BIOLOGY

Extended Questions
Enzymes
Lock & Key Model
1) Enzymes are proteins that acts as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of
chemical reaction without being used up.
2) In lock and key model, the enzyme acts a lock and the substrate acts a key.
3) The 3D shape of the active site is complimentary to the shape of the
particular substrate.
4) Thus, only complimentary substrates can bind to the active site.

Effects of Temperature
1) As temperature increases, the KE of the molecules increases.
2) Consequently, the fast molecules collide more frequently, leading to a faster
rate of reaction.
3) Beyond the optimum temperature, the enzyme’s shape changes drastically,
changing the active site.
4) The substrates can no longer bind to the active site, reducing the reaction
rate.
5) This is called denaturation.

Effects of pH
1) Chemical bonds holding the structure of the enzymes are weak bonds.
2) If the bonds are broken by changes in the pH, the active site can be altered.
3) Small changes in the pH can affect reaction rate without denaturing the
enzymes.
4) But at an extreme pH range, the enzyme becomes unstable and denatures.
Human Nutrition
Calorimeter
1) Weigh a small sample of the food and attach it on a mounted needle
2) Add a set volume of water to a boiling tube held in a clamp.
3) Set the food on fire using a Bunsen burner and place the food under the
boiling tube until it is completely burnt.
4) Measure the change in water temperature by submerging a thermometer
completely in it.
5) Calculate the energy using E= m x c x temp change

Villi Adaptations
1) It is very thin (one cell thick) so there is a short diffusion distance.
2) It has lots of microvilli at the surface which increases surface area to volume
ratio for diffusion.
3) It has abundant mitochondria to provide energy for active transport
4) It has a network of blood capillaries to carry the absorbed nutrients away
from the intestine.
5) It has a lacteal to carry the fats.

Plant Nutrition
Leaf Adaptations
1) Leaves are broad so there’s a large surface area exposed to light.
2) Most of the chloroplasts are found in the palisade layer near the top where
they can get the most light.
3) Upper epidermis layer is transparent so that light can pass through the
palisade layer.
4) Leaves have phloem and xylem to transport water and nutrients to every part
of the leaf.
5) The waxy cuticle helps to reduce water loss by evaporation.
6) Stomata allows gas exchange.
Photosynthesis Experiments
Starch Test
1) Put the leaf in a boiling tube of ethanol and heat it in a water bath to get rid
of the chlorophyll and make the leaf white.
2) Rise the leaf in cold water and add a few drops of iodine solution.
3) If starch is present, the leaf will turn from orange to blue-black.

Chlorophyll Test
1) Take a variegated (green and white) leaf that’s been exposed to light for a
bit.
2) Test the leaf for starch by boiling it in ethanol and using iodine solution.
3) Only the parts that were green turns blue-black which suggests that
chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis and to produce starch.

CO2 Test
1) Place the plant in a sealed bell jar along with soda lime which removes the
CO2 in the jar.
2) Provide light from outside using a lamp.
3) After leaving the plant in the jar and testing it for starch won’t turn blue-
black which shows that no starch has been made and that CO2 is needed for
photosynthesis.

Light Test
1) Leave a plant in a place without light for 48 hours which makes it use up its
starch stores.
2) Cut a leaf from the plant and test it for starch using iodine solution.
3) The leaf won’t turn blue-black as no starch is made which shows that light is
needed for photosynthesis.
Oxygen Production to show rate of photosynthesis
1) Add Canadian Pondweed in a test tube filled with water and connect it to an
empty gas syringe using a capillary tube.
2) Add sodium hydrogen carbonate to the water to provide the plant with
enough carbon dioxide.
3) A source of white light is placed at a specific distance from the pondweed.
4) The pondweed is left to photosynthesize for 10 minutes.
5) The released oxygen will collect in the capillary tube
6) The syringe is used to draw the gas bubbles in the tube alongside a ruler and
the length of the gas bubble is produced which is proportional to the volume
of O2 produced.
7) Variables should be controlled
8) Repeat with the light source placed at different distances from the pondweed

Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration

1) Light Intensity – the brighter the light, the greater the transpiration rate
because it allows the stomata to open for gas exchange
2) Temperature – the warmer it is, the faster transpiration happens because the
water particles gain KE to evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata.
3) Wind Speed – the higher the wind speed, the greater the transpiration rate
because water vapor is swept away, maintaining a low concentration of
water which causes diffusion to occur quickly.
4) Humidity – the higher the humidity, the slower the transpiration happens
because there’s no concentration gradient of water particles so diffusion
occurs slowly.

