Data Warehousing

and Mining
Dr. Nilesh Shelke

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 Unit 1
Introduction to Datawarehouse

◼ Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

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 What is a Data Warehouse?
◼ Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
◼ A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
◼ Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
◼ “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
◼ Data warehousing:
◼ The process of constructing and using data warehouses

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 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

◼ Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales
◼ Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing
◼ Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process

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 Data Warehouse—Integrated

◼ Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data

sources
◼ relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction

records
◼ Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
◼ Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding

structures, attribute measures, etc. among different

data sources
◼ E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
◼ When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted.

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 Data Warehouse—Time Variant

◼ The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly

longer than that of operational systems
◼ Operational database: current value data
◼ Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
◼ Every key structure in the data warehouse
◼ Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
◼ But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”

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 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

◼ A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment
◼ Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment
◼ Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
◼ Requires only two operations in data accessing:
◼ initial loading of data and access of data

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 Differences between Operational
Database Systems and Data Warehouses
Users and system orientation:

Data contents:

Database design:

View:

Access patterns:

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 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

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 Why a Separate Data Warehouse?
◼ High performance for both systems
◼ DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
◼ Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
◼ Different functions and different data:
◼ missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
◼ data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
◼ data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
◼ Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP
analysis directly on relational databases
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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
Metadata & OLAP Server
Other
sources Integrator
Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serve Reports
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

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Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
◼ Data extraction
◼ get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
◼ Data cleaning
◼ detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible

◼ Data transformation
◼ convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse
format
◼ Load
◼ sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
◼ Refresh
◼ propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
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 Data Transformation e.g.

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 Difference between ROLAP & MOLAP

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 Metadata Repository
◼ Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
◼ Description of the structure of the data warehouse
◼ schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data
mart locations and contents
◼ Operational meta-data
◼ data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
The algorithms used for summarization
◼ The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
◼ Data related to system performance
◼ warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions

◼ Business data
◼ business terms and definitions, ownership of data

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 Inflow and Outflow
In Datawarehousing

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 Data Warehouse Data Flows
◼ To understand how a data warehouse works,
it is useful to look at how data flows in a
warehouse.

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 Data Warehouse Data Flows

The concept of data warehousing is not

limited to collecting an organization's data
and storing it in the warehouse.

It also focuses on managing how data

flows in
and out of the warehouse, so that data is
delivered as information to the decision-
maker.
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 Data Warehouse Data Flows

◼ Data flow in a data warehouse is sectioned into

five types; Inflow, Upflow, Downflow, Outflow,
and Meta-flow.

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Data Warehouse Information Flows

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 Inflow

◼ The processes associated with the

extraction, cleansing and loading of the
data from the source systems into the data
warehouse.

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 Inflow

◼ Cleaning include removing inconsistencies,

adding missing fields, and cross-checking for
data integrity

• Transformation include adding

date/time stamp fields, summarizing
detailed data, deriving new fields to
store calculated data.

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 Inflow

◼ Extract the relevant data from multiple,

heterogeneous, and external sources through
the used of commercial tools.

◼ Then mapped and loaded into the warehouse

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 Inflow

The process of data flow in a warehouse begins

with bringing data into the warehouse. Data is
gathered from operational systems and legacy
systems and fed into the warehouse. This is
called inflow.

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 Inflow

For example, in a bank, data is gathered from

loan processing, pass book processing, and
accounting systems, and fed into the bank's
data warehouse.

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 Inflow

◼ Data from OLTP and legacy systems

provide Inflow into staging servers of a data
warehouse .

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 Inflow

◼ In a retail store, data is gathered from point-of-

sale devices, cash registers, and entry/exit
monitors.

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 Upflow

▪ The process associated with adding value to the

data in the warehouse through:
• summarizing,
• packaging, and
• distribution of the data

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 Upflow
▪ Summarizing the data works by choosing,
projecting, joining, and grouping relational data
into views that are more convenient and useful to
the end users.
▪ Summarizing data goes beyond simple relational
operations to involves sophistacated statistical
analysis including identifying trends, clustering,
and sampling the data

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 Upflow
▪ Packaging the data involves converting the
detailed or summarized information into more
useful formats, such as spreadsheets, test
documents, charts, other graphical presentations,
private databases, and animation.

