Diseases And Immunity

A pathogen :
is an organism that cause disease.
Such as, bacteria, virus and fungus.
pathogens differ because each pathogen has its own specific antigen on its
cell surface.
Antigen :
any molecule recognized by immunity as a foreign body.
Immunity:
the defense of our body against infectious diseases .
Active immunity :
defense against a pathogen by antibody production.
passive immunity :
short term defense against a pathogen by acquired antibodies from another
individuals limited to across placenta and breast milk.
Antibody :
proteins that bind to antigens leading to direct destruction of pathogens OR
marking of pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.
 ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY

Antibodies Produced actively by the body Are transmitted passively to the

body.
Advantages Long term defense
Rapid onset

Disadvantages Delayed onset

Take long time to be functioning Short term defense

Types Natural active immunity

Defense of the body by producing Natural passive
antibodies against specific pathogen Maternal antibodies across
placenta and breast milk.
Artificial active immunity
Vaccination Artificial passive
The immune system is activated
artificially by injecting dead
pathogen into the body.
Vaccinations means
Vaccination
introducing a dead or altered form of a pathogen such as a virus or
bacterium into the body.

The Dead pathogen can’t cause disease

but still have surface antigen that stimulate immune system to produce
antibodies and memory cells specific to the pathogen.

So when the immune system is subjected to this pathogen again , it will

be attacked and destroyed immediately
and that is the role of memory cells.

The memory cell are not produced in passive immunity.

The role of vaccination :

Controlling the spread of transmissible disease.
Infectious (transmissible ) disease:
Disease in which the pathogen can be transmitted from one host to
another.
Via two methods
1.direct contact
Touching contaminated surfaces
as fungal infection athlete foot
blood
body fluids such as ( AIDS ) THROGH sexual intercourse
2. indirect contact
food and Water born as cholera bacterium and polio virus
Air born such as influenza virus
Insect born (vector) as malaria
vector : is an organism that carries a pathogen from one host to
another.
 Body defense mechanisms (barriers)
Mechanical barriers
1.Skin
has a thick layer of Keratin
which prevents penetration of any pathogens.
1.Nose hairs
trap dust and pathogens from reaching the lungs.
Chemical barriers
1.Mucus
Traps bacteria that enters the respiratory system via air.
2.Stomach acid (HCL)
The acidity kills pathogens that enter the digestive system via the food and water .
Cellular barriers
cells of our immune system, which defense against pathogens and disease.
Lymphocytes (which produce antibodies)
Phagocytes (phagocytosis )
Phagocytosis and antibody production by white blood cells.
 Malaria parasite

Malaria is a serious and fatal disease.

Transmission the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
Present in areas with higher temperature such as Asia , AFRICA ,
SOUTH and central America.

Vector : female Anopheles mosquitoes.

These mosquitoes carry the Plasmodium protest in its saliva

and transmitted to the human blood causing disease
 Malaria parasite
Life Cycle:
involves both humans and mosquitoes.
1.Infection by Sporozoites:
a malaria-infected female Anopheles
mosquito injects sporozoites into the human host.
These sporozoites infect liver cells and mature into schizonts.

2.Schizont Rupture
Merozoite Release into blood stream.

3 .The merozoites Invade and destroys the red blood cells causing
the symptoms of malaria.
4.Transmission to Mosquitoes:
Non infected mosquito feed on infected human blood
gametocytes of parasite are ingested and they mate in the
mosquito’s gut.
The cycle of growth and multiplication begins in the mosquito.
After 10-18 days, a form of the parasite called
a sporozoite migrates to the mosquito’s salivary glands.

5.New Cycle in Humans:

When the infected mosquito takes another blood meal from a
human .
Prevention and Treatment:
There is no vaccination for malaria.
Prevention involves:
Avoiding mosquito bites: People use mosquito nets and insect
repellent.
Antimalarial drugs: These treat symptoms and can prevent
infection.
 HIV VIRUS (AIDS)
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

MODE OF INFECTION : primarily AND MAINLY through sexual intercourse.

HOW HIV IS TRANSMITTED ?
Via all body fluids
1.Sharing needles with an infected person.
2.Blood transfusions from infected blood.
3.From mother to fetus through the placenta during pregnancy.
4.From mother to baby via breastfeeding.
Initial Symptoms: After infection, individuals often experience mild flu-like symptoms.
infected people might not even know they are carrying the virus.
Effect on Immune System (HIV leads to AIDS):
HIV targets a specific type of lymphocyte in the immune system.
The virus frequently changes its protein coat to avoid recognition and destruction by
lymphocytes
It then infects these lymphocytes and uses their machinery to multiply.
this will decrease number of lymphocytes AND reduce the ability to
produce antibodies , which weakens the immune system leading to AIDS
 Over time, this immune system suppression leads
to AIDS.
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome):
Definition: AIDS is the advanced stage of HIV infection.
Symptoms:
Compromised IMMUNE SYSTEM WILL LEAD TO HIGH RATE
OF
INFECTION , DISEASES
And CANCERS.
Control Measures:
using condoms during sexual intercourse.
Getting tested if unprotected sex
Raising awareness through education programs.
 Cholera bacterium

caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.

