources of chemical energy in the home.

5.1.2.2 identify sources of heat and light energy in the home.
5.1.2.3 discuss the financial and environmental implications of using the different energy
sources in the
home.
5.1.2.4 evaluate the benefits of choosing a specific energy source for use in the home.
Energy is the ability to do work.
Two main forms of energy are kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic Energy is energy in moving objects. Potential Energy is energy stored
Form of energy source

Chemical Battery, coal ,wood, food, fuel, explosives
Thermal/heat Sun, fire, stove
Light Bulb, stars, torch etc

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Kinetic Moving car or any moving object

Elastic energy Stretched spring or rubber band
mechanical Machines,
sound Drum, trumpet, guitar
electrical Generator, dynamo
Gravitational potential energy Dam water
Give examples of
1. Gravitational potential energy
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Chemical potential energy
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL ENERGY IN THE HOME
 Wood -used for fuel

 Coal – for cooking and heating water
 Candle wax-lighting
 Paraffin-for lighting lamps and cooking in stoves
 Diesel or petrol-generators
 Battery or cells- for electric current
SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT ENERGY IN THE HOME
HEAT ENERGY
-wood, coal, paraffin
LIGHT ENERGY
-Candle wax, paraffin

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ENERGY CHANGES
5.1.3.1 identify applications of energy changes in everyday life.

5.1.3.2 discuss the importance of energy transformations to people, animals and plants
5.1.3.3 identify natural phenomena that are caused by energy transformations.
5.1.3.4 describe the causes of the greenhouse effect and its consequences.
Principle of energy conservation
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to another
Examples of energy changes
 Electric stove: electrical energy heat energy
 Bulb: Electrical energy light energy
 Radio: electrical energy sound energy
 Stone falling from a building: Gravitational potential Energy Kinetic energy

sound energy
 Throwing a ball into the air: Kinetic Energy Gravitational energy
 Fan:
 Wind mill:
 Photosynthesis:
 Respiration
THE IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY CHANGES TO PEOPLE, ANIMALS AND PLANTS
 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Water cycle
 Cooking food
NATURAL PHENOMENA CAUSED BY ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
 Lightning
 Soil formation due to a rock falling from a hill

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 Winds
 Storms
 Water cycle
The Greenhouse Effect
Green house provides plants and animals with warm conditions that are suitable for growth. This is
because the heat from the sun enters a green house and it is trapped inside. Without the greenhouse
effect, life on earth would not be possible. The temperatures would be too extreme. In the moon there
is no greenhouse effect, temperatures ranges from -1730C to 1270C.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN USING MAINS ELECTRICITY
5.1.5.1 discuss safety precautions to be taken when using mains electricity.

5.1.5.2 make simple diagnoses of faults in electrical appliances.
5.1.5.3 discuss safety precautions to be taken when using fossil fuels in the home or
school.
5.1.5.4 demonstrate ways of preventing accidents when burning fuels.
1. Make sure that the cables are well insulated

2. Do not touch a switch with wet hands
3. Do not poke sockets with graphite or metallic objects
4. Do not overload sockets because they cause cables to heat up
DIAGNOSING ELECTRICAL FAULTS
 Switch of the main switch

 Check if wires of three pin plug are correctly wired.
 Check if plugs are not overloaded

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WAYS OF PREVENTING ACCIDENTS WHEN BURNING FOSSIL FUELS

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5.2 SOUND ENERGY

5.2.1.1 demonstrate the production of low and high notes.
5.2.1.2 relate pitch to frequency of vibration.
5.2.1.3 relate loudness to amplitude of vibration.
5.2.1.4 demonstrate reflection of sound (echo).
5.2.1.5 state the relative speeds of sound in different media.
Sound energy is the energy that enables us to hear. Sound is produced by vibrating particles
SOURCES OF SOUND
 Drum
 Guitar
 Tuning folk
ECHO
Is the reflected sound waves
The speed of sound in different media
So sound travel faster in solids than in liquids and gas because sound needs particles to travel.
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum.

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TYPES OF WAVES
5.2.2.1 distinguish between a longitudinal wave and a transverse wave.

5.2.2.2 demonstrate the propagation of a longitudinal wave.
5.2.2.3 demonstrate energy transmission by a transverse wave.
5.2.2.4 define wavelength, frequency and amplitude.
5.2.2.5 interpret a labelled diagram of a transverse wave showing wavelength and
amplitude.
5.2.2.6 identify the wavelength on a longitudinal wave diagram.
Sound travels in form of waves

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1. LONGITUDINAL WAVE
The distance betwwen two successive compressions is the wave length
2. TRANSVERSE WAVE; The wave vibrate at right angles to the direction of the wave.
FREQUENCY = NO OF VIBRATIONS
TIME(S)
Units of frequency: No of vibrations per seconds

Herz (Hz)
A ruler makes 20 vibrations in 2 seconds. Calculate the frequency of a ruler
Pitch is how high or low sound is. Frequency is the number of vibrations produced per second
A) Relationship between pitch and frequency.

