2019 19th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies

(ISCIT)

A Review of Stereo-Photogrammetry Method

for 3-D Reconstruction in Computer Vision
Phuong Ngoc Binh Do1,2, Quoc Chi Nguyen1

1Department of Mechatronics, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
2 Department of Information Technology, Saigon Institute of Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Abstract—3-D reconstruction is one big concern since the

first days of computer vision (CV) development. By going
through the history of 3-D reconstruction, we show the
contribution of this field into society and the necessity of
improving the system’s complexity, speed and accuracy.
Although various algorithms and methods have been
introduced, stereo-photogrammetry that applies the binocular
vision principle is the closest to human vision system. Originated
from the motivation of improving the stereo-photogrammetry
and applying for robot manipulation, the method is reviewed
with all three known-to-date categorizes local, global and semi- Fig. 1. A rough timeline of some of the most active
global. In addition, it is advisable to rectify the stereo images topics of research in computer vision [1, pp. 10].
before matching to find depth and reconstruct 3-D models.
Therefore, some of the rectification methods are demonstrated.
Finally, we discussed our findings and future work relates to
stereo-photogrammetry.

Keywords—stereo-photogramery, stereo matching, 3-D

reconstruction, computer vision, rectification, disparity.
I. INTRODUCTION
Computer vision (CV) is a study to extract the useful
information from digital photos and videos automatically by
computer, which mimics the vision system of a human. CV is
challenging because it solves the inverse matter [1, pp. 3],
which demands combination knowledge of many fields such
as Mathematics and Physics. Szeliski [1, pp. 10] through
Figure 1 shows a rough timeline for the most concerned topics
in CV. There are various concerns in CV such as Image
Formation; Image Processing; Feature Detection and
Matching; Image Segmentation and 3-D reconstruction [1, pp.
5]. However, this paper focuses on stereo-photogrammetry as
a method for 3-D reconstruction. Historically, 3-D
reconstruction has been developing along with CV decades
ago. In the 1880s, according to [1, pp. 12], many CV
algorithms that focused on processing three-dimensional (3-
D) data such as modeling [2], acquisition [3], merging [4], and
recognition [5] were introduced. One of the highlights is the
introduction of discrete Markov Random Field (MRF) models
for optimization in image global search, which was applied to
find the disparity maps and acquire images’ depth information
in the later years [7-9]. Later in the 1990s, tracking and image
segmentation techniques were significantly improved [10-11],
which led to multi-view stereo algorithms in 3-D
reconstruction [1, pp. 14]. In the 2000s, more efficient
algorithms for complex global optimization contributed to
application of 3D processing into other fields such as medical,
archeology and robotics [1, pp. 16]. Figure 2 shows 3-D
reconstruction algorithms are used to (a) process MRI images
and diagnose diseases, (b) accurately estimate ice floes’ age
and size from images, and (c) reconstructing the 3-D
environment where mobile robots are working. Recently,
machine learning techniques have shown effectiveness for the
applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into CV technology
[1] [12-15]. For instance, [15] made use of the 3-D vision and
machine learning to train the robots grasp objects (which
previously unseen) at specific points.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2. Applications of CV in (a) medical, (b)
archeology and (c) robotics [12, pp. 2–3].
As mentioned above, the early researches in the 3-D vision
system has supported tremendous applications of visual
impaired, robotics, navigation, games industry, augmented
reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) [13]. Although
improvements in 2-D image processing algorithms such as
line detection, image segmentations, feature-based object
detection, and global optimizations offer more reliable 3-D
recovering techniques, they are still far from re-produce
natural visual perception system of a two-year-old human [1,
pp. 3]. [16-17] classified the techniques into Passive and
Active, as shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3. 3-D image reconstruction techniques [16].
Active techniques contact or project certain form of energy
(lights, laser, or ultrasound) onto an object to measure distance
from a sensor to that object, in which the set of distances
collected from the sensor are employed to reconstruct
geometric data of the object. The sensors used in the these
techniques are mostly based on the Time-of-Flight (ToF)
Principle, where the distance can be extracted from the return
time of reflect waves or the phase shift between the
illumination and reflection, as shown in Figure 4.