Is found in contaminated water and food.

Mode of infection :Ingesting water or food

contaminated with Vibrio cholerae.

Symptoms : severe diarrhea.

 Mechanism of cholera Diarrhea:

Ingested Vibrio cholerae reaches the small intestine

1. attach to the wall of the small intestine.
2. Then produces toxins.
3. Which stimulate the release of chloride ions from inside the
cells into the lumen of the intestine.
4. Chloride ions accumulate in the lumen of the small intestine,
lowering the water potential .
water moves from cells (higher water potential ) into the
intestinal lumen (lower water potential )
(by osmosis). Leading to
1.Watery Diarrhea :Large amount of water are lost from the
body .
2.Dehydration: The loss of water and ions can lead to severe
dehydration, affecting tissues and organs.
Controlling the spread of cholera ?
Proper Waste disposal through

1.Maintain clean water sources to prevent

contamination.

1.Hygienic food preparation: Storing food

PROPERLY and maintaining clean equipment.

3.Good personal hygiene via Regular hand

washing with soap and water, especially after
using the restroom and before handling food.
4.Sewage treatment
 Cholera bacterium

Treatment:
Cholera can be effectively treated by oral rehydration
therapy.
This therapy involves drinking a solution with a small
amount of salt and sugar dissolved in it.
 Excessive alcohol consumption
• Alcohol (Ethanol):
– Wines, beers, and spirits contain an alcohol called ethanol.
– Effects of Alcohol:
– 1. Ethanol is a depressant drug that slows down signals in the nerves
and brain.
– 2. therefore, It increases reaction times, meaning it takes longer to
react to situations.
– 3. The liver breaks down alcohol through series of chemical reactions.
– 4. products of these reactions are toxic to the liver cells .
– 5. So excessive alcohol consumption can damage the liver.
6. Social problems
• - Reduced self control and violent behavior
• - Loss relationships.
• - loss of job due to poor work performance.
• - may lead to crimes to get money.
 Tobacco smoke
• Tobacco smoke contains harmful chemicals
• 1. Nicotine:
– Is Addictive Substance: .
– Blood Vessel Constriction: It narrows blood vessels, leading to increased blood
pressure.
– Risk of Blood Clots: The narrowed blood vessels can cause blood clots,
potentially resulting in heart attacks or strokes.

• Nicotine molecules can cross the placenta to the fetus

• Babies born to mothers who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to
have low birth weight.
•
Tobacco smoke
• 2. Carbon Monoxide:
– Reduced Oxygen-Carrying Capacity: Carbon monoxide binds
irreversibly to hemoglobin, reducing the blood’s capacity to
carry oxygen.
– Strain on Breathing System: To compensate, breathing
frequency and depth increase to maintain oxygen levels.
– Risk of Heart Disease and Strokes: The strain on the
circulatory system increases the risk of coronary heart
disease and strokes.
 Tobacco smoke
• 3. Tar:
– carcinogen so increased chances of lung cancer.

• chronic bronchitis : stimulates goblet cells and mucus glands, leading to

mucus accumulate and destruction of cilia.

• Emphysema: Frequent infections cause elastase release, breaking down

elastic fibers in alveoli.
• Alveoli lose elasticity, reducing gas exchange surface area.
• Patients become breathless and wheezy

• COPD, where chronic bronchitis and emphysema occur together.

 Drugs
• A drug -Is any substance taken into the body
that modifies or affects chemical reactions in
the bod
• -in medicine drug is a substance used to help
our bodies to fight diseases.
 How antibiotics kill bacteria ?
• Disturb cell membrane function.
• Affect enzyme action in bacteria.
• Inhibit synthesis of cell walls of bacteria so
reduce their reproduction.
• Inhibits formation of protein in bacteria.

• antibiotics wont be able to kill viruses ?!

• As Viruses don’t have cell wall ,
• no cell membrane for action of antibiotics
 Antibiotics resistant bacteria
• What is MRSA?
Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
• It’s a strain of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus that has
developed resistance to an antibiotic called methicillin.
• How Does MRSA Develop?
• mutation in bacteria
• new strains are developed which are resistant to certain
antibiotic (methicillin).
• when this antibiotic is used by human ,
• the non-resistant bacteria die
• while resistant bacteria can live and reproduce
• ( this known as natural selection)
• Humans have contributed to this problem by overusing
antibiotics in situations where they were not truly necessary
• Or do not complete the course.