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The higher the pitch the higher the frequency
B) Relationship between amplitude and loudness of a sound.
The larger the amplitude the louder the sound and verse versa

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In summary
THE EAR
5.2.3.1 state the functions of parts of the ear that enable hearing.
5.2.3.2 state the function of the Eustachian tube.
5.2.3.3 identify the different parts of the middle ear and the inner ear.
5.2.3.4 describe the movement of sound waves into the ear.

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parts function
Ear flap
Ear canal
Ear drum
3 small bones
Semicircular canal
Eustachian tube
Cochlea
Auditory nerve
DEGREE OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
5.2.4.1 describe different degrees of hearing impairment.
5.2.4.2 discuss the possible causes of ear defects and their methods of prevention.
5.2.4.3 diagnose signs of hearing impairment on a person.
5.2.4.4 demonstrate safe and healthy care for ears.
Hearing can be impaired either temporarily [conductive deafness or permanently [sensory

deafness].
CAUSES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Conductive(Temporary hearing loss) Sensory(Permanent hearing loss)

 Blockage of the ear canal by ageing
objects





CAUSES OF EAR DEFECTS AND METHODS OF PREVENTION
CAUSES OF EAR DEFECTS METHODS OF PREVENTION

 Noise pollution Wear ear plugs and ear muffs in noisy areas





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DIAGNOSING THE SIGNS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
DEMONSTRATE SAFE AND HEALTHY CARE FOR EARS
Cleaning and washing the ear regularly

Avoid loud noise that will damage your ears
See the doctor for inspection if there is a serious pain in the ear
Do not poke your ear with sharp objects

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UNIT 6.0: HEALTH AND SAFETY

6.1 – Personal Hygiene
6.1.1.1 identify the different parts of a tooth

6.1.1.2 relate the shape of a tooth to its function.
6.1.1.3 investigate the causes of tooth decay and gum disease.
6.1.1.4 describe the action of acid on the tooth.
6.1.1.5 demonstrate healthy oral care to prevent tooth decay and gum disease.
Caring for teeth

TEETH
STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

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FUNCTION OF TYPES OF TEETH
TYPE OF TOOTH Description FUNCTION

INCISORS Have flat, sharp-edged Biting/cutting the food
surfaces
CANINES Sharp pointed Tearing the food
edge[chisel like shaped]
PREMOLAR Have, cusps, and larger Crushing and chewing the
surface area for chewing food
the food
MOLARS Have, cusps, and larger Crushing and chewing the
surface area for chewing food
the food most.
TOOTH DECAY
CAUSES OF TOOTH DECAY
 Sugary food
 Food remains on the tooth
GUM DISEASE
Signs of gum disease:
 Inflammation of gums
 Loosening of teeth
 Bleeding of gums
CAUSES OF GUM DISEASE
 Smoking
 Stress
 Plague
 Poor nutrition
 Grinding your teeth
ACTION OF ACID ON THE TOOTH
Acids dissolve enamel, then dentine and eventually bacteria enter the dentine because it is soft leading
to tooth decay
HEALTHY ORAL CARE TO PREVENT TOOTH DECAY AND GUM DISEASE
 Eat less sugary foods

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 Brush your teeth after every meal

 Eat food rich in calcium and vitamin C[ calcium for strong teeth and vitamin c to avoid week
teeth/scurvy]
 Use fluoride in toothpaste or by adding it to drinking water[ fluoride strengthen the teeth]
 Go to the dentist for check up twice a year
6.2 COMMUNICABLE DISEASES (contagious diseases)
6.2.1.1 define the term “infectious disease”

6.2.1.2 distinguish between infectious and communicable diseases.
6.2.1.3 differentiate between communicable diseases and non-communicable diseases.
6.2.1.4 classify communicable diseases using common causative agents (bacteria,
protozoa, virus, &
fungi).
6.2.1.5 list the vectors of common communicable diseases in Botswana.
6.2.2.1 suggest methods of prevention and controlling of communicable diseases.

6.2.2.2 discuss life cycles of a housefly, a mosquito and a bilharzia fluke.
6.2.2.3 describe how each life cycle can be controlled.
6.2.2.4 analyse national statistics for communicable diseases.
Communicable diseases are those diseases that can be transmitted from one person to
another. They are caused by micro organisms (pathogens), such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and
protozoa.
Examples
-measles
-malaria
-chicken pox
-Tubercolosis
Non communicable diseases are those that cannot be passed from one person to another.
They are caused by a problem in the body.
Examples
-Kwashiorkor
-Anemia
-diabetes
-cancer

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An infectious disease is also caused by micro organisms but cannot be easily transferred from
one person to another while other can be transferred easily.
Examples
-influenza
-HIV / AIDS
-Chicken pox
Classification of diseases
Diseases may be classified according to their causative agents. There are four main groups.
i) Viral diseases
Examples
-Influenza
-AIDS
-measles
-chicken pox
ii) Bacterial diseases
Examples
-tuberculosis
-syphilis
-gonorrhoea
-cholera
iii) Fungal diseases