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 2019 19th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies
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companies such as Microsoft, Sony and Facebook have been

investing in the research and development of VR sets a
research trend in this field. Binocular vision makes use of two
cameras (that is why so-called “stereo”) simulating the
mechanism of the human eyes to reproduce this missing
information. Yan et al. [23] shows two possible arrangements
for the stereo as shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 4. The principle of ToF depth camera [18].
Passive techniques use an image sensor (semiconductor
charge-coupled devices or metal-oxide-semiconductor) to
record the reflected/emitted radiance from the surfaces of
objects. The signals collected from image sensors are
converted to the digital data, which is employed to build the
3D images of the objects. It should be noted that the digital
data represents the projection of the real image to the plane of
image sensor, i.e., the 2-D image of the 3-D real image. Figure
5 shows the principle to reconstruct the 3-D image from 2-D
stereo images. Accuracy is one of the highlighted advantages (a) (b)
of these methods. However, in outdoor or poorly controlled
environments, the reflection of light may generate noise in the Fig. 5. Cameras arrangements for stereo-
photogrammetry:(a) Converged camera axes
2-D images and yield the poor results from image processing.
(b) Parallel camera axes [ 23].
A common solution to eliminate the noise is hardware
improvement (e.g. image sensor, optical lens, and signal A. Stereo-Photogrammetry Depth Formula
processing chip), but results in high cost. Another solution is
to develop improved algorithms that employ commercial The parallel setup is favorable for depth calculation; and
cameras. One of these methods is called photogrammetry and the process to convert the other arrangements into the parallel
has been focused by numerous researches for 50 years [13]. one is called rectification. According to [12, pp. 290–291], by
following the geometry of binocular arrangement in Figure 6,
With machine learning, photogrammetry, as an image- the formula to calculate the depth parameter can be deduced
based 3-D reconstruction method, enables the use of as following:
enormous number of online visual information. In addition,
photogrammetry is the suitable answer for robots’ visual
perception in terms of system mobility, complexity, cost and
performance. For example, medical has benefited from most
applications of photogrammetry in analyzing MRI and CT
data [19] and robotics industry using 3-D visual system for
environment detection [12, pp. 2], grasping [20] or welding
[21]. Photogrammetry, therefore, is heavily studied and
continuously improved. One of the photogrammetry system is
the use of an extra light source (typically a projector or a laser)
with a single camera to increase the accuracy but perform
ineffective outdoors and under poorly controlled Fig. 6. Geometry of binocular arrangement
surroundings. Another system uses two cameras, therefore
[12, pp. 290].
called stereo-photogrammetry, is the focus of this paper
because of its continuous improvement even in the In parallel axes setup, arbitrary point P in the scene of the
complicated radiometric conditions between images [22]. As two cameras will be projected on both cameras’ image plane -
an alternative, a moving camera are used to capture two or and , those projected points are called a conjugate pair
more images for depth calculation, but would take more (or corresponding points). The plane formed by the center
processing time than stereo camera. Section II presents the points of the cameras’ lenses and P is an epipolar plane. Then,
stereo-photogrammetry method. For details, Section II-A the intersections of this plane with the two image planes are
illustrates the basic formula for depth calculation with stereo- called epipolar lines. Clearly, a conjugate pair of an arbitrary
photogrammetry, in which the stereo images need to be point P lies on the corresponding epipolar lines in each image.
rectified and used for disparities search. Rectification process However, there will be a displacement in the position of the
is then discussed in Section II-B. Finally, the stereo-matching corresponding points, = − which is called disparity.
algorithms to find the disparity maps are reviewed in section Assuming the origin of the coordinate system is at the
II-C. In the conclusion, we briefly introduce our current and center of the left camera lens. Without the loss of generality,
future work on this method. applying the Thales theorem for the triangle and a
line that is parallel to the side of the triangle, we have
II. STEREO-PHOTOGRAMMETRY
The key concept is the binocular vision. In biology, it is a type x xL (1)
 .
of vision using two eyes to perceive the depth by overlapping z f
the field of view from each eye. In recent years, there has
been massive application of this concept to technology, Similarly, for the triangle and the line
namely Virtual Reality (VR). The fact that big technology

