Contents

Preface xv

CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts 1

1.1 Validity and Soundness 4
■ Summary of Definitions 10
Exercise 1.1 10
1.2 Forms and Validity 14
Argument Forms 14
Understanding Conditional Statements 17
Famous Valid Forms 19
The Famous Forms Method 25
■ Summary of Famous Valid Forms 25
■ The Famous Forms Method 26
■ Summary of Definitions 28
Exercise 1.2 28
1.3 Counterexamples and Invalidity 33
Counterexamples 33
The Counterexample Method 36
Categorical Statements and Arguments 36
■ The Counterexample Method 46
■ Summary of Definitions 47
Exercise 1.3 48
1.4 Strength and Cogency 50
■ Summary of Definitions 56
Exercise 1.4 57
Notes 60

CHAPTER 2 Identifying Arguments 63

2.1 Arguments and Nonarguments 63
■ Summary of Definitions 67
Exercise 2.1 68

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2.2 Well-Crafted Arguments 70

■ Summary of Principles for Constructing Well-Crafted Arguments 86
■ Summary of Definitions 86
Exercise 2.2 86
2.3 Argument Diagrams 95
Exercise 2.3 99
Notes 104

CHAPTER 3 Logic and Language 107

3.1 Logic, Meaning, and Emotive Force 109
■ Summary of Definitions 113
Exercise 3.1 114
3.2 Definitions 116
Extensional and Intensional Definitions 116
■ Summary of Definitions 123
Definition by Genus and Difference 123
■ Summary of Criteria for Evaluating Definitions by Genus
and Difference 130
■ Summary of Definitions 130
Exercise 3.2 131
3.3 Using Definitions to Evaluate Arguments 135
■ Summary of Definitions 139
Exercise 3.3 140
Notes 145

CHAPTER 4 Informal Fallacies 147

4.1 Fallacies of Irrelevance 149
Argument Against the Person (Ad Hominem Fallacy) 149
Straw Man Fallacy 152
Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum Fallacy) 153
Appeal to the People (Ad Populum Fallacy) 155
Appeal to Pity (Ad Misericordiam Fallacy) 156
Appeal to Ignorance (Ad Ignorantiam Fallacy) 157
Red Herring ( Ignoratio Elenchi Fallacy) 159
■ Summary of Definitions 160
Exercise 4.1 161
4.2 Fallacies Involving Ambiguity 166
Equivocation 166
Amphiboly 168
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Composition 171
Division 173
■ Summary of Definitions 174
Exercise 4.2 174
4.3 Fallacies Involving Unwarranted Assumptions 177
Begging the Question ( Petitio Principii ) 177
False Dilemma 180
Appeal to Unreliable Authority (Ad Verecundiam Fallacy) 182
False Cause Fallacy 183
Complex Question 186
■ Summary of Definitions 188
Exercise 4.3 189
Notes 195

CHAPTER 5 Categorical Logic: Statements 197

5.1 Standard Forms of Categorical Statements 197
Quality and Quantity 199
■ Summary of Standard Forms 199
Putting Categorical Statements into Standard Form 200
■ Summary of Stylistic Variants 201
Exercise 5.1 202
5.2 The Traditional Square of Opposition 205
■ Summary of Definitions 209
Exercise 5.2 209
5.3 Further Immediate Inferences 212
Conversion 212
Obversion 214
Contraposition 216
■ Summary of Definitions 218
■ Summary Table: Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition 219
Exercise 5.3 219

CHAPTER 6 Categorical Logic: Syllogisms 225

6.1 Standard Form, Mood, and Figure 225
■ Summary of Definitions 229
Exercise 6.1 229
6.2 Venn Diagrams and Categorical Statements 232
■ Summary of Diagrams of Categorical Statements 241
Exercise 6.2 241
6.3 Venn Diagrams and Categorical Syllogisms 242
Exercise 6.3 248
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6.4 The Modern Square of Opposition 250

Exercise 6.4 257
6.5 Enthymemes 259
Exercise 6.5 262
6.6 Sorites and Removing Term-Complements 263
Sorites 263
Removing Term-Complements 266
Exercise 6.6 268
6.7 Rules for Evaluating Syllogisms 271
■ Summary of Rules for Determining the Validity of Categorical
Syllogisms 274
Exercise 6.7 275
Notes 277