-ringworm
-athletes foot
-thrush
iv) Protozoa
Examples
-malaria (plasmodium)
-sleeping sickness
Vectors of communicable diseases in Botswana
*A vector is a method by which a disease is transferred from one person to another.
i) Physical contact [ STI’s , HIV /AIDS, ring worm]

ii) Water [cholera,]
iii) Air [TB, flu]
iv) Food [ intestinal infections,
v) Animals (tsetsefly, mosquito, ticks, housefly, dogs)

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Preventing infections
-do not play in water
-use toilets
-build latrines well away from drinking water
-make sure that food is well cooked
-cover the mouth when coughing
-avoid cuts on the skin and contacts
-sterilise wounds
LIFE CYCLES OF INSECT VECTORS
LIFE CYCLE OF A HOUSEFLY
Controlling houseflies
-building deep pit latrines
-putting kitchen waste in to dustbins
-kill adult house flies with insecticides.
-burning waste material
-burying the faeces of dogs and other domestic animals
LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSQUITO (Female Anopheles mosquito)

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Controlling mosquito
-prevent mosquitoes from breeding by clearing grass around
-avoid stagnant water
-kill adults with insecticides
-use mosquito nets
-oiling
-cutting grass
-drain water from pools and small ponds so eggs cannot be laid
-use gauze over windows
-use repellent creams and oils to drive away mosquitoes
LIFE CYCLE OF A BILHARZIA FLUKE
Controlling the bilharzias fluke

-use toilets
-use purified water
-do not play or swim in infected water
-kill the snails
-discouraging people from urinating into water
-fencing water sources
-treating infected people
National Statistics on Communicable diseases in Botswana

 High malaria cases in the Northern parts of Botswana especially in
Ngami land


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HEALTHY EATING
6.2.3.1 investigate optimal conditions for microbial growth.

6.2.3.2 state common causes of food poisoning.
6.2.3.3 identify symptoms and signs of food poisoning.
6.2.3.4 demonstrate ways of preventing food poisoning.
Food Poisoning
This is an illness caused by eating contaminated food.
Signs of food poisoning

-vomiting
-nausea
-diarrhoea
-stomach cramps
-stomach ache
-dizziness
Causes of food poisoning

-Preparing food with dirty hands
-Allowing houseflies to walk on food
-Leaving food uncovered
-Using unclean utensils
Conditions for the growth of micro organisms

Microbes need the following to grow well:
i) warm conditions
ii) moisture
iii) good supply of food
Safe methods of preventing food POISONING
-always wash hands before preparing food

-use clean cooking utensils
-cook meat in high temperature to kill microbes
-cover left food with a clean cloth
-wash vegetables before making salads

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FOOD PRESERVATION
6.2.4.1 describe safe methods of preparing food.

6.2.4.2 demonstrate safe methods of preparing food.
6.2.4..3 describe different methods of food preservation.
6.2.4.4 apply common methods of food preservation.
SALTING: It kills microbes and also dehydrates food.
DRYING: Microbes cannot grow in dry food. Fruits and meat can be dried to keep them longer
FREEZING: very low temperatures stop the growth of microbes.
CANNING: The food is cooked and then sealed in a can. The can stops microbes from entering the food.
STERILISING / PASTURISING: This when the food is heated at high temperature to kill the microbes and
the n cooled. The food is then stored in air tight containers.
PICKLING: storing food in chemicals such as vinegar.

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6.3-Nutrition
6.3.1.1 define the term “digestion.”

6.3.1.2 discuss the importance of digestion.
6.3.1.3 explain the functions of the different parts of the digestive system.
6.3.1.4 state that enzymes are responsible for the digestion of food.
6.3.1.5 state the end-products of starch, protein and fat digestion.
6.3.1.6 explain the absorption of food into the blood stream.
6.3.1.7 identify starch, protein, reducing sugar and fat using food tests.
DIGESTION
 Is the breaking down of food into smaller particles.

 Is the breaking down of food into simple absorbable molecules.
Mechanical digestion involves reducing food in size to increase its surface area for enzymes to work on
easily. No enzymes involved in this reaction.
Chemical digestion involves breaking down food by chemicals substances eg enzymes.
QUESTION
State the importance of digestion
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(4)

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Part function
mouth  chewing food
 salivary amylase breaks down
starch/carbohydrates into maltose
 tongue rolls food into bolus
Oesophagus /gullet  Pushes the food into the stomach
through peristalsis
 Peristalsis is the contraction and
relaxation of the oesophageal muscles
stomach  Churns food and mixes it.
 Secretes gastric juices which contain
hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin
that breaks down proteins into
peptides

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 Site for protein digestion
Duodenum  Further digestion