Potometer
1) Cut a leafy shoot slantly and assemble it underwater to prevent air from
entering.
2) Remove the apparatus from the water but keep the end of the capillary tube
submerged in a beaker of water.
3) Check that the apparatus is watertight and airtight
 4) Remove the end of the capillary tube from the beaker to form an air bubble
and place the end back into the water.
5) Start a stopwatch and record the distance moved using a ruler to find the rate
of bubble moved.

How does water move into the root from the soil?
1) The water concentration in the plant is lower than inside the root hair cells.
2) Through osmosis, water moves into the root from the soil.
3) In addition, due to nutrients also being absorbed, the water concentration is
also lower.
4) Therefore, active transport also supports osmosis.

How does water move up in the stem/xylem?

1) Transpiration of leaves remove water at the top of the xylem.
2) At the same time, water is being filled at the bottom of xylem, creating a
pressure gradient which allows the water to move up against gravity.
3) This process is helped by the waterproof substance called lignin lining the
xylem.

How does water move out of the leaves? (Transpiration)

1) Water moves out of the xylem and into the mesophyll cells through osmosis.
2) Evaporation occurs from the surface of the mesophyll cells followed by the
diffusion of water vapor through the stomata.

Respiration
CO2 Test (Hydrogen Carbonate Indicator)
1) Prepare one set of germinating beans and one set of boiled beans as the
control.
2) Put the same amount of hydrogen carbonate indicator into two test tubes.
 3) Place a platform made of gauze into each test tube and place the beans on
it.
4) Seal the test tubes with a rubber bung and leave it for an hour.
5) The hydrogen carbonate indicator with the germinated beans will turn
yellow because CO2 is present and the control tube will remain orange.

CO2 Test (Limewater)

1) Set up two boiling tubes filled with the same amount of limewater in each
and connect it to two capillary tubes leading to a mouthpiece
2) Breathe in and out several times through the mouthpiece.
3) As you breathe in, air from the room us drawn in through boiling tube A.
This air contains very little CO2 so the limewater remains colorless.
4) When exhaled, the limewater turns cloudy because it contains CO2.

Gas Exchange in the Alveoli

1) The blood passing next to the alveoli has just returned to the lungs from the
rest of the body so it is deoxygenated.
2) Oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus into the blood and CO2 diffuses from
the blood into the alveolus to be breathed out.
3) When the blood reaches the body cells, oxygen is released from the red
blood cells and diffuses into the body cells.
4) At the same time, CO2 diffuses out of the body cells into the blood which
then carried back to the lungs.

Adaptive Features of Alveoli

1) Huge number of alveoli gives the lungs an enormous surface area.
2) Moist lining for gases to dissolve in.
3) Thin walls so the diffusion distance is short.
4) Great blood supply to maintain a high concentration gradient.
5) Permeable walls for easier diffusion.
Effects of Smoking
1) Emphysema – damaged alveolar walls which reduces surface area for gas
exchange
2) Bronchitis – Tar damages cilia which keeps the trachea clear by sweeping
mucus back.
3) Coronary Heart Diseases – Carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen
the blood can carry which causes the heart rate to increase which increases
blood pressure. This damages the artery walls and forms more blood clots.
4) Cancer – Tobacco contains chemicals called carcinogens

Circulatory System
Explain how coronary artery disease leads to death.
1) The coronary artery becomes narrow so there is less supply of oxygen and
nutrients to the heart muscle.
2) Therefore, the muscles can’t respire and so the heart can’t pump oxygen and
nutrients to the body so the body won’t be able to respire as well.

Why does some athletes’ trains at high altitudes for several

weeks before participating in long distance races?
1) The availability of oxygen is low in high altitudes so the body responds by
increasing the number of red blood cells.
2) There is more hemoglobin in the RBSs so there’s more oxygen.
3) This prevents anaerobic respiration so no lactic acid is produces/
4) Thus, there will be less muscle fatigue.
Immune System
Phagocytosis
1) When a pathogen enters the body, the phagocyte identifies the pathogen as
local or foreign.
2) If foreign, a cytoplasmic extension is formed and engulfs the pathogen.
3) The phagocyte will form a food vacuole that secretes enzymes to break the
pathogens down and kill them.
Lymphocytes
1) Lymphocytes recognizes and memorized the particular antigens on the
pathogen.
2) It starts to produce specific antibodies in small amounts.
3) Some lymphocytes turn into memory cells.
4) The memory cells recognize the antigens and multiply.
5) It will then produce antibodies more massively and rapidly.