CHAPTER 7 Statement Logic: Truth Tables 279

7.1 Symbolizing English Arguments 280
Negations 281
Conjunctions 284
Disjunctions 285
Conditionals 287
Biconditionals 289
Putting It All Together 290
Symbol System for Statement Logic: A More Precise Formulation 296
■ Summary of Definitions 299
Exercise 7.1 299
7.2 Truth Tables 303
Negations 304
Conjunctions 304
Disjunctions 305
Conditionals 305
Biconditionals 307
■ Summary of Truth Tables for the Five Compounds 309
■ Summary of Definitions 310
Exercise 7.2 310
7.3 Using Truth Tables to Evaluate Arguments 311
■ Remembering Truth Conditions 317
■ Summary of Truth Table Method 320
Exercise 7.3 320
7.4 Abbreviated Truth Tables 322
■ Summary of the Abbreviated Truth Table Method 329
Exercise 7.4 329
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7.5 Logically Significant Categories and Relationships 333

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency 333
Equivalence, Contradictoriness, Consistency, and Inconsistency 336
Concluding Observations 338
■ Summary of Definitions 341
Exercise 7.5 341
Note 343

CHAPTER 8 Statement Logic: Proofs 345

8.1 Implicational Rules of Inference 345
■ Summary of Implicational Rules 359
Exercise 8.1 360
8.2 Five Equivalence Rules 365
■ Summary of the First Set of Equivalence Rules 372
Exercise 8.2 374
8.3 Five More Equivalence Rules 378
■ Summary of the Second Set of Equivalence Rules 382
Exercise 8.3 382
8.4 Conditional Proof 388
Exercise 8.4 394
8.5 Reductio ad Absurdum 397
■ Summary of Tips for Constructing Proofs 400
Exercise 8.5 402
8.6 Proving Theorems 406
Exercise 8.6 409
Notes 411

CHAPTER 9 Predicate Logic 413

9.1 The Language of Predicate Logic 413
Predicates, Constants, and Variables 414
The Universal Quantifier 415
The Existential Quantifier 418
The Language of Predicate Logic: A More Precise Formulation 420
■ Summary of Symbolizations 424
■ Summary of Definitions 425
Exercise 9.1 426
9.2 Demonstrating Invalidity 430
■ Summary of the Finite Universe Method 438
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■ Summary of Definitions 438

Exercise 9.2 438
9.3 Constructing Proofs 440
Universal Instantiation 442
■ Summary of Universal Instantiation (UI) 444
Existential Generalization 445
■ Summary of Existential Generalization (EG) 446
Existential Instantiation 447
■ Summary of Existential Instantiation (EI) 450
Universal Generalization 450
■ Summary of Universal Generalization (UG) 453
Exercise 9.3 453
9.4 Quantifier Negation, RAA, and CP 460
■ Summary of Tips for Predicate Logic 465
Exercise 9.4 465
9.5 The Logic of Relations: Symbolizations 468
■ Summary of Symbolizations 471
■ Summary of Definitions 473
Exercise 9.5 473
9.6 The Logic of Relations: Proofs 477
Exercise 9.6 481
9.7 Identity: Symbolizations 486
Exercise 9.7 490
9.8 Identity: Proofs 490
Exercise 9.8 492
Notes 496

CHAPTER 10 Inductive Logic 499

10.1 Inductive and Deductive Logic 499
■ Summary of Definitions 505
Exercise 10.1 505
10.2 Ordinary Reasoning: Authority, Analogy, and Enumeration 507
Arguments from Authority 507
■ Summary of Arguments from Authority 509
Arguments from Analogy 509
■ Summary of Arguments from Analogy 513
Induction by Enumeration 513
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■ Summary of Induction by Enumeration 517

■ Summary of Definitions 517
Exercise 10.2 518
10.3 Scientific Reasoning: Mill’s Method 522
Mill’s Methods 523
Scientific Reasoning 526
■ Summary of Mill’s Methods 531
Exercise 10.3 531
10.4 Probabilistic Reasoning: The Rules of Probability 536
The Rules of Probability 537
Bayes’ Theorem 545
■ Summary of the Rules of Probability 549
■ Summary of Definitions 550
Exercise 10.4 550
Notes 556

Answer Key 559

Photo Credits 627
Glossary/Index 629