(small intestine)
Ileum (small intestine)  Absorption of food (nutrients)
Colon rectum (large intestine)  Absorption of water
rectum (large intestine)  Stores faeces
anus  Egestion
liver  detoxification
bile  Emulsifies fats
 Neutralizes acids from stomach
pancreas  Produces pancreatic juices which
contain enzymes that break down
proteins, fats etc
FOOD, ENZYMES AND THEIR END PRODUCTS
Amylase
Starch glucose
(protease/pepsin)
Protein amino acids
Lipase
Fats fatty acids + glycerol
NB. Enzymes work best at optimal conditions. Enzymes are inactivated by low temperatures and
denatured by high temperature
The ileum is adapted for absoption of food because;
1. Its fairly long

2. Selectively permeable
3. Has villi

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DEMONSTRATION FOR ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
OBSERVATION
After an hour test the water for glucose and starch
 Iodine remains reddish brown(Starch is absent)

 Benedict solution turns brick red (glucose is present)
Glucose passes through the visking tube to the water because it has smaller molecules but starch
remains behind because it has larger molecules.
FOOD TEST
FOOD SAMPLE REAGENT POSITIVE RESULT

STARCH Iodine solution Blue-black
GLUCOSE/REDUCING SUGAR Benedict solution Orange or brick red
PROTEINS Sodium hydroxide + copper purple
sulphate
FAT [ Translucent spot test] Filter paper Greasy spot
FAT [Emulsion test] ethanol Milky suspension

106
6.4 DRUGS
6.4.1.1 define a drug.

6.4.1.2 distinguish between medicinal and non-medicinal drugs.
6.4.1.3 identify drugs that are commonly abused.
6.4.1.4 discuss dangers of misuse of medicinal drugs.
6.4.1.5 investigate general uses of medicinal plants in their locality.

6.4.1.6 identify allergic reactions to drugs and other substances.
Drugs are chemicals substances that changes the way the body works or function
There are two groups of drugs
i) Medicinal drugs: This is a drug used to reduce pain or treat a disease.
ii) Non medicinal drugs (recreational drugs): Drugs used as a source of fun.
Commonly abused drugs
Commonly abused drugs may be divided into four main groups
i) Pain killers
These are drugs used to reduce pain. eg. Heroin.
ii) Sedatives
They make a person feel calm and sleepy. eg. alcohol, marijuana, spirit based glue, sleeping
pills.
iii) Stimulants
They give more energy and strength. eg.cocaine, nicotine, caffeine.
iv) Hallucinogens
They make a person see, hear or imagine things (day dream). Some people feel peaceful and
wonderful and some are often violent. eg. marijuana or cannabis, Lysergic acid (LSD)
Dangers of misusing medicinal drugs
Name Effects
Alcohol -addiction
-damage the brain
-damage the kidneys, liver, and the heart
-poor judgment
Tobacco -addiction
-causes lung cancer
-causes bronchitis

107
-emphysma
Marijuana -causes lung cancer

-make someone hallucinates
-causes poor judgment
Solvents/glue -permanent damage to the liver, brain and kidneys

-loss of balance
-loss of appetite
cocaine -increase heart speed

-makes a person aggressive
Makes a person panic and fear
Uses of medicinal plants
i. Sengaparile (devil’s claw): used to treat high blood pressure
ii. Mukwa tree: used to treat stomach problems.
iii. Monepenepe: used to treat headaches, diarrhoea and skin diseases.
Allergic reactions to drugs

(An allergy is when a person behaves negatively to a drug)
 Itchy ears
 Runny nose
 Tickly throat
 Sneezing
 Difficulty in breathing
 A drop in blood pressure
 Unconsciousness
COMPONENTS OF TOBACCO
COMPONENT BAD EFFECT

Nicotine Poisonous and addictive
Carbon monoxide Poisonous and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity in the blood
Tar smoke particles Can cause cancer
Smoke particles Make lung produce more mucus and can lead to bronchitis

108
UNIT 7.0 THE HUMAN BODY

7.1 – Transporting Substances in the Human Body
7.1.1.1 state functions of blood.
7.1.1.2 list the different components of blood.
7.1.1.3 describe the functions of the different components of blood
7.1.1.4 state the different blood groups.
7.1.1.5 discuss the uses of blood groups in medicine.
7.1.1.6 describe safety measures taken during blood transfusion.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is made up of

-the blood
-the heart
-the blood vessels
THE BLOOD
Functions of blood
 defend the body against diseases
 transport nutrients, hormones and oxygen around the body
 transport waste products e.g carbon dioxide & urea from the cells
 controls and regulate the body temperature
 maintain fluid balance
Components of blood
Component characteristis Function

i) Red blood  Disc shape  They transport oxygen
cells(erythrocytes)  No nucleus around the body.
They contain  Produced in the bone
haemoglobin (red marrow.
pigment)
ii) White blood cells  Different shapes  They defend the body
(luecocytes)  Have nucleus against diseases
 Kill germs by engulfing

109
iii) Plasma  Yellowish liquid  Dissolves and transports

 90% water substances (nutrients
and hormones) around
the body
iv) Platelets  Oddly shape  They help blood to clot
(thrombocytes)
BLOOD GROUPS
There are four types of blood groups
-A
-B
-AB
-O
BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Blood transfusion is when a person is given blood from another one. If a person is given a wrong type of
blood, it will clot and cause death.
RECIPIENT
A B AB O
A  X  X
DONOR
B X   X
AB X X  X
O    
Key
 Transfusion safe
X Transfusion not safe.
Universal donor: A person with blood group O is a universal donor because this type can be donated to
all other groups safely.