Vaccination
1) Vaccination involves injecting inactive pathogens into the body.
2) These carry antigens, so even though they’re harmless, they still trigger an
immune response which causes the lymphocytes to produce antibodies to
attack them.
3) Memory cells will also be produced and will remain in the blood, so if live
pathogens of the same type every appear, the antibodies to kill them will be
produced much faster and in great numbers.

Excretion – The Kidneys

Nephrons
1) Capillaries from the renal artery becomes very narrow and forms a tight knot
called a glomerulus inside the Bowman’s capsule. Small particles such as
glucose, urea, mineral salts and water are squeezed out of the blood.
 2) All glucose is selectively reabsorbed by active transport from the first coiled
tubule (proximal convoluted tubule) back into the blood. Some ions are also
reabsorbed.
3) Some water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct by osmosis because of the
concentration gradient created by glucose and mineral ion reabsorption.
4) The remaining filtrate (urine) collects in the ureters.

Dialysis Vs Kidney
1) Dialysis has folded tubing to increase surface area to volume ratio for
diffusion of urea which is similar to the glomerulus in the kidneys.
2) Both the afferent arteriole of the kidney and the inlet of the dialysis are
widened and the efferent arteriole of the kidney and the outlet are narrowed
to create a pressure gradient.
3) However, the dialysis cannot perform selective reabsorption like the kidney.
Instead, it has a dialysate that needs to be constantly recycled to maintain the
concentration gradient.
4) Dialysis also increases the chances of infections and air bubbles being
trapped. Unstable concentration causes blood clotting, diabetes and
hypertension.

Osmoregulation (ADH)
Explain the role of ADH in response to cold environment?
1) Less sweat is produced so there is a high concentration of water in the blood.
2) The hypothalamus detects this and instructs the pituitary glands to produce
less ADH.
3) Therefore, the water permeability of the collecting duct decreases so less
water is absorbed into the blood which causes the urine to become diluted.
4) The blood’s water concentration returns to normal.
Coordination
Homeostasis
- It involves balancing body functions to maintain a ‘constant internal
environment’.

Synapse
1) An electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron before the synapse.
2) This triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters.
3) The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse.
4) It binds onto the receptors of the next neuron.
5) The presence of neurotransmitters causes the production of an electrical
impulse in the next neuron.

Reflex Arc
1) The neurons in the reflex arc goes through the spinal cord or through an
unconscious part of the brain.
2) When a stimulus is detected by the receptors, an electrical impulse is sent
along a sensory neuron to the CNS.
3) In the CNS, the sensory neuron passes on the message to a relay neuron.
4) Relay neurons relay the impulse to the motor neuron.
5) The impulse travels along the motor neuron to the effector.
6) The muscle then contracts and moves the hand away.

Eye
A man was reading a book under the shade. He changed his gaze to a bird flying
far from the tree. Describe what happened inside his eyes.
1) In the dim light, the light receptors detect the light and tells the radial
muscles to contract and the circular muscles to relax.
2) Reading the book closely causes the ciliary muscles to contract and slackens
the suspensory ligaments which thickens the lens to refract more light.
 3) When the gaze changed to the bright light, the circular muscles contract and
the radial muscles relax which makes the pupil smaller to receive less light.
4) Looking at the bird far away causes the ciliary muscles to relax and tightens
the suspensory ligaments which cause the lens to become thin so refract less
light.

Hormones
Adrenaline (‘Fight or Flight’ Response)
1) Blood vessels to the muscles dilate so that more blood can be transported to
the muscles for respiration.
2) Blood vessels to the intestine constricts to divert the blood from unnecessary
parts of the body.
3) Heart rate increases to pump out more blood to supply more oxygen for
respiration.
4) Breathing rate increases for more oxygen.
5) Glycogen stored in the liver converts into glucose which is transported to the
muscle for respiration.
6) Pupils dilate to be more alert to changes in the environment.