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 2019 19th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies
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x  b xR (2)
 .
z f
Finally, the formula for depth is deduced from the two
equations above
bf bf (3)
z  .
xL  xR D
The formula raises two sub-issues that are needed to be
solved: 1. How to rectify the images, and 2. How to find the
disparity D map from a pair of rectified stereo images.
B. Image Rectification
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Stereo Images (a) before (b) after rectification.
The conjugate (corresponding) pair of an arbitrary point
on the object will lie on the corresponding pair of epipolar
lines in the stereo images. However, in Figure 7(a), it is a
tremendous task to find the corresponding epipolar lines in the
whole image. Rectification process helps to transform the
images so that the corresponding epipolar lines will be parallel
and on the same horizontal lines, Figure 7(b). The disparity
searching problem therefore reduces from the whole-image
searching into line searching.
There are cases that rectification is impossible, i.e., of
pushroom images [22]. The epipolar lines are not straight but
hyperbola. The author [22] suggested the method to aggregate
the matching cost from 16 directions to cover the 2-D image.
However, most of the cases it is feasible and advisable to
rectify the stereo images to reduce the calculating complexity.
Literature offers various methods for image rectification.
[25] names a few such as Robert et al.’s [26] algorithm
minimizes the distortion of orthogonality around centers of the
photos; Hartley [27] minimizes the parallax within the
corresponding points which are used for the rectification
process, which is then applied for the stereoRectify-
Uncalibrated() library in OpenCV; and Loop and Zhang [24],
proposed to decompose the transformation into three smaller
steps: Projective Transformation, Similarity Transformation
and Shearing Transformation, then minimize the distortion of
each transformation. The final distortion varies from methods
to methods. However, generally all the algorithms try to
rectify the stereo images with the least distortion that makes
the epipolar lines parallel and on the same horizontal lines.
Figure 8 shows the testing results for using Hartley’s [27] and
Zhang’s [24] method, the former shows some distortion
comparing to the latter method.
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Hartley’s (a) shows some distortion in red circle
while Zhang’s (b) does not
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C. Stereo Matching
Disparity searching, a.k.a. stereo matching or visual
correspondence, is a process of finding the corresponding
pairs in the stereo images and obtaining the disparity maps
from their positions. This matter has been intensively
investigated in CV community [28-29]. The number of the
methods are still increasing and there is an online platform
called Middlebury benchmark to keep track of the new
methods. The evaluations of the methods are often done
between the achieved disparity maps with the ground truth
images (i.e. the actual depth images). Currently, there has not
yet a method that yields the most reliable and fastest result,
this opens the gate for researches in improving its performance
and speed.
Scharstein et al. [29] generalized the process into four
steps: 1. Matching cost computation, 2. Cost (support)
aggregation, 3. Disparity computation/Optimization, and 4.
Disparity refinement; while Fuhr et al. [28] divided the
methods into two categories: local and global. However, both
local or global approaches will go through the above steps,
which are called the taxonomy of stereo matching.
Local technique uses the surround information around a
pixel to calculate its disparity locally. By applying the
taxonomy, in the first and second step, common algorithms
are Squared intensity differences (SSD), Absolute intensity
differences (SAD), Normalized cross-correlation and Binary
matching cost [28]. Overall, the algorithm that represents this
step and mostly used is SAD. For example, [30] used this
technique to calculate the matching cost for their mobile robot.
The formula for SAD is known as below.
SAD ( x, y, D)  
( i , j )W ( x , y )
| I L (i, j )  I R (i  D, j ) | . (4)