110
Universal recipient: A person with blood AB is universal recipient because they can receive blood from
all other group types safely.
Safety measures taken during blood transfusion

-the donor’s blood is tested for diseases such as HIV, Hepatitis and syphilis.
-the blood is tested to find out its type.
-the blood should be stored in the refrigerator (blood bank)
-blood must be warmed to normal temperature before being donated
-everything used in the transfusion should be sterilized
- no more than 500ml of blood is taken from the donor to ensure that the donor does not lose too much
blood.

111
THE HEART
7.1.2.1 describe the heart structure and its function.

7.1.2.2 describe the structure and functions of the blood vessels.
7.1.2.3 state common diseases of the circulatory system.
7.1.2.4 discuss causes of diseases of the circulatory system.
7.1.2.5 discuss methods of prevention of diseases of the circulatory system.
The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body.
The structure of the heart
i) The heart is made up of four main chambers

 the left ventricles
 the right ventricles
 the left atrium (auricle)
 the right atrium (auricle)
parts functions
Pulmonary vein
Left auricle
Left ventricle
Aorta
Vena cava
Right auricle

112
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
valves
THE BLOOD VESSELS

There are three types of blood vessels
i. Arteries
ii. Veins
iii. Capillaries
Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They are made up of thick elastic muscles because they carry
blood of high pressure.
Veins
Veins carry blood towards the heart. They are made of thin walls with valves. The valves prevent blood
from flowing back as the blood in the veins has low pressure.
Capillaries
Capillaries are made of very thin walls (one cell thick). They pass nutrients and oxygen from blood to the
cells through their walls.

113
The difference between arteries and veins
Arteries Veins
-have thick muscular walls -have thin walls

-have no valves -have valves
-carry blood with high pressure -carry blood with low pressure
-carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary -carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary
artery) vein)
DISEASE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. Heart attack
This can be caused by blockage of the blood vessels due to too much fat in them.
2. Stroke
Stroke is caused by the blockage of the blood vessels supplying the brain with nutrients and
oxygen.
3. Anaemia
It is caused by shortage of red blood cells in the body. This will cause a low supply of oxygen in
the body.
4. HIV / AIDS
The virus destroys the immune system. This leaves the body with no defense against diseases.

114
5. High blood pressure (hypertension)

This is caused by the heart pumping more than enough blood of which the arteries cannot
handle.
CAUSES OF THE CIRCULATORY DISEASES
 Smoking: narrows blood vessels
 Too much fat (Cholesterol): blocks blood vessels
 Too much salt: Causes high blood pressure
 Inheritance: The circulatory disorder may be passed on to children from their parents.
 Old age: muscles not flexible enough because of old age
Prevention of circulatory diseases

 Exercises
 Eat a correct diet
 Avoid eating too much salt
 Avoid taking drugs
PULSE RATE
The normal pulse rate of a relaxed person is about 70 pulses per minute. When a person is exercising,
the pulse rate increases. This helps to pump more oxygen and glucose for energy.

115
BREATHING
7.1.3.1 describe the process of breathing.
7.1.3.2 describe the role of the lungs in the exchange of gases
7.1.3.3 investigate the levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air.
7.1.3.4 investigate the effect of physical activity on the rate and depth of breathing.
7.1.3.5 explain the effects of smoking on lungs.
Breathing is the taking in (inhaling) and out of air (exhaling)
PROCESS OF BREATHING

116
EXCHANGE OF GASES WITHIN THE LUNGS
 Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the blood stream. The blood then transports it to the rest of
the body.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells after being metabolized into the bloodstream to the
lungs. It is then exhaled out of the body.
THE DIFFERENCE IN INHALED AND EXHALED AIR
Inhaled(breathe in) Exhaled (breathe out)

- more oxygen -less oxygen
-less carbon dioxide -more carbon dioxide
-less moisture -more moisture
THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE ON THE RATE AND DEPTH OF BREATHING
When a person is doing an exercise, the breathing rate and depth increases. This is because the body
 Need more oxygen to generate more energy.
 Need to take out carbon dioxide.
Movements of parts when breathing in and out
Breathing in Breathing out

-ribs moves in and out -ribs moves down and in
-diaphragm contracts and flattens -diaphragm relaxes and domes
-the volume of chest increases -the volume of chest decreases
-the lungs expand -the lungs contract

117
THE EFFECTS OF SMOKING ON THE LUNGS
 Causes lung cancer

 It contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels
 Damages the lining of the alveoli
 Smoke combines with hemoglobin and prevent it from carrying oxygen

118
7.2 EXCRETION
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
7.2.1.1 define the term “excretion”
7.2.1.2 identify organs responsible for excretion
7.2.1.3 classify excretory products according to organs excreting them.
7.2.1.4 discuss common problems of the excretory system and how they can be prevented.
7.2.1.5 distinguish between excretion and egestion.
Excretion is the removal of waste products resulted from chemical reactions in the body.
Excretory organs and their products
organ product
Kidney Urine (unwanted water, minerals, urea)
Lungs Carbon dioxide
Skin Sweat (water, salts, nitrogenous waste)
liver Bile pigments
Excretory problems
Kidney failure: the kidneys can fail to function properly. This can lead to build of poisonous nitrogenous
products in the body.
Hepatitis: This is a liver disease. It can lead to ineffective removal of bile pigments.
Lung diseases: pneumonia, bronchitis and emphysema may destroy the lungs and make them not to
remove carbon dioxide effectively.
Perspiration: This is when the skin is unable to remove sweat easily
Preventing excretory problems

-avoid drugs and alcohol as they generally strain the kidneys and the liver.
-avoid smoking as it is dangerous to the lungs.
-eat food with vitamins as they create a healthier skin.

119
The difference between excretion and egestion (defecation)
*Egestion is the removal of undigested material (faeces), while excretion is the removal of chemical
wastes.
*Egestion is a mechanical process while digestion is a chemical process.

120
UNIT 8.0: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

8.1-Electrical Energy
8.1.1.1 demonstrate the phenomenon of induced magnetism.

8.1.1.2 describe different methods of magnetisation.
8.1.1.3 distinguish between the magnetic properties of iron and steel.
8.1.1.4 identify uses of magnetic materials.
8.1.1.5 demonstrate proper care for magnets.
MAGNETISM
North South
-it has two poles (north and south)

-like poles repels
-unlike poles attract each other
-magnets attract magnetic materials such as iron, steel and nickel
-when a bar magnet is left to swing freely, its north pole will face to the north
MAGNETIC INDUCTION
This is when a material is made to become a magnet. When a magnet is brought near a non
magnetic nail, the nail will attract small pieces of iron. When the magnet is removed, the nail
will lose this magnetic property.
Methods of magnetization
A magnetic material such as iron or steel can be made into a magnet. This process is called
magnetization. There are three methods of magnetization.
i) Single Stroking method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked in one direction with a
strong magnet.

121
ii) Double Stroking method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked by two strong magnets
using opposite ends of the magnets. This produces a strong magnet.
iii) Electricity method: A coil of wire is wrapped around a piece of iron or steel and an
electric current is passed through. The iron will only act as a magnet when electricity
is switched on. This kind of a magnet is called electromagnetic.

122
RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE
Magnetic properties of iron and steel
 A magnet made from iron quickly loses its magnetic properties. Therefore, iron forms a
temporary magnet.
 A magnet made from steel keeps its magnetic property for a long time. Therefore, steel
is forms permanent magnet.
Uses of magnets
Permanent magnets are used in:
 microphones and speakers
 television and computer monitors
 Scrap yards to separate ferrous (magnetic) from non-ferrous materials.
 electric motors and generators
 recording media such as tapes and computer hard drives
Proper care of magnets

 do not hit or drop a magnet (they break easily)
 do not place a magnet in a flame
 Opposite poles should face each other.
 Use a keepers to protect the magnets.

123
ELECTRIC CHARGE
8.1.2.1 demonstrate the phenomenon of electrostatic charging.

8.1.2.2 state the two types of charges.
8.1.2.3 state the SI unit for charge.
8.1.2.4 demonstrate repulsion and attraction between charges.
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE PHENOMENA
 An object can be charged because of friction. Friction between two objects causes
electrons to move from one object to another. Electrons are particles that carry
electrical charge.
 You may hear crackling noises when you comb your hair with a plastic comb, or lift
pieces of paper after rubbing your pen onto your hair, these are none as electrostatic.
 These occurrences are made by charges of electricity.
 The SI units of charge is coulomb (C)
The two types of charges
i) Negative Charge: formed when an objects gain electrons.
ii) Positive charge: formed when an object losses electrons
When positively charged objects are brought next to negatively charged objects, they are pulled
towards each other. However, the two negatively charged objects push away from each other.
Thus we can say that:
 Opposite charges attract
 Like charges repel
Some materials are known as insulators, this means that they do not let electrons flow through
them. Because of this, electric charges cannot move. This is known as static electricity.

124
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
8.1.3.1 identify sources of electrical energy.