Glucose Control
1) After a heavy meal, the glucose concentration in the blood is very high.
2) The pancreas detects this and produces more insulin into the plasma.
3) Insulin catalyzes the conversion of glucose into glycogen in the liver which
cause the blood glucose level to return normal.

4) After exercising, the glucose concentration in the blood is low due to

respiration.
5) The pancreas detects this and produces more glucagon into the plasma.
6) Glucagon catalyzes the conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver
which turns the blood glucose level back to normal.

Thermoregulation
 1) In the heat, the arteriole dilates and the shunt vessels constricts.
2) The brain sends impulses to the skin to increase the rate of sweating so that
more heat is lost by evaporation from the skin surface.

3) In the cold, the arteriole constricts and the shunt vessels dilates.
4) The sweat glands stop producing sweat.
5) The hair erector muscles contract to raise hairs.
6) Shivering occurs so the muscles respire and release heat.
7) Blood flows through the muscles are warmed.

Explain why the plant grows towards the light.

1) Auxin is produced by the shoot tip.
2) When the light strikes upon one side of the plant, the auxin diffuses to the
shaded side.
3) Higher concentration of auxins on the shaded side causes the plant to
elongate to the bright side.
4) Thus, the unequal growth rate causes the plant to grow towards the light.

Explain how auxins help the roots to grow along gravity.

1) The auxin diffuses to the lower side of the root.
2) The higher concentration of auxins on the lower side inhibits growth.
3) Thus, the upper side grows faster and causes the root to bend downwards.

Explain why the plant grows to the left when the light is placed
on the right.
1) An agar cube that contains auxins from the shoot tips is placed on the bright
side of the shoot.
2) The auxins from the agar diffuses down into the shoot.
 3) The higher concentration of auxins on the bright side causes the shoot to
elongate to the left.

Reproduction
DNA Replication
1) The polynucleotide strands of the DNA separate.
2) Each strand acts as a template for the formation of a new DNA strand.
3) DNA polymerase assembles nucleotides into two new strands according to
the base-pairing rule.
4) Two identical DNA molecules are formed, each containing a strand from the
parents DNA and the new complementary strand.

Transcription
1) The double helix of the DNA molecule unzips, exposing the template strand.
2) RNA polymerase comes in and bind with the template and reads the bases to
make a complimentary mRNA strand.
3) The mRNA strand detaches from the template strand and the DNA strands
closes.
4) mRNA leaves the nucleus, passes the cytoplasm to the ribosomes.

Translation
1) The mRNA binds onto the ribosomes
2) tRNA comes in with anti-codons that are complimentary to the codons on
the mRNA and a specific amino acid attached on the other end.
3) The tRNA each binds to their complimentary codon, forming peptide bonds
between the amino acids.
4) The first tRNA detached from the ribosomes, leaving the amino acid.
5) This repeats until the full chain of amino acid is completed.
6) The completed chain of amino acid then detaches from the ribosome and
folds up to become a protein.
Advantages of sexual and asexual reproduction in plants
1) Products of asexual reproduction has no variation and are consistent so it is
good for commercial use.
2) It also doesn’t require games so it is easier and quicker to reproduce.
3) Sexual reproduction involves variation which increases the chances of being
resistant to diseases.
4) It can also adapt to changing environments which allows evolution.

Fertilization
1) A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower.
2) A pollen tube grows out of each pollen grain and down the style to the ovary
3) The pollen tube then enters the micropyle of an ovule.
4) A nucleus from the male gamete moves down the tube to fertilize with the
female gamete in the ovule.
5) Each fertilized gamete forms a seed.
6) The ovary develops into a fruit around the seed.

Menstrual Cycle
1) Day 1: Menstruation starts and the uterus lining breaks down for about four
days.
2) Day 4-14: The uterus lining builds up again into a thick spongy layer full of
blood vessels, ready to receive a fertilized egg.
3) Day 14: Ovulation occurs
4) Day 14-28: The wall is then maintained. If no fertilized egg lands on the
uterus wall by day 28, the lining breaks down and the cycle starts again.