In Eq. (4), W ( x, y) is the surround window with the
concerned pixel in the middle; x, y are therefore odd integers.
I (i, j ) is the intensity of a pixel at the coordinate (i, j ) ; is
the disparity between the concerned pixels. Figure 9 gives a
visual example of SAD matching cost [30]. The matching cost
is the absolute difference (AD) between the pixels (that are
converted into grayscale) in the searching windows from the
stereo images, and the aggregation step is to take the sum of
the differences, so call the name SAD. Finally, the two
concern pixels with the least SAD (of the windows around
them) will be the corresponding ones (Using “Winner-take-
all” (WTA) method).
ABS ( - ) =
SAD = 1696
Fig. 9. SAD cost aggregation example [30].
The advantage of this technique is low computation cost
comparing to the global methods which try to optimize a
global energy, hence, the local techniques typically faster.
However, the results are noisier [28]. The local algorithm can
be improved by minimizing an image row (i.e. a pair of
epipolar lines in post rectification) instead of the local cost for
a pixel. A disparity space image (DSI) is created from each
pair of corresponding epipolar lines, then using Dynamic
Programming to search for the optimal path from top left to
 2019 19th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies
(ISCIT)
bottom right of the DSI, which as a result, is the disparity map
of the points on that scanline [31]. However, this method
introduces streaking because the relationships between DSIs
of the whole image are not considered. Figure 10 show a DSI
example.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. (a) DSI of a scanline, and (b) Regularize
process of the DSI [31].
In contrast, global techniques normally skip the aggregation
step (step 2 of the taxonomy) and introduce an energy-
optimizing framework that contains a data and a smoothness
term [22][29]. By adding penalties for occlusions (where parts
of an object can be viewed in left image but blocked from right
image, and vice versa) [32-33], visibility treatment [24-36],
ensuring the stereo consistent symmetry [34-37], or using
segmentation data for smoothness term weighting [36], the
smoothness of the disparity map is enhanced. First of all, the
energy function is defined as below
E(D)  E(data) (D)  E( smooth) ( D). (5)
In Eq. (5), E(data) ( D) is the sum of initial or aggregated
matching costs that shows to what extent the disparity function
D agrees with the pair of stereo images. And the E( smooth) ( D)
term makes sure the disparity map is robust by investigating
the difference of neighboring disparities. Then, many
approaches are used to optimize the energy function, e.g.
traditional algorithms with regularization and Markov
Random Fields (MRF) such as continuation [38], simulated
annealing [39-41], highest confidence first [42], mean field
annealing [43]; or recently, graph-cut [44-48] and Belief
Propagation [34]. Despite most top-ranked methods are global
which produce smooth and robust results, their disadvantage
is the computation cost; in other words, local techniques tend
to be more simple and faster than global ones [22][28].
Semi-global matching method, therefore, was introduced
to combine the low complexity of local methods (by
calculating matching cost in 1D) with the global smoothness
(by aggregating matching cost from all directions equally, i.e.,
at least 8 and up to 16 directions to well-cover the 2-D images)
[22]. This idea also solves cases where rectification is not
feasible. First the costs are calculated using any known
method, e.g. SAD. The aggregated cost S ( p, D) for a pixel p
(with disparity D) is the sum of all 1-D optimum cost paths
that end in pixel p (at disparity D), see Figure 11. The method
is formulated, as below, for cost Lr ( p,D) belongs to a path in
direction r of pixel p (with disparity D). Finally, the author
subtracts the minimum path cost of previous pixel,
min Lr ( p  r, k) to avoid the accumulation of costs along the
k
path.
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Lr ( p, D)  C ( p, D)  min( Lr ( p  r , D),
Lr ( p  r, D  1)  P1 ,
(6)
Lr ( p  r, D  1)  P1,
min Lr ( p  r,i)  P2 )  min Lr ( p  r ,k).
i k
S ( p, D)   Lr ( p, D). (7)
r
In Figure 11, paths that are not horizontal, vertical or
diagonal are implemented by moving one step horizontally (or