8.1.3.2 describe the energy changes in a power station.
8.1.3.3 demonstrate the generation of electricity using a dynamo.
Electrical energy is made from other forms of energy using energy changers.
 Battery (chemical potential energy to electrical energy)
 solar cells ( light energy to electrical)
 dynamo (kinetic energy to electrical energy)
 generators (chemical potential energy to electrical energy)
ENERGY CHANGES AT A POWER STATIONs

1. Thermal power station
Chemical energy heat energy kinetic energy electrical energy

(Coal) (Steam) (Turbines) (Generator)
2. Hydroelectric power station

Chemical P energy Gravitational energy kinetic energy electrical energy
(water) (water in a dam) (Turbines) (Generator)
USING A BICYCLE DYNAMO

125
EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
8.1.4.1 demonstrate the heating effect of electricity.

8.1.4.2 demonstrate the chemical effect of electricity
8.1.4.3 identify applications of the heating effect of electricity.
8.1.4.4 demonstrate the magnetic effect of electric current.
8.1.4.5 identify applications of the magnetic effect of electricity.
8.1.4.6 identify the applications of the chemical effect of electricity
1. THE HEATING EFFECT

 Electrical energy can be changed into heat energy. When electric current passes through
a resistance wire, heat is lost and the resistance wire becomes hot.
 Copper is an example of wire that conducts electricity but does not get hot when
electricity flows through it.
 A number of appliances in the home use the heating effect of electricity.
 These include:
 electric heater
 electric kettle
 iron
 toaster
2. CHEMICAL EFFECT
 When an electric current passes through the resistance wire, it begins to glow and
become red. Electrical energy is turned into light energy in this manner.
 If the resistance wire is large enough, more light energy is produced.
 electrolysis: purification of metals e.g. aluminum and copper


126
 This method is used to cover materials with a thin layer of a metal through a
process called electroplating.
 Electroplating: to cover iron with a thin layer of chrome, silver or gold and protect it
from rusting as seen in trophies.
3. MAGNETIC EFFECT
Whenever an electric current flows through a wire, it makes a magnetic field around the wire.
This effect can be used to turn objects into magnets. These objects are then called
electromagnets. For example, electric bell, loud speakers, motors.
The campus needle moves when electricity is switched on. This shows magnetic effect of
electricity

127
ELECTRICAL CONSUMPTION
8.1.5.1 relate the power rating of an electrical appliance to its electrical energy
consumption.
8.1.5.2 perform calculations involving the power rating of an appliance and the period
of usage to
determine cost.
8.1.5.3 device means of reducing the cost of electricity.
Cost of electricity
Electricity provides us with energy which enables us to plug in our appliances. However, the use
of electrical energy comes with costs. The cost of electricity depends on two things:
 the length of time the appliance is used i.e. the longer the use, the more the energy
used
 the amount of electricity an appliance i.e. hot plates or kettles use more electricity than
radios.
Electrical power
Power is the rate at which electrical energy is used. I t is measured in units called Watts (W). S.I
unit of power is kilowatts (kW). Most electrical appliances have power rating marked on them.
1kW = 1000W
Calculating electrical cost
Electrical energy = power X time used

(units) (kWh)
Cost = electrical power X time X cost per kW
Examples
A 2kW iron is used for two hours. Botswana Power Corporation charges P0.90 per unit.
Calculate the cost.
Energy used = power X time

=2kW X 2h
=4kWh

128
Cost = energy used X cost per unit

= 4kWh X P0.90
= P3.60
Complete the table below
BPC charges P0. 85per unit.
APPLIANCE POWER TIME USED ENERGY USED COST

1. IRON 8 kW 1.5 h
2. HEATER 3h 24 kWh
3. STOVE 24 kW 12 kWh
4. KETTLE 2 kW 30 min
5. RADIO 500 W 2h
6. BULB 50 W 5h
Ways of reducing the cost of electricity

 It is important that we keep the amount of electricity use at its minimal. By so doing we
should apply the following:
 switch off appliances when not in use
 do not leave some appliances on standby as they still consume electricity
 use energy saving bulbs
 use fans instead of air conditioners
 boil the amount of water you need in a kettle
 dry clothes outside instead of using drying machines

129
SAFE USE OF THE ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME
8.1.6.1 use fuses appropriately according to their ratings.

8.1.6.2 explain the need for ‘Earthing’ metal cases and for ‘double insulation’ of electrical
appliances.
8.1.6.3 define the terms: live, neutral and earth in the context of electricity.
8.1.6.4 wire a mains plug correctly.
8.1.6.5 investigate why switches and fuses are connected to the live wire.
Mains electricity
The electricity that we use in homes, hospitals, shops and schools is called mains electricity.
Mains electricity is alternating current.
Wiring three pin plug
wire colour function

Live brown Carries electricity from the mains to the
appliance
Neutral blue Carries electricity from the appliance back to
the mains
Earth Green and yellow Safety (carries leaking current to earth)
Safety devices
A fuse
Fuse wire metal cap
Glass

130
A fuse is a safety device. It is made up of a thin wire called the fuse wire that melts easily and
breaks the circuit if there is too much current passing through it. This will protect the appliance
from damage. Fuses are rated according to the needs of the appliance.
Earth wire
The earth wire carries leaking current to the ground. This happens when there is a loose wire
touching a metal casing of the appliance.
A trip switch (circuit breaker)