▪ Distributing the data in appropiate groups to

increase its availability and accessibility

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 From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data
Cubes

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April 26, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32
A 3-D data cube representation of the data, according to the
dimensions time, item, and location. The measure displayed is
dollars sold (in thousands)
A 4-D data cube representation of sales data, according to
the dimensions time, item, location, and supplier. The
measure displayed is dollars sold (in thousands). For
improved readability, only some of the cube values are
shown
Lattice of cuboids, making up a 4-D data cube for the
dimensions time, item, location, and supplier. Each cuboid
represents a different degree of summarization.
 A Sample Data Cube

Total annual sales

Date of TVs in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

All, All, All

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 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

◼ Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

◼ Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
◼ Data Warehouse Design and Usage
◼ Data Warehouse Implementation
◼ Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
◼ Summary

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 From Tables and Spreadsheets to
Data Cubes
◼ A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model
which views data in the form of a data cube
◼ A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
◼ Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
◼ Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys
to each of the related dimension tables
◼ In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
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 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids

all
0-D (apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D (base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplier

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 Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses
◼ Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures
◼ Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
◼ Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
◼ Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation

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 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures

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 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country

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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city
units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type 43
 Multidimensional Data

◼ Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths

Industry Region Year

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
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 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country

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 Typical OLAP Operations
◼ Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
◼ by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
◼ Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
◼ from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
◼ Slice and dice: project and select
◼ Pivot (rotate):
◼ reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
◼ Other operations
◼ drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
◼ drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)

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Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

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 Efficient Data Cube Computation
◼ Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids
◼ The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
◼ The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell
◼ How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L
levels? n
T =  ( Li +1)
i =1
◼ Materialization of data cube
◼ Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization),
none (no materialization), or some (partial
materialization)
◼ Selection of which cuboids to materialize
◼ Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
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 The “Compute Cube” Operator
◼ Cube definition and computation in DMQL
define cube sales [item, city, year]: sum (sales_in_dollars)
compute cube sales
◼ Transform it into a SQL-like language (with a new operator cube
by, introduced by Gray et al.’96) ()
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES (city) (item) (year)

CUBE BY item, city, year

◼ Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city, item) (city, year) (item, year)
(date, product, customer),
(date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer),
(date), (product), (customer) (city, item, year)
()
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 Bitmap Indices
◼ Bitmap indices are a special type of index designed for efficient
querying on multiple keys
◼ Records in a relation are assumed to be numbered sequentially from,
say, 0
◼ Given a number n it must be easy to retrieve record n

◼ Particularly easy if records are of fixed size

◼ Applicable on attributes that take on a relatively small number of

distinct values
◼ E.g. gender, country, state, …

◼ E.g. income-level (income broken up into a small number of

levels such as 0-9999, 10000-19999, 20000-50000, 50000-

infinity)
◼ A bitmap is simply an array of bits
 Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
◼ In its simplest form a bitmap index on an attribute has a
bitmap for each value of the attribute
◼ Bitmap has as many bits as records

◼ In a bitmap for value v, the bit for a record is 1 if the record

has the value v for the attribute, and is 0 otherwise

 Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
◼ Bitmap indices are useful for queries on multiple attributes
◼ not particularly useful for single attribute queries
◼ Queries are answered using bitmap operations
◼ Intersection (and)
◼ Union (or)
◼ Complementation (not)
◼ Each operation takes two bitmaps of the same size and applies
the operation on corresponding bits to get the result bitmap
◼ E.g. 100110 AND 110011 = 100010
100110 OR 110011 = 110111
NOT 100110 = 011001
◼ Males with income level L1: 10010 AND 10100 = 10000
◼ Can then retrieve required tuples.
◼ Counting number of matching tuples is even faster
 Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
◼ Bitmap indices generally very small compared with relation
size
◼ E.g. if record is 100 bytes, space for a single bitmap is

1/800 of space used by relation.

◼ If number of distinct attribute values is 8, bitmap is

only 1% of relation size

◼ Deletion needs to be handled properly
◼ Existence bitmap to note if there is a valid record at a

record location
◼ Needed for complementation

◼ not(A=v): (NOT bitmap-A-v) AND ExistenceBitmap

◼ Should keep bitmaps for all values, even null value
◼ To correctly handle SQL null semantics for NOT( A=v):

◼ intersect above result with (NOT bitmap-A-Null)

 Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index
◼ Index on a particular column
◼ Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast
◼ The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table
◼ The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for
the indexed column
◼ not suitable for high cardinality domains
◼ A recent bit compression technique, Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH),
makes it work for high cardinality domain as well [Wu, et al. TODS’06]
Base table Index on Region Index on Type
Cust Region Type RecIDAsia Europe America RecID Retail Dealer
C1 Asia Retail 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
C2 Europe Dealer 2 0 1 0 2 0 1
C3 Asia Dealer 3 1 0 0 3 0 1
C4 America Retail 4 0 0 1 4 1 0
C5 Europe Dealer 5 0 1 0 5 0 1
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