Menstrual Hormones
1) FSH
- Produced in the pituitary glands
- Causes an egg to mature in one of the ovaries in a structure called a
follicle.
 - Stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen.
2) Estrogen
- Produced in the ovaries
- Causes the uterus lining to grow
- Stimulates the release of LH
- Inhibits the release of FSH
3) LH
- Produced by the pituitary glands
- Stimulates the release on an egg
4) Progesterone
- Produced in the ovaries by the remains of follicle after ovulation
- Maintains the uterus lining
- Uterus lining breaks down when progesterone level falls
- Inhibits the release of LH and FSH

Placenta
1) Once the embryo has implanted, the placenta develops, allowing the blood
of the embryo and the mother gets very close.
2) This allows diffusion of substances through a permeable membrane.
3) The placenta provides nutrition and water to the embryo.
4) It acts as a gas exchange site; O2 from mother and CO2 from embryo.
5) It acts as an excretory system.

Inheritance
Natural Selection
1) The organisms with the most suitable characteristics of the environment
would be more successful competitors so they would have better chances of
survival
2) The successful organisms will then have an increased chance of breeding
and passing on their genes
3) This means that a greater population of the next generation will have better
alleles with characteristics that helps with survival
4) The ‘best’ features are naturally selected and the species become more
adapted to the environment.
Antibiotic Resistance
1) Bacteria sometimes develop random mutations in their DNA. These can lead
to changes in a bacterium’s characteristics.
2) This means that a bacterium is less affected by a particular antibiotic.
3) Being resistant is a big advantage as they can survive better and reproduce
many more times.
4) This leads to the allele for resistance being passed to lots of offspring.
(Natural Selection)

Ecology & The Environment

Explain why there is a maximum number of trophic levels in an
ecosystem.
1) Only approximately of 10% of the biomass of each trophic level is
transferred.
2) This is because some parts such as bones, claws cannot be eaten.
3) Not all biomass eaten is converted into the biomass of the animal eating it as
well due to glucose being used in respiration and urea released in urine.
4) Biomass consumed can be also lost as feces.
5) Because less biomass is transferred each time, the amount of energy being
passed on is not enough to support another level of organism.

Carbon Cycle
1) Respiration: Plants, animals and decomposers respire anaerobically,
releasing CO2 into the air.
2) Photosynthesis: Plants remove CO2 from the air.
3) Decomposition: Carbon in dead plants and animals are broken down by
decomposers returning CO2 back into the atmosphere.
4) Combustion: When plants and fossil fuels are burnt, CO2 is released.
Nitrogen Cycle
1) Nitrogen in the atmosphere is very unreactive and can’t be used directly by
plants or animals.
2) Nitrogen is needed for making proteins for growth.
3) Lightning or N2-fixing bacteria in the soil converts nitrogen in the
atmosphere into nitrogen compound that plants can use.
4) Decomposers break down proteins and urea and turn them into ammonia.
This forms ammonium ions in the soil.
5) Nitrifying bacteria turn ammonium ions in decaying matter into nitrates.
6) Denitrifying bacteria turn nitrates back into N2 gas.

Air Pollution
1) Sulfur dioxide is released when fossil fuels are burnt
2) It combines with water droplets in the air to form dilute sulfuric acid which
causes acid rain.
3) Acid rain makes rivers too acidic which kills aquatic organisms and crops. It
also corrodes metals and limestones in buildings.
4) Carbon monoxide is released when fossil fuels are burnt through incomplete
combustion.
5) It binds to hemoglobin which reduces the capacity of red blood cells to carry
oxygen

Consequences of Greenhouse Gases

1) Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb infra-red radiation from the Sun and
traps it above the Earth’s surface (greenhouse effect), which increases the
Earth’s temperature (global warming).
2) This causes polar ice caps to melt, rising the sea level. This leads to flooding
and loss of habitat for certain animals.
3) Rise in sea level also causes a change in rainfall pattern which causes a
sudden climate change.
4) As the temperature rises, pests also change behavior and affects the farming
industry which could decrease the crop yield.
Eutrophication
1) 1) Mineral Fertilizers such as NPK are leached into rivers and lakes by rain
2) This causes algae to grow, blocking out the light.
3) Plants can’t photosynthesize due to lack of light and dies.
4) Decomposers use up all the oxygen in the water by respiring and feeding on
the dead plants.
5) Organisms like fish that needs oxygen also dies.