Electricity is carried to and from a house through wires. These wires are connected to the fuse
box which records how much electricity is used. The fuse box can be replaced by a trip switch
which breaks the circuit if it is damaged.
Double insulation
Double insulation means that electrical parts in the appliance are not in contact with the outer
casing of the appliance. This safety method is used with hand held appliances such as shaving
machines and hair dryers.
Using electricity safely

 make sure all the wires are insulated
 do not use electricity on damp conditions
 avoid overloading
Switches, fuses and live wire

Switches should be connected to a live wire because it is the one that carries electrical current.
If they are not connected to the live wire, the live would still pass electricity to the appliance
and this can cause electrocution.
Fuses should also be connected to the live wire. If it is not connected to the neutral wire, it will
not cut off the current and will not protect the appliance from overheating therefore causing
damage to the appliance.

131
TRACING ELECTRICAL FAULTS

132
UNIT 9.0: THE SOLAR SYSTEM

9.1-Earth Systems
9.1.1.1 define the term “geo-science”
9.1.1.2 state the four main spheres that make up the Earth (atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere and
lithosphere).
9.1.1.3 describe the features of each of the Earth’s spheres.
9.1.1.4 identify processes of sphere interaction.
9.1.1.5 identify at least three careers that are related to the study of geo-science.
GEO-SCIENCE (earth science)

Geo science is the study of earth and its systems. It studies all parts of the environment.
EARTH
Spheres that make up earth

There are three main spheres that make up Biosphere. The biosphere is the zone where life is
found.
i) Atmosphere: the layer of air surrounding the earth.
ii) Hydrosphere: Water on the surface or close to the surface of earth.
iii) Lithosphere:
 The earth’s crust is made up of three layers (crust, mantle, and core). The
lithosphere is made up of the crust and mantle.
 Crust
 This is the solid rocky crust that covers the whole planet. It is the visible
part of the earth that we live in and contains most of the minerals that
we use.
 Mantle
 This is a rocky layer below the crust. The rock material is made up of
minerals which contain iron and other dense metals.
Summary

133
Interaction between spheres

There is an interaction (work together) between the different spheres
The water cycle

The water on the oceans, rivers and dams (hydrosphere) is heated by the sun. It evaporates
into the atmosphere. It is then cooled and condenses to form the clouds. Then the water will
rain onto the lithosphere. The lithosphere will then provide the plants and animals (biosphere)
with this water.
Wind
The lithosphere is warmed by the sun. The air in the soil is also warmed and it rises. The cool air
is sucked into the soil to replace the warm one. This continuous movement forms wind.
Other interactions
-Birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere)
-Fish (biosphere) swim in water (hydrosphere)
-Animals (biosphere) live on the lithosphere, breath air from the atmosphere and drink water
from the hydrosphere.

134
Careers in Geo-science
Career
Geologist
Mining geologist
Climatologist
Mineralogist
Soil scientist
Paleontologist

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1

JC INTEGRATED SCIENCE NOTES

FORM ONE 2022

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

UNIT 1.0 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

1.1 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

 It involves making, or producing

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

Involves science process skills like Involves technological skills construction,

The impact of technology on the society

1. Improved transport (eg. Cars, airplanes, trains)

2. Better methods of communication (eg. Cell phones, internet, televisions)

3. Improved construction and manufacturing (eg. roads, bridges, buildings)

The influence of society on technology

2. Communication: more people need better methods of communication. This leads to

Advantages of using technology

-make travelling simple and quicker

-make communication simple and quicker

Environmental and health issues related to technology

-Natural resources such as fuel are being used up at a fast rate.

-Pollution to the environment.

-Global warming is increasing.

-Deforestation is taking place at high rate.

-Cause more accidents

State 3 importance of science

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

WORKING SAFELY IN THE SCIENCE LABORATORY

1.1.3.1 identify common hazards in a laboratory.

COMMON HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORY

i. Biological hazards: These are hazards caused by dangerous animals or plants.

SAFETY GUIDELINES IN THE LABORATORY (laboratory rules)

-wear goggles during experiments

-wear protective gloves during experiments

-wash hands after using chemicals

-check the label of the chemical before use

-never smell chemicals directly

-always use a water bath to heat flammable liquids

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

-allow hot glassware to cool slowly

-always switch off an electrical device before disconnecting it

-insulate broken wires

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

-wash with cold running water when burnt

-Never work alone in the laboratory.

-Report all the accidents.

-Do not eat in the lab

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

a) What is first aid

b) State 2 importance of first aid

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

PREPARED BY M. Kereeditse, 2022

e.g Increase in temperature significantly increases the rate of transpiration

e.g increase in temperature has no significant impact on the rate of transpiration

IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

SUGGEST A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION (HYPOTHESIS)

TEST THE HYPOTHESIS BY EXPERIMENTING

MAKE A CONCLUSION FROM THE EXPERIMENTS

Fractional squares = __ ÷ 2 =

Total area = _ + _ = ____ square units