vertically), then one step diagonally. In Eq. (7), the aggregated
cost S ( p, D) are the sum of Lr from all directions r, then the
disparity D is selected with respect to the minimum cost,
min DS( p, D) . If Di is the number of possible disparities, the
calculation cost is O ( Di ) at each pixel. The algorithm also
goes through each pixel 16 times, therefore, total complexity
is O (WHDi ) . In [22], the author applied integer-based SIMD
(Single Instruction, Multiple Data) assembler instructions for
parallel processing, hence, reduce significantly the time.
Moreover, [22] used the mutual information (MI) based on the
entropies of the images to calculate the matching cost; which
results are proved to be insensitive to intensity changes [49],
see Figure 12.
Fig. 11. Aggregation of costs:
16 Paths from all directions r [22].
Finally, depending on the applications that the disparity
refinement will be carried out or not. Normally, disparities
estimated in discretized space are good enough for robot
navigation or object/ human tracking. However, they are not
appealing in image-based rendering, e.g. quantized maps. As
a result, sub-pixels refinement techniques repeating gradient
descent and curve-fitting to the matching cost at discrete
disparity levels [50-52]. However, the results depend on two
conditions: 1. Smoothly varied intensities, 2. Computing
regions are on same surface [29]. [53] mentioned the
possibility of correlation curves fitting to integer-sampled
matching costs, but the conditions for good results are need to
be investigated further [29].
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 12. (a) Left image (b) Right image, synthetically
altered (c) Result from a traditional stereo algorithm
(d) Result from MI method [49].
 2019 19th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies
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III. CONCLUSIONS
Middlebury benchmark, being mentioned earlier, is a
reliable online platform to keep track of the continuous
developments in stereo-matching. The newest method is
dated to 2019 (the same publishing year of this paper)
showing that this is currently an active research topic.
This review shows the possibility of stereo-photogrametry
to build the 3D vision systems. We realized that in local
techniques such as SAD, the matching costs are redundantly
calculated many times, and it is unnecessary to search for the
depth of objects’ background. In addition, researches show
that global approaches will take more computation cost than
local methods. Although there is an OpenCV library for semi-
global method StereoSGBM() and based on Hirschmuller’s
work [22], it does not make use of the Mutual Information
(MI) to calculate the matching cost (which, as being proved
by the author, yields good matching results even under
changing intensities). Therefore, the investigation on the
accuracy and performance of the stereo-photogrametry
method should be continued.
Some stereo-photogrametry methods were reviewed in
this paper are dated a decade ago. However, those are the
fundamental knowledge that has led to many state-of-the-art
algorithms. For example, in 2012, Sah Jotwani showed an
improved stereo matching method which depended on
correlation method [54]. Or in [55], published in 2018, a new
method was introduced and called Cyclops 2 that minimized
a weight function by applying the idea of calculating SAD
(which method was discussed earlier in this paper). Even in a
few-month-old paper (Mar. 2019), [56], the authors still using
dynamic programming in order to calculate the disparity.
Overall, most of the new stereo-matching methods are
improving the calculation time because stereo-matching is
“computationally intensive” [55]. One of the known solutions,
parallel computation with the graphics processing unit (GPU)
technology, is also our focus. Some other current researches
focus on improving the performance of the stereo-matching
by applying convolutional neural networks (CNN), such as
MC-CNN methods that uses CNN to compute matching cost
but still using Semi-Global Matching (SGM-which was first
introduced in 2008 [22]) to perform the matching [55].
However, those topics are not in the scope of this paper.
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(ISCIT)

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