Deforestation
1) Soil erosion: The roots hold the soil together so when these trees are
removed, the soil is washed away by the rain, leaving infertile ground.
2) Leaching: Trees normally absorb the minerals and nutrients from the soil to
use for growth so without these trees, these minerals run into rivers and
causes eutrophication.
3) Disturbance to cycles: Less transpiration by trees so less water vapor to
contribute to the carbon/water cycle.
4) Imbalance of O2 and CO2: Removal and burning of trees will result in more
atmospheric CO2 levels and lower O2 levels.

Use of Biological Resources

Increasing Crop Yield
1) Keeping plants enclosed makes it easier to keep them free from pests and
diseases.
2) It also helps farmers to control the water that’s supplied to their crops
3) Artificial light is used to give plants more time for photosynthesis.
4) Glasshouses trap the Sun’s heat to keep the plants warm or a heater is used
to maintain temperature during winter.
5) CO2 level can be increases by a paraffin heater which makes CO2 as a by-
product.
Pesticides & Biological Control
1) Pesticides are used to stop pests from eating the crops to increase crop yield.
2) However, they are poisonous to humans and also harm other wildlife.
3) The pests can also grow resistant to the pesticides over time.
4) Biological control is an alternative to pesticides by using other organisms.
5) It can have a longer lasting effect and less harmful to wildlife than pesticides

Making Bread
1) Enzymes break down the carbohydrates in the flour into sugars which is
used in aerobic respiration, producing CO2.
2) When oxygen runs out, the yeast switches to anaerobic respiration known as
fermentation which produces CO2 and ethanol.
3) The CO2 gets trapped in bubbles in the dough which expands and causes the
bread to rise.
4) When being baked, the temperature is increased by the yeast fermenting
until it is killed.
5) As the yeast dies, the bread stops rising.

Making Yoghurt
1) The equipment is sterilized to kill of any unwanted microorganisms.
2) The milk is pasteurized to kill any harmful microorganisms
3) The milk is then cooled.
4) Lactobacillus Bacteria are added and the mixture is incubated in a fermenter.
5) The bacteria ferment the lactose sugar in the milk to form lactic acid,
causing the milk to clot and solidify into yoghurt.

Industrial Fermenter
 1) Vessels are sterilized to kill off any unwanted microorganisms. This
increases yield because there’s no more competitors and product is not
contaminated.
2) Nutrients needed by the microorganisms for growth are provided in a culture
medium.
3) Temperature and pH are kept at an optimum level to maximize enzyme’s
activity.
4) Oxygen for respiration is added by pumping in sterile air.
5) Paddles are used to circulate the medium around the vessel.

Fish Farming
1) Maintain water quality: To remove waste and harmful bacteria to prevent
diseases.
2) Control Interspecific Predation: To stop competition between different
species by separating them in tanks.
3) Control Intraspecific Predation: To stop competition within the same species
by separating them in age.
4) Control Diet: Fishes are fed frequently in small amounts so that they do not
overeat and to avoid wastes.
5) Selective Breeding: To reproduce fish with desired characteristics.

Selective Breeding
1) From the existing stock, select the ones with the best desired characteristics.
2) Breed them with each other.
3) Select the best ones out of the offspring.
4) Breed them together.
5) Repeat over several generations.

Genetic Engineering
1) DNA to be inserted is cut out using restriction enzymes.
2) The vector DNA is also cut open using the same restriction enzymes.
3) The vector DNA and the DNA to be inserted are mixed with ligase enzymes.
 4) The ligase joins the two pieces of DNA and produces a recombinant DNA.
5) The recombinant DNA is inserted into other cells to make desired proteins.

Micropropagation
1) A plant with desirable characteristics is selected to be cloned
2) Small pieces called explants are taken from the stem tip and side shoots of
this plant.
3) Explants are sterilized to kill off unwanted microorganisms.
4) They are then grown in vitro which is placed in a petri dish containing a
nutrient medium with growth hormones needed for the explant to grow.
5) Cells in the explants divide and grow into a small plant.
6) Small plants are then planted in soil inside glasshouses to develop
genetically identical plants to the original.

Cloning
1) The nucleus is removed from an unfertilized cell, creating an enucleated cell.
2) A diploid nucleus from an adult body cell is inserted into the enucleated cell.
3) The cell is stimulated by an electric shock and divides by mitosis and forms
into an embryo.
4) The embryo is then implanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother.