Cours Mech Part Icc Heker Ker

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k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
COURSE IN PHYSICS
MECANICS
OF A SINGLE
PARTICLE
1
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Forword.
The course is intended to undergraduate and
engineering students of preparatory classes of of
National polytechnic school of Algiers. It is part of a
reform of tought programs in physics in high schools in
Algeria. It is divided into several chapters, that gives a
thorough understanding of basic principles and ideas of
physics, among others basic vector calculus, that is
always met by undergraduate students during their
training class. It is a fruthful work of many years of
teaching within physics team. We express our gratitude
to all members of the educational physics team, that
have made possible the completion of this work.
M. CHEKERKER
L. SAADAOUI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Forword
CHAPTER I- Vector calculus.

- Vectors : Definitions.
- Rectangular frame of reference.
- Operation on vectors.
- Scalar Product. Definition.
- Vector product. Definition.
CHAPTER II- Scalar and vector fields.

- Gradient of a scalar function.
- Divergence of a vector.
- Laplacian operator.
- Curl of a vector.
- Useful relations.
CHAPTER III- Kinematics of a particle.

- Rectangular coordinate system. Displacement
vector, velocity and acceleration. Example of
Area calculus.
- Graphic representation and plot.
- Curvilinear motion: frame of reference of
Serret-Frenet.
- Curvilinear coordinates.
Ecole Ntionale Polytechnique 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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- Cylindrical frame of reference. Example of

application.
- Spherical coordinate system.
CHAPTER IV- Relative motion. Change of frame of

reference.
- Translational motion.
- Rotational motion.
- Transformation laws of velocity and
acceleration.
- Examples in practice.
CHAPITRE V- Dynamics of a particle : Newton’s

laws – Galilean frame of reference.
- Principle of INERTIA: Newton’s 1st law.
- Galilean frame of reference. Rigid body and
elastic bodies. Linear momentum.
- Fundamental law of dynamics: Newton’s 2nd law.
- Concept of force.
- Angular momentum theorem.
- Central force.
- Principle of action and reaction: Newton’s 3rd
law.
- Principle of conservation of momentum.
- Interaction forces with distance apart.

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- Force of contact: Frictional force. Tension

force of a spring.
CHAPITRE VI- Work, Power, Energy.

- Work of a force: definition. Infinitesimal work.
- Example of calculation of work.
- Power of a force.
- Theorem of change of kinetic energy.
- Potential energy. Conservative and non
conservative forces.
- Examples of potential energy.
- Total energy. Theorem of Conservation of total
energy.
- Stability of an equilibrium.
- Discussion of potential energy curves.

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CHAPTER I
VECTOR CALCULUS
Physical quantities are of two types :
a- Scalars : like mass, volume, Density, work, power,

energy, potential, …etc., are non-oriented
quantities and are called scalar quantities.
b- Vectors : are expressed by vectors.
These are oriented physical quantities like position,

velocity, acceleration, force, displacement, electric
field, magnetic field or gravitational…etc., and they
are called vectors quantities and are expressed by
vectors.
vectors are classified as follows:
• Free vectors : Dont have precise origin like

magnetic and electrical Fields.
• Bound vectors : have one fixed point, the
vectoe origin like position vectors..
M. CHEKERKER
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1- Le vecteur : It is represented by a line

segment with an arrow at the end and is
characterized by :
• Direction : It’s the straight line which holds
the vectors..
• Sens : It is indicated by an arrow..
• Magnitude : called length.
• Origin : storting point of the vector.
2- Cartesian frame : noted 𝓡(𝑶, 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) or

𝓡(𝑶, 𝒊⃗, 𝒋⃗, ⃗𝒌⃗). The reference frame is characterized by its
origin 𝑂 (crossing point 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑍 axis), unit vectors 𝑖⃗,
𝑗⃗ et 𝑘⃗⃗ in the direction of 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑂𝑍 axis in that order
and form a direct Base.
𝑍
𝑘⃗⃗
𝑗⃗
𝑖⃗ 𝑌
𝑂
𝑋
Le reference frame is orthonormal if :
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑖⃗ ⊥ 𝑗⃗, 𝑗⃗ ⊥ 𝑘⃗⃗ , 𝑘⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑖⃗

A vector 𝑉
⃗⃗ may be expressed in a cartesian reference
frame as :
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

𝑉
Its magnitude ( or length ) is noted : ⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑉 simply 𝑉.
3- Operation on vectors :
• Sum : Let there be the vectors

𝑉⃗⃗1 = 𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧1 𝑘⃗⃗
or simply, rectangular components column
𝑥1
vectors 𝑉⃗⃗1 (𝑦1 ) and
𝑧1
⃗⃗2 = 𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧2 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑉
𝑥2
where 𝑉
⃗⃗2 (𝑦2 ), we define the vector sum as :
𝑧2
𝑆⃗ = 𝑉 ⃗⃗2 = 𝑋𝑠 𝑖⃗ + 𝑌𝑠 𝑗⃗ + 𝑍𝑠 𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗1 + 𝑉
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )𝑘⃗⃗
Therefore :
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑋𝑠 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑆⃗ = ( 𝑌𝑠 ) = (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
𝑍𝑠 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
Shown in the figure by :
⃗𝑽⃗𝟏
⃗⃗
𝑺 ⃗𝑽⃗𝟐
• Substraction :
⃗⃗ = 𝑉
𝐷 ⃗⃗1 − 𝑉
⃗⃗2 = 𝑉
⃗⃗1 + (−𝑉
⃗⃗2 )
−𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
⃗⃗2 (−𝑦2 ) → 𝐷
−𝑉 ⃗⃗ = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
−𝑧2 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
⃗⃗𝟐
−𝑽
⃗𝑫
⃗⃗
⃗𝑽⃗𝟏
⃗𝑽⃗𝟐
M. CHEKERKER
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• Product of a vector by a scalar function 𝝀:
This yields :
𝒙
⃗⃗ = 𝝀 (𝒚) = 𝝀𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝝀𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝝀𝑧𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝝀𝑉
𝐵
𝒛
The same operation applies for a division of a vector by
scalar function 𝛽 :
𝒙
𝜷
⃗⃗
𝑉 𝒚 𝒙 𝑦 𝒛
𝐶⃗ = = = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜷 𝜷 𝜷 𝜷 𝜷
𝒛
(𝜷)
• Scalar Product :
Let there be:

𝐴⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗
and
⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗
𝐵
M. CHEKERKER
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The scalar product of two vectors is a Scalar function

𝑆 defined by:
𝑆 = 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ‖𝐴⃗‖. ‖𝐵
⃗⃗‖ cos 𝜃
Where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 :
⃗𝑨
⃗⃗
𝜃
⃗𝑩
⃗⃗
Consequencies :
𝜋
- If 0 ≤𝜃< , Then 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ > 0.
2
𝜋
- If ≤ 𝜃 < 𝜋 , Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ < 0
𝐴. 𝐵
2
𝜋
- If 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 90°, 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0
2
The Following relations hold :
- Commutativity : 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵⃗⃗. 𝐴⃗
- ⃗. (𝐵
Distributivity: 𝐴 ⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗. 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗
- Multiplication by a scalar: 𝜇(𝐴 ⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗) = (𝜇𝐴⃗). 𝐵 ⃗⃗ =
𝐴⃗. (𝜇𝐵
⃗⃗) = (𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗)𝜇
7
M. CHEKERKER
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where 𝜇 is a real scalar.
- The cartesian frame is direct if:
- 𝑖⃗. 𝑗⃗ = 𝑗⃗. 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ . 𝑖⃗ = 0, 𝑖⃗. 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗. 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ . 𝑘⃗⃗ = 1

The cartesian expressions of the scalar product and its
magnitude are:
- 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
2
- 𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ = ‖𝐴⃗‖ = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32
2
2
- ⃗⃗. 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗2 = ‖𝐵
⃗⃗‖ = 𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + 𝑏32
- Algebraic projection value 𝐴𝑢 of a vector 𝐴⃗ the
positively oriented straight line of ⃗⃗ :

𝑢
𝐴𝑢 = 𝐴⃗. 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ‖𝐴⃗‖ cos 𝛼
⃗𝑨
⃗⃗
⃗𝒖⃗
𝐴𝑢 > 0 8
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⃗𝑨
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝒖
𝐴𝑢 < 0
• Cross Product or vector product of two

vectors :
The cross product or vector product of two
vectors is a vector ⃗𝑪⃗ défined by :
⃗𝑪⃗ = ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ ∧ ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ = (‖𝑨
⃗⃗⃗‖. ‖𝑩⃗⃗⃗‖ sin 𝜃) × 𝒖
⃗⃗
Where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and 𝑢 ⃗⃗ is a unit vector
indicating the direction of 𝐶⃗ assigned by the

right-Hand rule.
M. CHEKERKER
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⃗𝑪⃗ ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗
𝜽
⃗⃗
𝒖 ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗
Right hand rule :
- Palm of the hand (4 fingers) are pointed towards the
vector 𝐴 ⃗.
- We rotate the palm of the right hand to the vector
⃗⃗.
𝐵
- The thumb indicates the direction of 𝐶⃗, therefore
of 𝑢⃗⃗ .
The Following relations hold :
- Anti commutativity : 𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝐵⃗⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗
- Distributivity:⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 ∧ (𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐶⃗
10
M. CHEKERKER
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𝜇(𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
- Multiplication by a scalar: ⃗⃗) = (𝜇𝐴⃗) ∧
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ ∧ (𝜇𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗) = (𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗)𝜇
Where 𝜇 is a real scalar.
- The cartesian frame is a direct reference frame such

that :
- 𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ , 𝑗⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗, 𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗ ∧

𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗.
⃗𝒌⃗
+ + 𝒋⃗
𝒊⃗
+
Therefore, cartesian expressions of the cross or vector

product could be written as:
11
M. CHEKERKER
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⃗⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
∧ (𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ )
= (𝑎1 𝑖⃗) ∧ (𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ )
+ (𝑎2 𝑗⃗) ∧ (𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ )
+ (𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ ) ∧ (𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ )
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 (𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗) + 𝑎1 𝑏2 (𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑗⃗)
+ 𝑎1 𝑏3 (𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ ) + 𝑎2 𝑏1 (𝑗⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗)
+ 𝑎2 𝑏2 (𝑗⃗ ∧ 𝑗⃗) + 𝑎2 𝑏3 (𝑗⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ )
+ 𝑎3 𝑏1 (𝑘⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗) + 𝑎3 𝑏2 (𝑘
⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑗⃗)
+ 𝑎3 𝑏3 (𝑘⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ )
= 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑘⃗⃗ − 𝑎1 𝑏3 𝑗⃗ − 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑘⃗⃗
+ 𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑗⃗ − 𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑖⃗
= (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖⃗
+ (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝑗⃗
+ (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘⃗⃗ .
12
M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
That is formally designed as a determinant:
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
M. CHEKERKER
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Scalar and Vector fields.

1- Gradient a scalar function.
We define the Gradient vector by :
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝑼 = ⃗𝛁⃗𝑼 = 𝒊⃗ + 𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Similarly, we define the Gradient operator :
𝝏
𝝏𝒙
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
⃗𝛁⃗ = 𝒊⃗ + 𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗ =
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒚
𝝏
( 𝝏𝒛 )
Example.
We consider a scalar field :
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 + 4𝑦 2 𝑧𝑥 3
We write the partial derivates of 𝑈(x,y,z) with respect to
x, y and z as :
𝜕𝑈
= 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 + 12𝑦 2 𝑧𝑥 2 ,
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑈
= 3𝑥 2 𝑧 2 + 8𝑦𝑧𝑥 3 ,
𝜕𝑦
14
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𝜕𝑈
= 6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑦 2 𝑥 3
𝜕𝑧
At the point 𝑀(+1, −1, +2) :
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
= 0, = −4, = −8.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus,
𝟎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝑴 𝑼 = (−𝟒) ∕∕ (𝑶𝒚𝒛).
−𝟖
2- Divergence of a vecteor field.
- Definition :
Assume a vector : 𝐴⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + 𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗⃗ +
𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗ , then :
𝑫𝒊𝒗𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = 𝛁 ⃗⃗. 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
= ( 𝒊⃗ + 𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗) . (𝑨𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)𝒊⃗ + 𝑨𝟐 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)𝒋⃗
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
+ 𝑨𝟑 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)⃗𝒌⃗)
𝝏𝑨𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) 𝝏𝑨𝟐 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) 𝝏𝑨𝟑 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
= + +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Examples.
- For the vector displacement: 𝑟⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ ,

𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥, 𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦, 𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧, we
compute :
15
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𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝑖𝑣(𝑟⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)) = + + = 3.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is a scalar.
𝑟⃗
⃗⃗ ), ou 𝑢
− 𝐷𝑖𝑣(𝑢 ⃗⃗ = . The rectangular componets are :
𝑟
𝑥
𝑟
𝑟⃗ 𝑦
𝑢
⃗⃗ = =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑧
(𝑟 )
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝜕( ) 𝜕( ) 𝜕( )
𝐷𝑖𝑣 (𝑢
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 1 1
𝜕 (𝑥 × ) 𝜕 (𝑦 × ) 𝜕 (𝑧 × )
= 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 1
1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕 ( ) 1 𝜕𝑦 𝜕 ( )
=( × +𝑥× 𝑟 )+( × +𝑦× 𝑟 )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1
1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕 ( )
+( × +𝑧× 𝑟 )
𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
1 𝑥 1 𝑦
= ( + 𝑥 × (− 3 )) + ( + 𝑦 × (− 3 ))
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑧 3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 3 𝑟 2
+ ( + 𝑧 × (− 3 )) = − = − 3
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟
2
= .
𝑟
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3- Laplacian.
Definition :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑟 )) = ⃗∇⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Δ(𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)) = 𝐷𝑖𝑣 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑟 ) = ⃗∇⃗. (∇
⃗⃗(𝑟 ))
⃗⃗. ⃗∇⃗)(𝑟 )
= (∇
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) . ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) (𝑟 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝑟 𝜕2 𝑟 𝜕2𝑟
= ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (𝑟 ) = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore, the Laplacian operator can be written as :
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝚫 = 𝛁. 𝛁 = ( 𝒊⃗ + 𝒋⃗ + ⃗⃗
𝒌) . ( 𝒊⃗ + 𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
= ( 𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟐)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
4- Curl of a vector field.
Definition. Let’s assume a vector field 𝐴⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =
𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + 𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗⃗ + 𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗, the curl of a vector
field defined by :
17
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𝒊⃗ 𝒋⃗ ⃗𝒌⃗
𝒓𝒐𝒕⃗𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = || 𝝏
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝛁⃗ ∧ ⃗𝑨 𝝏 𝝏|
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟑
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
= 𝒊⃗ |𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛| − 𝒋⃗ |𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛| + ⃗𝒌⃗ |𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚|
𝑨 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟑 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝝏𝑨𝟑 𝝏𝑨𝟐 𝝏𝑨𝟑 𝝏𝑨𝟏
= 𝒊⃗ ( − ) − 𝒋⃗ ( − )
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑨 𝝏𝑨
+𝒌⃗⃗ ( 𝟐 − 𝟏 ).
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Examples.
A- For 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ ; we have: 𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥,
𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦, 𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧, then:
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑟⃗ == 𝑖⃗ ( − ) − 𝑗⃗ ( − ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( − )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ = ∇
𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= ⃗⃗
0.
B- Compute 𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗ = ⃗∇⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗ for
𝐴⃗ = 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑖⃗ − 2𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑘⃗⃗

where:
𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦, 𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −2𝑦𝑧 3 ,
𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 𝑦
therefore:
18
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐴⃗ = ⃗∇⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕 (𝑥 2 𝑦) 𝜕 (−2𝑦𝑧 3 )
= 𝑖⃗ ( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦) 𝜕(3𝑥 2 𝑦)
− 𝑗⃗ ( − )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(−2𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕 (3𝑥 2 𝑦)
+ 𝑘⃗⃗ ( − )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑖⃗(𝑥 2 + 6𝑦𝑧 2 ) − (2𝑥𝑦)𝑗⃗ + (−3𝑥 2 )𝑘⃗⃗.
Some useful relations:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝒐𝒕(𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑼) = ⃗𝛁⃗ ∧ (𝛁
⃗⃗𝑼) = ⃗𝛁⃗ ∧ ⃗𝛁⃗𝑼 = ⃗𝟎⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑨
𝑫𝒊𝒗(𝒓𝒐𝒕 ⃗⃗) = ⃗𝛁⃗. (𝛁
⃗⃗ ∧ 𝐀
⃗⃗) = 𝟎
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CHAPTER II
KINEMATIC OF A
SINGLE PARTICLE
The Kinematics is the study of the all kinds of motion
of a single particle or mobile considered, in first
approximation, dimensionless point and noted 𝑀 with
respect to a reference frame 𝓡, as a function of
time 𝑡 no matter what the intearactions that underlies
the motion particle. To analyse and predict the nature
of motion, some Kinematic fundamental concepts are
required such as acceleration, velocity, position vectors
and state equation of the curvilinear path (trajectory)
of that point particle relative to a frame of reference
chosen by the observer.
Objectives are :
• Coordinate system of reference : cartesian,

polar, cylindrical and spherical.
• Derive vectors of polar and cylindrical basis.
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• Acquire knowledge of velocity vector, state

equations and path equation of a single particle
from the acceleration vector.
• Acquire knowledge of position, velocity and
acceleration vectors in different frame of
reference.
• Acquire knowledge of some particular motions
of a single particle studied at the end of
chapter.
In classical or newtonian mechanics, There are severale
rules or principles that underlies the nature of the
motions and interactions of particles. These principles
are called postulats. To analyse and predict different
motions and intactions, some different concepts are
required (such as: velocity, acceleration, momentum,
force, linear momentum, energy, ...) no matter what a
system of frame of reference, stating that time is
independent of frames of references in motion relative
to each other. This universal rule is no longer valid in
relativistic mechanics. The latter is applied to objects
with velocity 𝑣 close to light speed 𝑐. The transition to
classical mechanics is defined for velocities less than
𝑪
𝒗 = .
𝟏𝟎
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To analyse the motion of a single particle in a frame of

refernce 𝓡 in detail, we should define concepts of,
position, velocity and accelerations vectors to describe
it. A system of frame of reference is used to describe
the coordinate system and its coordinate basis:
• (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) rectangular components with fixed basis
vectors (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) in the frame of reference.
• (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) Cylindrical coordinates with basis vectors
(𝑢 ⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑘⃗⃗). The first two vectors are time-
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑢
dependent.
• (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 ) Spherical coordinates with time-dependent
basis (𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑢
⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑢
⃗⃗𝜑 ).
1- Rectangular frame of reference.

𝑍
𝑀 (𝑡 )
𝑀 (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡)
𝑘⃗⃗
𝑗⃗ 𝑦
𝑖⃗
𝑂
𝑌
𝑋 𝑥 𝑀′(𝑡)
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✓ Position vector : Determine the position at instant

𝑡 of the particle 𝑀, and noted ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) or 𝑟⃗(𝑡 ), it is
given by :
𝑥(𝑡 )
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡 ) = 𝑟⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑥(𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ = (𝑦(𝑡 ))
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑧(𝑡 )
✓ Displacement vector: during instant time interval
𝑡0 and 𝑡, the particle or mobile moves from point
𝑀0 = 𝑀0 (𝑡 ) to point 𝑀 = 𝑀(𝑡 ), corresponding to a
displacement ∆𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ such that:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡0 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀0 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀0 𝑀
Where ∆𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡0 is the elapsed time.
The displacement vector could be expressed as :
𝑀0 𝑀 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑂𝑀
= ∆𝑥𝑖⃗ + ∆𝑦𝑗⃗ + ∆𝑧𝑘⃗⃗
✓ Average velocity vector (mean value) : designed

by 𝑣⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦 , is computed during the instant time
interval 𝑡0 and 𝑡 and is written as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝑀(𝑡) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡0 )
𝑣⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡0
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧
𝑣⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦 = 𝑣𝑚𝑜𝑦 𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑚𝑜𝑦 𝑦 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣𝑚𝑜𝑦 𝑧 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
23
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
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to
to
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ac ac
It has the same direction as the displacement

vector.
✓ Instantaneous Velocity vector: designed by 𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )
and varying with 𝑡. It is given by: 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = lim 𝑣⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦
∆𝑡→0
∆𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡0 → 0 ⟺ 𝑡 → 𝑡0 Thus :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡0 ) 𝑑𝑂𝑀⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = lim [ ]=
𝑡→𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧(𝑡 )
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We ca write:
(
= 𝑥̇ 𝑡 ,) ( )
= 𝑦̇ 𝑡 , = 𝑧̇ (𝑡 )
Which could be written in column vector as:
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 )
𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = (𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 )) = 𝑥̇ (𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦̇ (𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧̇(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ , (𝑚/𝑠 ) (𝑆. 𝐼)
𝑣𝑧 (𝑡 )
✓ Path of a single particle: designed by (𝑪) .It is

represented by all the space points on the path of
the particle 𝑀 during its motion in time interval.
𝑣⃗4 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡4 )
𝑀4 = 𝑀4 (𝑡)
𝑀1 = 𝑀1 (𝑡)
𝑀2 = 𝑀2 (𝑡) 𝑣⃗2 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡2 )
𝑣⃗1 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡1 ) 𝑣⃗3 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡3 )
𝑀3 = 𝑀3 (𝑡)
24
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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tr re tr re
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ac ac
The instantaneous velocity vector 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) is always

tangent to the path of the particle in motion.
✓ Average acceleration vector (mean value): designed

by 𝑎⃗𝑚 ou 𝑎⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠 2 ). It can calculated in the instant
time interval 𝑡0 et 𝑡, and is given by:
𝑎𝑚 𝑥
𝑎 ∆𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) − 𝑣⃗(𝑡0 )
𝑎⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦 = 𝑎⃗𝑚 = ( 𝑚 )
𝑦 = =
𝑎𝑚 𝑧 ∆𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡0
∆𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 ) ∆𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 ) ∆𝑣𝑧 (𝑡)
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Gives the variation of velocity vector 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) in time
interval ∆𝑡.
✓ Instantaneous acceleration vector : designed by
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) and can be computed at instant 𝑡. It may be
written in the form:
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = lim 𝑎⃗𝑚𝑜𝑦
∆𝑡→0
Thus:
𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ) − 𝑣⃗(𝑡0 ) 𝑑𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = lim [ ]=
𝑡→𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
Therefore:
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣̇𝑥 (𝑡 ) = 𝑥̈ (𝑡 ), 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣̇𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑧 (𝑡 )
= 𝑦̈ (𝑡 ), 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣̇𝑧 (𝑡 ) = 𝑧̈(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
25
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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It computes the variation of 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) in magnitude and

direction.
✓ Magnitude (length) of the velocity vector or

speed: 𝑣(𝑡 ) = ‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖ is the magnitude of the
velocity vector named speed. Therefore:
‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖ = √𝑣𝑥2 (𝑡 ) + 𝑣𝑦2 (𝑡 ) + 𝑣𝑧2 (𝑡 )
= √𝑥̇ 2 (𝑡 ) + 𝑦̇ 2 (𝑡 ) + 𝑧̇ 2 (𝑡 ) ≥ 0
✓ Motion of a single particle. Notions on
accelerated, retarded motion.
The motion of a particle is accelerated if (retarded)
the magnitude of the velocity vector 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) increases
or (decreases) i.e.: ‖𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )‖ is an increasing function
with time ↗ (decreasing ↘), and as ‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖ ≥ 0,
therefore:
‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖ ↗⟺ ‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖2 ↗
Where :
‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖ ↘⟺ ‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖2 ↘
Moreover:
‖𝑣⃗(𝑡 )‖2 = 𝑣⃗ 2 (𝑡 ) = 𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 )
If we put 𝑔(𝑡 ) = ‖𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )‖2 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ), we may write:
26
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
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B
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to
to
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𝑑𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ))

𝑔(𝑡 ) ↗⟺ >0⟺ >0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:
𝑑𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ))

𝑔(𝑡 ) ↘⟺ <0⟺ <0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
On the other hand, this may be written in the form:
𝑑(𝑣⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 )) 𝑑𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )

=2 . 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = 2𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the motion of the particle is described by
the sign of 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ).
Analysis of the particle motion:
a- Accelerated motion : 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ) > 0.

b- Retarded motion : 𝑎⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) < 0.
c- Uniform motion : 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = 0.
Moreover, if the acceleration vector 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) is constant,

we distinguish two cases:
d- Uniformly accelerated motion: 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) > 0.

e- Uniformly retarded motion : 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) < 0.
For the rectilinear motion, algebraic values may be

used instead of vectors. Therefore:
27
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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- If 𝑎(𝑡 ), 𝑣 (𝑡 ) are of the same signs: 𝑎(𝑡 ). 𝑣(𝑡 ) > 0, the

motion is accelerated.
- If 𝑎(𝑡 ), 𝑣 (𝑡 ) are of opposite signs: 𝑎(𝑡 ). 𝑣 (𝑡 ) < 0, the
motion is said to be retarded or decelerated.
- 𝑎(𝑡 ). 𝑣(𝑡 ) = 0, the motion is uniform.
✓ One dimensional rectilinear motion.
a) Graph of displacement 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒇(𝒕) :
𝑥(𝑚)
(𝑓𝑖𝑔. 1)
𝑥1
𝑥0
𝑡 (𝑠 )
𝑂
𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
We may write: 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 ) = , with describing the
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
slope of the tangent to the curve of components at the
point 𝑀(𝑥). If the curve is a straight line, then, 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 )
represents the slope of the straight line.
28
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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Beware, the plot of (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 1) doesn’t represent the path

of the particle in motion. The path of the particle is a
straight line. It is the 𝑥′𝑜𝑥 axis (one dimension one
degree of freedom).
b- Graph of velocity 𝒗𝒙 (𝒕) = 𝒈(𝒕) :
𝒗𝒙 (𝑚/𝑠 )
𝑣0
(𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2)
𝑣1
𝑆𝑣
𝑂 𝑡 (𝑠 )
𝑡1 𝑡2
The acceleration may be written in the form: 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 ) =

𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)
, therefore, 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 ) represents the slope of the
𝑑𝑡
tangent to the curve of velocity at point 𝑀 (𝑥). If the
29
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
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curve is a straight line, 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 ) represents the slope of

the line. Three motion picture are shown in 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2) :
• 𝑡 ∈ [0, 𝑡1 ] : the speed diminishes from 𝑣0 to 𝑣1 ,

always positif. The slope to the curve of velocity=
𝑎𝑥 = Constante < 0 ⟹ Uniformly retarded motion.
• 𝑡 ∈ [𝑡1 , 𝑡2 ] : The slope to the curve of velocity =
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = = 0 ⟹ The motion is uniform.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥
• 𝑡 ∈ [𝑡2 , ±∞[ : 𝑎𝑥 = ≠ Constant > 0 and 𝑣𝑥 > 0 ⟹
𝑑𝑡
accelerated motion.
c- Graph of acceleration 𝒂𝒙 (𝒕) = 𝒉(𝒕) :
𝒂𝒙 (𝑚/𝑠 2 )
(𝑓𝑖𝑔. 3)
𝑎2
𝑎1 𝑆𝑎 > 0
𝑆𝑎 > 0
𝑡3 𝑡4
𝑂 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡 (𝑠 )
𝑆𝑎 < 0
𝑎3
30
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
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Y
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U
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B
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to
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Correction of Exercise N°05 – series N°02..
lic
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1- Graphic plot of velocity 𝑣(𝑡 ) from graph of the

acceleration 𝑎 (𝑡 ) and method area calculus law.
We may write the law as follows:
𝑣2 𝑡2
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= → 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 → ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = 𝒜 (𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , 𝑎)
𝑑𝑡 𝑣1 𝑡1
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎(𝑡 ) 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2
Whence:
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 𝓐(𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , 𝑎 ) → 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 𝓐(𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , 𝑎 )
From area calculus under the curve of the
acceleration, one obtains:
𝒗(𝟏𝟎) = 𝒗(𝟎) + 𝓐(0,10, 𝑎) = 10 + ((−2) × 10) = −10
𝒗(𝟐𝟎) = 𝒗(𝟏𝟎) + 𝓐(10,20, 𝑎) = −10 + (3 × 10) = 20
𝒗(𝟑𝟓) = 𝒗(𝟐𝟎) + 𝓐(20,35, 𝑎) = 20 + ((−1) × 15) = 5
Hence the following table:
𝑡(𝑠 ) 0 10 20 35
𝑣(𝑚/𝑠 ) 10 −10 20 5
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
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om
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k
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lic
lic
Therefore, we may obtain the following curve of velocity
C
C
.c
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ac ac
𝑣 (𝑡 ) :
𝑣(𝑡)(𝑚/𝑠)
20
10
𝑡(𝑠)
0 𝑡1 𝑡2
10 20 35
0
−10
For the intersection points 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 , one may use the

following procedure:
a- We draw the axes 𝑡1 et 𝑡2 on the graph of
𝑎(𝑡 )(see fig.1).
b- We comput the hatched areas 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 .
Hence:
𝑣 (𝑡1 ) = 𝑣 (0) + 𝑆1 = 𝑣(0) + 𝓐(𝟎, 𝒕𝟏 , 𝒂) = 𝟏𝟎 + (−𝟐)𝒕𝟏
= 𝟎 → 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟓𝒔
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
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B
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to
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𝑣 (𝑡2 ) = 𝑣 (10) + 𝑆2 = 𝑣(10) + 𝓐(𝟏𝟎, 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒂)
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= −𝟏𝟎 + 𝟑(𝒕𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎 → 𝟑(𝒕𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟏𝟎

𝟏𝟎 𝟒𝟎
→ 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 + = ≅ 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒔.
𝟑 𝟑
𝒂(𝒕)(𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )
𝟑
𝒇𝒊𝒈. 𝟏
𝑺𝟐
𝒕𝟏
𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝒕𝟐 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟓
𝑺𝟏 𝒕(𝒔)
−𝟐
2- Analysis of motion :
0 5 10 13.33 20
𝑡 (𝑠 )
35
𝑎 (𝑚 − − + + −
/𝑠 2 )
𝑣 (𝑚 + − − + +
/𝑠)
𝑎⃗. 𝑣⃗ − + − + −
= 𝑎. 𝑣
Kind of Decelerated Accelerated Decelerated Accelerated Decelerated

Motion
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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2- Graph of 𝑥(𝑡 ).
lic
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The same procedure is followed as for 𝑣(𝑡 ).

Knowing that: 𝑥(0) = −25𝑚.
Using area calculus law, we procede as follow:
𝑥2 𝑡2
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 → ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = 𝓐(𝒕𝟏 , 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑥1 𝑡1
→ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 = 𝓐(𝒕𝟏 , 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒗) → 𝒙𝟐
= 𝒙𝟏 + 𝓐(𝒕𝟏 , 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒗)
Computation details for different abscissa:
𝑥(0) = −25𝑚.
𝟓𝟎
𝑥(𝑡1 ) = 𝑥(0) + 𝓐(𝟎, 𝒕𝟏 , 𝒗) = −𝟐𝟓 + = 𝟎𝒎
𝟐
𝑥(10) = 𝑥 (𝑡1 ) + 𝓐(𝒕𝟏 , 𝟏𝟎, 𝒗) = 𝟎 + (−𝟐𝟓) = −𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝑥(𝑡2 ) = 𝑥(10) + 𝓐(𝟏𝟎, 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒗)
𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝟎
= −𝟐𝟓 + ( − 𝟏𝟎) × (− ) = −𝟐𝟓 −
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
= −𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝒎.
𝑥(20) = 𝑥(𝑡2 ) + 𝓐(𝒕𝟐 , 𝟐𝟎, 𝒗)
𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎
= −𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 + (𝟐𝟎 − )×( )
𝟑 𝟐
= −𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 + 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝒎
𝑥(35) = 𝑥(20) + 𝓐(𝟐𝟎, 𝟑𝟓, 𝒗) = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟕 + 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
= 𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒎
Following table is obtained:
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
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k
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40
lic
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𝑡 (𝑠 ) 0 𝑡1 10 20 35
C
C
.c
.c
w
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tr re tr re
.
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ac ac
𝑡2 =
= 5𝑠 3
≅ 13.33𝑠
𝑥(𝑚) −25 0 −25 −41.67 24.997 212.5
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
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k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
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tr re tr re
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ac ac
𝑥 (𝑡)(𝑚 )
212.5
25
𝑡2 𝑡(𝑠)
0 𝑡1
10 20 35
0
−25
−41.67
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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2- Curvilinear motion- Serret-Frenet

frame of reference.
Ii is also possible to determine the velocity of a

particle 𝑀 in the frame of reference ℛ using a new
basis called Frenet basis. Frenet basis is a local basis,
in constant motion with the point 𝑀 along the linear
path. Is is used for curvilinear path. We can define
the osculation cercle to the curve at point 𝑀, it is
locally tangent to the curve at point 𝑀. One main basis
vector is tangent to the curvilinear curve in the
positive direction while the other basis vector is
normal to the curve following the curvature radius
towards the curvature center.
We may use the definition of a displacement along
the curvilinear path called curvilinear displacement
of the point particle. For that purpose, we fix an
origin 𝑶 on the curve ( 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 1). The curvilinear
displacement 𝑺(𝒕) is, then, defined as the curvilinear
distance travelled from the fixed point 𝑶 to the
position point 𝑀(𝑡 ) at time 𝑡 :
̂ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 (𝑂𝑀) = 𝑆 (𝑡 )
𝑂𝑀
➢ Velocity vector in frenet frame of reference:
37
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
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to
to
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𝑠 + 𝑑𝑠
𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 1
(𝐶 )
𝑂
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑁
Trajectoire
𝑀(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑀′
du mobile 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡
𝑠 𝑀 (𝑡 )
𝑥
𝑂
The elementary displacement of a point particle 𝑀

along the curvilinear path, the curvilinear
displacement of point 𝑀, varies from 𝑠 to 𝑠 + 𝑑𝑠 at
instants 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡. The elementary displacement of
point 𝑀 could be written in the form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝑀(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀′ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑀 ′
= 𝑑𝑠𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡
Allows to write the velocity vector in Frenet frame of
reference basis as:
38
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
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to
to
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑂𝑀
𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ) = = 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 = 𝑠̇ 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Threfore, the algebraic magnitude of speed and velocity
vector are given in the form:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = , 𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ) = 𝑣 (𝑡 )𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 = 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 is a unit vector tangent to the curve.
➢ Acceleration vector in frenet frame of

reference :
The acceleration of a particle 𝑀 may also be written in
Frenet basis. The velocity vector may be written in the
form :
𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡
𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑠̇ 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 ⟹ 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑠̈ 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑠̇
𝑑𝑡
At instant 𝑡, at point 𝑀 of the path, the basis vector
makes an angle 𝜃 with the direction of 𝑋-axis. At instant
𝑡 + 𝑑 𝑡, This vector rotates by an angle 𝑑𝜃 (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2). In
rectangular frame of reference (𝑥𝑜𝑦), we may write unit
vectors ⃗⃗𝑡 , ⃗⃗𝑁 in the form (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2) :
𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡
⃗⃗𝑡 = cos 𝜃 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝜃 𝑗⃗, ⃗⃗𝑁 = − sin 𝜃 𝑖⃗ + cos 𝜃 𝑗⃗ ⟹ = ⃗⃗𝑁
𝑑𝜃
The time derivative of the tangent unit vector could be
expressed as :
39
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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𝑑𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 𝑑𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 𝑑𝜃
= = 𝜃̇ ⃗⃗𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡
Moreover, If we put 𝜌 = radius of osculation cercle =
radius of curvature:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝑠 1
𝑑𝑠 = 𝐶𝑀 ̂ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝜃 = ⟹ = 𝜃̇ = = 𝑠̇
𝜌 𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝑑𝑡 𝜌
We get :
𝑑𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 1
= 𝜃̇ ⃗⃗𝑁 = 𝑠̇ ⃗⃗𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝜌
Therefore, the acceleration may be expressed as :
𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 𝑠̇ 2 𝑣2
𝑎⃗ (𝑡 ) = 𝑠̈ 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑠̇ ⟹ 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑠̈ 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 + ⃗⃗𝑁 = 𝑠̈ 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 + ⃗⃗𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜌
Using the above results, we finally define the
expressions of the tangential (algebraic value) and
normal (magnitude) accelerations as follows :
2 2
𝑑 𝑠 𝑣
𝑎𝑡 (𝑡 ) = 𝑠̈ = 2 , 𝑎𝑁 (𝑡 ) =
𝑑𝑡 𝜌
Finally, in Serret-Frenet basis, we may write :
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑁 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎𝑁 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑁
Serret-Frenet frame of reference (𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑁 )
⃗⃗𝑡 , 𝑢 is an
orthogonal basis, therefore:
2
𝑣
𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑡2 + 𝑎𝑁
2
,𝜌 =
𝑎𝑁 (𝑡 )
40
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
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k
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lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
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tr re tr re
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ac ac
Remarks.
• The results shown above are valid for motion on
curve of any concavity.
• The normal component is always positive, the normal
acceleration vector, at a point, is always directed
towards the concave side.
𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2
𝑀(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑀′
𝑑𝜃
𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝒅𝒔
𝜃
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑡 𝑥
𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑁
𝑀(𝑡 )
𝐶: Curvature centre
41
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
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om
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k
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lic
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C
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.c
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tr re tr re
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ac ac
3- General curvilinear motion in a

plane.
Consider a general curvilinear motion of a particle in the
plane (𝑥𝑂𝑦) with curvilinear basis (𝑢 ⃗⃗𝜃 ) in motion with
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑢
point 𝑀, on a curved path (𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 3).
..
𝑦 𝑀 (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑀′
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜃 𝑀(𝑡 )
𝜃
𝑥
Origin of angles
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
42
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
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✓ Position vector.
The vector position ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑴 is designed by 𝒓
⃗⃗(𝒕), we may
write:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗𝑟
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑈
Where 𝑟(𝑡) is the distance to point 𝑀.
✓ Instantaneous velocity vector :
We have :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑(r(t) 𝑈
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝑟
⃗⃗ =
𝑉 = = = ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗𝑟 is a unit vector (‖𝑈
𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 ‖ = 1) whith changing direction.
Moreover:
𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 𝑑𝜃
= = 𝜃̇𝑈
⃗⃗𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡
whence
⃗⃗ = 𝑣𝑟 𝑈
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 =
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇(𝑡)𝑈
= 𝑟̇ (𝑡) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
⃗⃗𝑟 = 𝑟̇ (𝑡)𝑈
𝑣⃗𝑟 = 𝑣𝑟 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 is the radial velocity
and 𝑣⃗𝜃 = 𝑣𝜃 𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 = 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 is the
transverse velocity.
✓ Instantaneous acceleration vector.
43
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
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O
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N
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Y
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U
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We have shown that the velocity vector of a particle 𝑀

is written in frame of reference of curvilinear basis
(𝑢 ⃗⃗𝜃 ) in curvilinear motion in plane (𝑥𝑂𝑦) as follow:
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑟̇ (𝑡) 𝑈
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇(𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
Using the above result, we may write the acceleration
vector:
𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑟̇ (𝑡) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇(𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 )
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = = =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟
⃗⃗
= 𝑟̈ (𝑡 )𝑈𝑟 + 𝑟̇ (𝑡 ) + 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝜃̇(𝑡 )𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜃̈(𝑡 )𝑈
⃗⃗𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
+ 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜃(𝑡 ) ̇
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟̈ (𝑡) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟̇ (𝑡)𝜃̇ (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟̇ (𝑡) 𝜃̇(𝑡) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
+ 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̈(𝑡) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 − 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ 2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟
= (𝑟̈ (𝑡) − 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ 2 (𝑡))𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + (r(t)𝜃̈(t)
+ 2𝑟̇ (𝑡)𝜃̇ (𝑡)) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
.
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
𝑑𝑈
We used time derivatives = ⃗⃗𝜃 and
= 𝜃̇𝑈 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 .
= −𝜃̇ 𝑈
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡
The velocity and acceleration vector components are:
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟̇ (𝑡 ), 𝑎 𝑟 = 𝑟̈ (t) − r(t)𝜃 ̇ 2 (𝑡),
⃗⃗ = {
𝑉 𝑎⃗ = {
𝑣𝜃 = r(t)𝜃̇(𝑡), 𝑎𝜃 = r(t)𝜃̈ (t) + 2𝑟̇ (𝑡)𝜃̇ (𝑡),
Acceleration of point 𝑀 has two components:
- 𝑎𝑟 (𝑡 ) Radial acceleration.
- 𝑎𝜃 (𝑡 ) Transverse acceleration.
44
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
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ac ac
We then write
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 (𝑡 ) 𝑈
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) + 𝑎⃗𝜃 (𝑡 ) = 𝑎𝑟 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
✓ Particular cases.
• 𝜃(𝑡 ) =Constant.
⃗⃗𝑟 Doesn’t change direction ⟹ 𝑈
𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 = constant unit
vector ⟹ Rectilinear motion along radial axis of 𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 .
Moreover: 𝜃̇(𝑡 ) = 𝜃̈ (𝑡 ) = 0, Therefore, displacement,
velocity and acceleration vectors may be written as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗𝑟
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) = 𝑟(𝑡 )𝑈
Held by the same axis, for example 𝑥’𝑜𝑥. 𝑟(𝑡 ) similar
to 𝑥(𝑡 ) and 𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 to 𝑖⃗. The velocity might be written as :
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝑈
The acceleration possesses one radial component
only:
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑟̈ (𝑡 )𝑈
• 𝑟(𝑡 ) =Constant. 𝜃(𝑡 ) Varie.
Thus :
𝑟̇ (𝑡 ) = 𝑟̈ (𝑡 ) = 0 ⟹ 𝑟(𝑡 ) = 𝐶𝑡𝑒 = 𝑅
The point 𝑀 moves on a path with non-varying
distance to 𝑂. It is called circular motion. In this
case, if we put 𝜃̇(𝑡 ) = 𝜔(𝑡 ), velocity and acceleration
vectors may be written in the form:
⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝜃̇(𝑡 )𝑈
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝜃 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝜃 = 𝑅𝜔(𝑡 )𝑈 𝑂𝑀
45
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
La velocity is tangent to the curved path, thus to the

cercle.
The acceleration :
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = −𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃̇ 2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃̈(t) 𝑈⃗⃗𝜃
= −𝑅𝜔2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜔̇ (t) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 = 𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 ) + 𝑎⃗𝑡 (𝑡 )
Compared to Frenet frame of reference:
𝑎⃗ (𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) + 𝑎⃗𝜃 (𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝑡 (𝑡 ) + 𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 )
= −𝑅𝜔2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜔̇ (t) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 ⟹ 𝑎⃗𝑡 (𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝜃 (𝑡 )
= 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜔̇ (t) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑒𝑡 𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 ) = 𝑎⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) = −𝑅𝜔2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟
𝑦
𝑎⃗𝑡 (𝑡 )
𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 )
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜃
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 4
𝑎⃗𝑟 (𝑡 )
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
46
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
According to this scheme, a comparaison between the

Frenet and curvilinear bases follows :
⃗⃗𝑡 (𝑡 ) = 𝑈
𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 (𝑡 ), 𝑒𝑡 𝑈
⃗⃗𝑁 (𝑡 ) = −𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 (𝑡 )
In Frenet frame of reference:
2
𝑣 (𝑡 )
𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 ) = −𝑅𝜔2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 = 𝑅𝜔2 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑁 ⟹ 𝑎𝑁 (𝑡 ) = 𝑅 ( )
𝑅
𝑣(𝑡 )2
=
𝑅
We say that the normal acceleration is centripetal, i.e.,
radial directed towards 𝑂.
• 𝑟(𝑡 ) =Constant = 𝑅. 𝜃̇(𝑡 ) = 𝜔(𝑡 ) =constant ≠ 0.
Our case is a circular uniform motion, and we may
write:
⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝜃̇(𝑡 )𝑈
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝜃 = 𝑣(𝑡 )𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑣(𝑡 ) = 𝑅𝜔 = 𝐶𝑡𝑒.
𝑣2
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝑁 (𝑡 ) = −𝑅𝜔 𝑈 2 ⃗⃗𝑟 ⟹ 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑅𝜔 = 2
= 𝐶𝑡𝑒.
𝑅
47
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
4- Cylindrical frame of reference.

The cylindrical coordinates are associated with a
rotational basis about 𝑍 axis and is designed by
⃗⃗𝜑 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ) in a frame of reference ℛ.
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
(𝑈
A 𝑧 coordinate is added to curvilinear (𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 ) basis in
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
the plane (𝑂, 𝑥, 𝑦).
𝑦
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 5
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜑
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
𝒋⃗
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜑 𝑀(𝑡 )
𝜑
𝑥
𝑂 𝒊⃗
Origin of angles
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
48
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
𝑧
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 6
𝑧(𝑡 )
𝑘⃗⃗
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜑
⃗𝒌⃗
𝑀 (𝑡 )
𝑂 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑦
𝒋⃗
𝜑
𝒊⃗
𝑢
⃗⃗𝜑
𝑥
𝑀′(𝑡 )
𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
Generally, the basis (𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ) is represented at point

⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
𝑀 but it could be represented at origin O.
The point 𝑀′ (projection of point 𝑀 on the plane 𝑥𝑂𝑦) is
Moving on the plane 𝑥𝑂𝑦 (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 5 − 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 6), and is
49
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
represented by its distance 𝑟 = 𝑂𝑀′ and its angular

̂)
position 𝜑 = (𝑖⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 ′
A third component on 𝑂𝑧 axis is added to the basis

⃗⃗𝜑 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ) (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 5 − 𝑓𝑖𝑔. 6), therefore, the position
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
(𝑈
vector of point 𝑀 may be written as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑀 ′ (𝑡 ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
𝑀′𝑀(𝑡 ) = 𝑟(𝑡 )𝑈
Basis (𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ) is orthogonal and 𝑈

⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 are unit vectors
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
in motion, therefore time-dependent, contrary to
vectors (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) which are fix.
✓ Velocity vector.
Accordingly, the velocity vector of point 𝑀 could be

expressed in the basis in motion, as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑟⃗(𝑡) + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗) 𝑑(r(t)𝑈

𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ =
𝑉 = =
𝑑𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟
= ⃗⃗
𝑈𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡 ) + 𝑧̇ (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜑̇ (𝑡 )𝑈
= 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑧̇(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
The calculus of the velocity vector is obtained using the

time-derivative of unit vectors in motion about 𝑂𝑧 axis
50
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
(section 3). Adding the component on 𝑘⃗⃗ axis, we may

write :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀
⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) =
𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑧̇ (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜑̇ (𝑡 )𝑈
= 𝑣𝑟 (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑣𝜑 (𝑡)𝑈⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑣𝑧 (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
✓ Vecteur acceleration.
Accordingly, the component 𝑧̈(𝑡 ) on 𝑘⃗⃗ axis is added,
the cylindrical coordinates of the acceleration may
be written in the form:
𝑑 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 2
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= (𝑟̈ (𝑡 ) − 𝑟(𝑡 )𝜑̇ 2 (𝑡 ))𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟
+ (r(t)𝜑̈ (t) + 2𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝜑̇ (𝑡 ))𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
+ 𝑧̈ (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
= 𝑎𝑟 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑎𝜑 (𝑡 ) 𝑈⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
51
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 7
𝒁
𝒁 ( 𝒕) 𝑴′(𝒕)
𝑴 ( 𝒕)
⃗𝑼
⃗⃗𝝋 (𝒕) 𝜽
⃗𝒌⃗
𝒀
𝑶
𝒓 ( 𝒕)
𝒓𝒅𝝋
𝒅𝝋
𝑿
⃗𝑼
⃗⃗𝒓 (𝒕)
𝝋 𝒅𝒓
52
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
5- Spherical frame of reference.
Spherical coordinates of point 𝑀 is related to a basis in

motion, (𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 ) changing direction in a frame of
⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑈
reference ℛ.
Position vector of point 𝑀 could be defined in basis in

motion (𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 ), by:
⃗⃗𝜃 , 𝑈
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) = 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝑈
𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗𝑟
Basis (𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 ) is orthogonal, and unit vectors 𝑈

⃗⃗𝜃 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 , 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑
and 𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 are in motion, time-dependent and changing
directions, contrary to fixed vectors (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ).
Rmq. The vector 𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 is radial and the vector 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑 is parallel
to plane 𝑥𝑜𝑦.
✓ Velocity vector. Infinitesimal displacement
vector.
The infinitesimal displacement vector is defined by:
𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝑑𝑙𝑟 𝑈
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑑𝑙𝜑 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑑𝑙𝜃 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜃
53
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
Where (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 8) :
𝑑𝑙𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟, 𝑑𝑙𝜃 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃, 𝑑𝑙𝜑 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑
Rmq. Follow variations of dashed red parallelogram.
The spherical coordinates of velocity vector of point 𝑀

may be expressed in basis in motion, as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑑𝑂𝑀
⃗⃗ =
𝑉 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
= 𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 (𝑡 ) 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡 ) sin 𝜃 𝑈⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜑
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃̇(𝑡 )𝑈
= 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡 ) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇ 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑
To sum up, the velocity vector may be written in the

form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀
⃗⃗ (𝑡 ) =
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃̇(𝑡 )𝑈
= 𝑟̇ (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡 ) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇ 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣𝑟 (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑣𝜑 (𝑡 )𝑈⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑣𝜃 (𝑡 )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
✓ Acceleration vector.
Using velocity vector expression in spherical

coordinates, acceleration vector may be written in the
form:
54
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
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tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
𝑑 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀(𝑡) 𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗(𝑡) (𝑟̇ (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇(𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇ 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 )
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = = =
𝑑𝑟̇ 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃̇
= ⃗⃗
𝑈 + 𝑟̇ (𝑡) ̇ ⃗⃗
+ 𝜃 (𝑡)𝑈𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡) ⃗⃗
𝑈
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜃
𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
̇
+ 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃 (𝑡 ) + sin 𝜃 𝜑̇ (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑟 (𝑡) cos 𝜃 𝜑̇ 𝑈⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝜑̇ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑
+ 𝑟 (𝑡) sin 𝜃 ⃗ ⃗
𝑈𝜑 + 𝑟(𝑡) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑈⃗⃗
= 𝑟̈ 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟̇ (𝑡) 𝑟 + 𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟𝜃̈ 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ (𝑡) 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑟̇ 𝜑̇(𝑡) sin 𝜃 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ 𝜑̇ cos 𝜃 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜑̈ sin 𝜃 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑
+ 𝑟 (𝑡) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟̈ 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 + (𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ (𝑡) + 𝑟𝜃̈ )𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃
+ (𝑟̇ 𝜑̇(𝑡) sin 𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃̇ 𝜑̇ cos 𝜃 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜑̈ sin 𝜃)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝜑
+ 𝑟̇ (𝑡) + 𝑟(𝑡)𝜃 (𝑡) ̇ + 𝑟(𝑡) sin 𝜃 𝜑̇
Now:
𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗1
⃗⃗1 = cos 𝜑 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝜑 𝑗⃗, 𝑈
𝑈 ⃗⃗2 = = − sin 𝜑 𝑖⃗ + cos 𝜑 𝑗⃗
𝑑𝜑
Belong both to plane 𝑥𝑜𝑦. Moreover, 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 et 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜃 are parallel
to plane (𝑂𝑀′ , 𝑂𝑍) ≡ plane (𝑈 ⃗⃗1 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ), therefore, these could
be expressed in (𝑈 ⃗⃗1 , 𝑘⃗⃗ ) basis (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 8) :
⃗⃗1 + cos 𝜃 𝑘⃗⃗ = sin 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝜑 𝑗⃗) + cos 𝜃 𝑘⃗⃗,
⃗⃗𝑟 = sin 𝜃 𝑈
𝑈
𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 𝑈⃗⃗1 − sin 𝜃 𝑘⃗⃗ = cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝜑 𝑗⃗) − sin 𝜃 𝑘⃗⃗
On the other hand, 𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 is parallel to plane 𝑥𝑜𝑦 :
⃗⃗𝜑 = 𝑈
𝑈 ⃗⃗2 = − sin 𝜑 𝑖⃗ + cos 𝜑 𝑗⃗
55
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
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or
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𝜕𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 𝜕𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 𝜕𝑈⃗⃗𝜑

⃗⃗
= −𝑈𝑟 , ⃗⃗
= cos 𝜃 𝑈𝜑 , == − cos 𝜑 𝑖⃗ − sin 𝜑 𝑗⃗
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝑟 𝜕𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑈 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 𝜕𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑈⃗⃗𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑
= + , = + ,
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈⃗⃗𝜑 𝑑𝜑
=
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑡
Substituting the above relations, we may write
acceleration vector in the form:
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑎𝜑 (𝑡 ) 𝑈
𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) = 𝑎𝑟 (𝑡)𝑈 ⃗⃗𝜑 + 𝑎𝜃 (𝑡 )𝑈⃗⃗𝜃
= (𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 − 𝑟𝜑̇ 2 sin 𝜃)𝑈⃗⃗𝑟
+ (2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ + 𝑟𝜃̈ − 𝑟𝜑̇ 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) 𝑈
⃗⃗𝜃
+ (2𝑟̇ 𝜑̇ sin 𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃̇𝜑̇ cos 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜑̈ sin 𝜃)𝑈
⃗⃗𝜑
56
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𝑓𝑖𝑔. 8
𝒓(𝒕) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽)𝒅𝝋
⃗⃗⃗𝒓 (𝒕)
𝑼 𝒓(𝒕)𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝒓
𝒓 ( 𝒕) ⃗𝑼
⃗⃗𝝋 (𝒕)
⃗𝑼
⃗⃗𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑴 ( 𝒕) 𝒀
𝑶
⃗⃗⃗𝜽 (𝒕)
𝑼
𝑴′(𝒕) 𝒅𝝋
𝑿
⃗⃗⃗𝟏 (𝒕)
𝑼
57
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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or
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to
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Exercise N°3 : Series 4 Kinematics : Coordinate systems.
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𝑼𝒛
𝑼𝜽
𝑼𝒓
1/ a)- Position vector: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 = 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐻 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝑟 + 𝑧𝑈
𝐻𝑀 = 𝑟𝑈 ⃗𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗
The velocity vector: 𝑣 = ⃗ 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑈𝑟 + 𝑧̇ 𝑈
= 𝑟̇ 𝑈 ⃗𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑟 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑟̇ = 0
𝑑𝑈⃗𝑟
⃗ 𝜃 | ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑎𝜃̇ 𝑈
= 𝜃̇𝑈 ⃗ 𝜃 + ℎ𝜃̇𝑈
⃗𝑧
𝑑𝑡
𝑧̇ = ℎ𝜃̇
Acceleration vector:
𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑈⃗𝜃
𝛾= = ̈
= 𝑎𝜃 𝑈⃗ 𝜃 + 𝑎𝜃̇ + ℎ𝜃̈𝑈
⃗𝑧
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
⃗𝜃
PD
PD
𝑑𝑈
or
or
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!
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Y
= −𝜃̇ 𝑈
⃗𝑟
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Whence,
𝛾 = −𝑎𝜃̇ 2 𝑈
⃗ 𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃̈𝑈
⃗ 𝜃 + +ℎ𝜃̈ 𝑈
⃗𝑧
b)- The vector 𝑈⃗ 𝜃 is 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙a𝑙 to 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛e 𝑜𝑥𝑦, then (𝑣̂

, 𝑜𝑥𝑦) =
⃗ 𝜃̂
(𝑈 , 𝑜𝑥𝑦) and 𝑈
⃗𝜃 ⊥ 𝑈 ⃗ 𝑧 , therefore:
̂ 𝑣𝑧 ℎ𝜃̇ ℎ
tan (𝑣, ⃗ 𝜃) =
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑈 = ⃗⃗⃗̂
⟹ tan (𝑣, 𝑈⃗ 𝜃 ) = = 𝐶𝑠𝑡.
𝑣𝜃 𝑎𝜃̇ 𝑎
2/ a)- For a uniform rotational motion, one has 𝜃̇ = 𝜔 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡

and 𝛾 = −𝑎𝜔2 𝑈⃗𝑟
𝛾 is 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙a𝑙 to 𝑈
⃗ 𝑟 i.e. centripetal, that confirms that it
passes throught the cylinder axis. 𝑈

⃗ 𝑟 ∈ 𝑜𝑥𝑦 , and 𝛾 is
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙a𝑙 to 𝑈
⃗ 𝑟 , that shows that 𝑎𝑐𝑐e𝑙e𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is parallel to
𝑜𝑥𝑦 plane.
b)- We have just shown that acceleration is centripetal,

therefore:
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝜌= =
𝛾𝑁 𝛾 𝑎2 𝜔2 +ℎ2 𝜔2 𝑎2 +ℎ2
|⟹𝜌= ⟹𝜌= = 𝐶𝑠𝑡.
𝑣2 = 𝑎 2 𝜔2
+ ℎ2 𝜔2 𝑎𝜔2 𝑎
𝛾 = 𝑎𝜔2
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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CHAPITER III
RELATIVE MOTION.
MOVING COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
• Objectives.
- Knowledge of motion type in different frame of
reference relative to each other.
- Compute time derivatives of vectors in different
frames of reference
- Calculus of transformation of velocities.
- Calculus of transformation of accelerations.
In the following, we consider rotational motion about one
axis.
In what follows, we consider two frames of reference ℛ

et ℛ′. The first is designed by the following notation:
58
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hange E hange E
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(𝑂, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with corresponding basis (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗), and the

second by (𝑂′, 𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) with corresponding basis (𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′).
Axes 𝑂′𝑥′, 𝑂′𝑦′, 𝑂′𝑧′ are generally non-parallel to axes
𝑂𝑥, 𝑂𝑦, 𝑂𝑧 respectively at instant 𝑡 = 0, when the frame
of reference ℛ′ is moving relative to ℛ. We examine two
important cases, where the direction of axes is chosen:
Rotational and translational motion.
59
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𝑧′
Relative frame of reference
ℛ (𝑂′𝑥′𝑦′𝑧′) orℛ(𝑂 ′ , 𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′) 𝑦′
𝑘⃗⃗ ′
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 9 𝑧
𝑂′ 𝑗⃗′
𝑧(𝑡 )
𝑖⃗′
Moving object
𝑀
⃗𝒌⃗ 𝑥′
𝑀 (𝑡 )
𝑂 𝑦(𝑡 )
𝒋⃗
𝑥(𝑡 ) 𝑦
𝒊⃗
𝑥
𝑀′(𝑡 )
Fixed absolute frame of
reference
ℛ (𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧) ou ℛ(𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ )
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M. CHEKERKER
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• Relative translational motion.
In relative translational motion, the axes of frames

of reference ℛ and ℛ′ are parallel to each other
during motion. In the origin 𝑂′ is in motion relative to
ℛ, all the points of frame of reference ℛ′ will be
moving with same magnitude as 𝑂′. Consequences :
- At instant, we have: 𝑖⃗ = 𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗ = 𝑗⃗′ , 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ ′ . Basis (𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗′ , 𝑘⃗⃗ ′ )
is fixed in both frames of reference ℛ′ and ℛ . The
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑂 ′ corresponds to translational vector.
- The translational motion of frame of reference ℛ′
relative to ℛ could be linear, circular or any depending
on the nature of motion of origin 𝑂′ of frame of
reference ℛ′.
✓ Analysis of motion of particle 𝑴.
a- In fixed (absolute) frame of reference
𝓡(𝑶, 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛).
- Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑴(𝒕) (absolute) :
𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) = 𝑥(𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) is the time-Independent rectangular fixed basis.
Velocity vector 𝒗 ⃗⃗𝒂 (𝒕) (absolute) :
61
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𝑣𝑎 𝑥 (𝑡 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂𝑀(𝑡 )
𝑣⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑥̇ (𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦̇ (𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧̇(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ = (𝑣𝑎 𝑦 (𝑡 ))
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑎 𝑧 (𝑡 )
- Acceleration vector ⃗𝜸⃗𝒂 (𝒕) (absolue) :
𝛾𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝑣⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) 𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑀
𝛾⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) = = 2
= 𝑥̈ (𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦̈ (𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧̈ (𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ = (𝛾𝑎 𝑦 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛾𝑎 𝑧
b- In relative frame of reference 𝓡′(𝑶′𝒙′𝒚′𝒛′) ou
𝓡′(𝑶′ , 𝒊⃗′, 𝒋⃗′, ⃗𝒌⃗′).
The vectors (𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗′) are constant for an observer in
frame of reference ℛ′(𝑂 ′ , 𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′) and the frame of
reference ℛ′(𝑂′𝑥′𝑦′𝑧′) is fixed.
- Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶′𝑴(𝒕) (relative) :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀(𝑡 ) = 𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′
(𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗′) is a constant rectangular basis.
- Velocity vector 𝒗
⃗⃗𝒓 (𝒕) (relative) :
𝑣𝑟 𝑥 (𝑡 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂′𝑀 𝑡 ( )
𝑣⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑥̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̇′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′ = (𝑣𝑟 𝑦 (𝑡 ))
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑟 𝑧 (𝑡)
- Acceleration vector ⃗𝜸⃗𝒓 (𝒕) (relative) :
𝑑𝑣⃗𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀
𝛾⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) = = 2
= 𝑥̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̈′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝛾𝑟 𝑥 (𝑡 )
= (𝛾𝑟 𝑦 (𝑡 ))
𝛾𝑟 𝑧 (𝑡 )
62
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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PD
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or
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c- Transformation vectors in fixed (absolute)

frame of reference 𝓡(𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒛), and relative
frame of reference 𝓡′(𝑶′𝒙′𝒚′𝒛′).
• 𝓡′ in translational motion relative to 𝓡.
- Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶′𝑴(𝒕) (relative) :
Frame of reference ℛ′, is in translational motion

relative to frame of reference ℛ, and it is choosen
such that axes 𝑂 ′ 𝑥 ′ , 𝑂𝑦′ and 𝑂′𝑧′ are parallel to axes
𝑂𝑥, 𝑂𝑦 and 𝑂𝑧 respectively, of frame of reference ℛ.
Origin 𝑂′, related to ℛ′, is in curvilinear motion
relative to ℛ.
𝑧′
ℛ′
𝑧′
ℛ′
𝑘⃗⃗′
𝑗⃗′
𝑧 𝑂′ 𝑦′
𝑧′
ℛ′ 𝑘⃗⃗′
𝑗⃗′
𝑂′ 𝑦′
𝑖⃗′
𝑥′
𝑘⃗⃗′
𝑗⃗′ 𝑖⃗′
𝑥′
𝑂′ 𝑦′
𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑥′
𝑖⃗′
𝑗⃗
𝑂 𝑦
𝑥 𝑖⃗
ℛ
63
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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Figure 10 • Relative translational motion.
Chasles Relation may be written in the form:
𝑶𝑴(𝒕) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑶′(𝒕) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶′𝑴(𝒕)
- Velocity transformation.
We consider frame of reference ℛ(𝑂, 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) fixed and

unitary vectors 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ are constant and time-independent
Whereas unitary vectors 𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′ are time-dependent
relative to frame of reference ℛ′(𝑂′, 𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′). We can
define :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 𝑑(𝑥(𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝑣⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) = 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ = ] =
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
𝑣⃗𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ = ]
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ′
𝑑(𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ ′)
=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦 ′ (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧′(𝑡 )
= 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑗⃗′ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ′
and
64
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑣⃗𝑒 (𝑡 ) =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂
= ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
= 𝑣⃗𝑂′/ℛ
= 𝑣⃗ℛ′/ℛ
Chasles relation is derived relative to time, and we thus
obtain for point position 𝑀:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] + ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
Axes of ℛ′ remain parallel to those of ℛ, the time-

derivative of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀 relative to ℛ is identical to time-
derivative of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀 relative to ℛ′ :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
/ℛ /ℛ′
Therefore the following relationship holds:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] + ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ′
thus:
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑶′/𝓡 + 𝒗
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ = 𝒗
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ + 𝒗
⃗⃗𝓡′/𝓡
65
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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⃗⃗𝒂 is called absolute velocity and 𝒗

⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝒓 is
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ = 𝒗
called relative velocity The above relation, analogous to
Chasles addition vectors relation, is called relative
velocity transformations. We notice that, if the point
𝑀 is fixed in frame of reference ℛ′, we may write:
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑶′/𝓡 = 𝒗
⃗⃗𝓡′/𝓡
For that reason, 𝒗 ⃗⃗𝓡′/𝓡 is also called Drive

⃗⃗𝑶′/𝓡 = 𝒗
velocity and is designed by 𝒗
⃗⃗𝒆 . Therefore:
⃗⃗𝒂 (𝒕) = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝒓 (𝒕) + 𝒗
⃗⃗𝒆 (𝒕)
➢ Explicit calculus of relative velocity

transformations in 𝓡 and 𝓡′ frames of
reference.
Time-derivative of Chasles relationship:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] + ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
May be written in frame ℛ, in the form:
66
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
𝑣⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) = ] + ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 𝑑(𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
= ] +
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂
= ] + 𝑥̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ ′
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′ 𝑑𝑘⃗⃗ ′
+ 𝑥′(𝑡 ) + 𝑦′(𝑡 ) + 𝑧′(𝑡 )
Therefore:
𝑣⃗𝑟 (𝑡 ) = 𝑥̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̇ ′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗ ′
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′ 𝑑𝑘⃗⃗ ′
𝑣⃗𝑒 (𝑡 ) = ] + 𝑥′(𝑡 ) + 𝑦′(𝑡 ) + 𝑧′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
➢ Explicit calculus of relative acceleration

transformations in 𝓡 and 𝓡′ frames of
reference.
The absolute acceleration is given by :
67
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𝑑𝑣⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) 𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
𝛾⃗𝑎 (𝑡 ) = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑂 ′(𝑡 ) 𝑑2 𝑖⃗′ 𝑑2 𝑗⃗′
=( 2
] + 𝑥′(𝑡 ) 2 + 𝑦′(𝑡 ) 2
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑘⃗⃗′ 𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′ 𝑑𝑘⃗⃗ ′
+ 𝑧′(𝑡 ) 2 ) + 2 (𝑥̇ ′(𝑡 ) + 𝑦̇ ′(𝑡 ) + 𝑧̇ ′(𝑡 ) )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
+ (𝑥̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
Drive acceleration :
𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑂 ′(𝑡 ) 𝑑2 𝑖⃗′ 𝑑2 𝑗⃗′ 𝑑2 𝑘⃗⃗ ′
𝛾⃗𝑒 = ( ] + 𝑥′(𝑡 ) 2 + 𝑦′(𝑡 ) 2 + 𝑧′(𝑡 ) 2 )
𝑑𝑡 2 /ℛ
Coriolis acceleration :
𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′ 𝑑𝑘⃗⃗′
𝛾⃗𝑐 = 2 (𝑥̇ ′(𝑡 ) + 𝑦̇ ′(𝑡 ) + 𝑧̇′(𝑡 ) )
Relative acceleration :
𝛾⃗𝑟 = (𝑥̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧̈ ′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
Thus:
𝛾⃗𝑒 = 𝛾⃗𝑒 + 𝛾⃗𝑐 + 𝛾⃗𝑟
In case of relative translational motion 𝑖⃗ = 𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗ = 𝑗⃗′ , 𝑘⃗⃗ =
𝑘⃗⃗ ′ , therefore :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 𝑑2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑂 ′(𝑡 )
𝑣⃗𝑒 = ] , 𝛾⃗𝑒 = 2
] , 𝛾⃗𝑐 = ⃗⃗
0, 𝛾⃗𝑎 = 𝛾⃗𝑒 + 𝛾⃗𝑟
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
68
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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• Relative rotational motion of frame 𝓡′ with

respect to frame 𝓡 without translation.
Now, we consider the case where frame of reference
ℛ′(𝑂 ′ 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′) with fixed (𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗′) in ℛ′ is rotating relative
to frame ℛ(𝑂, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) with fixed (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) in ℛ, with
angular velocity 𝜔
⃗⃗ We suppose frames of reference with
common origin 𝑂′ and 𝑂, as shown in fig.10..
𝑧 𝑧′
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 10 − 𝑎
𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ
𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗ ′
ℛ
𝑂′ 𝑂 𝑗⃗
𝜃 𝑖⃗′ 𝑦
𝑥′ 𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗′
ℛ
𝑦′
ℛ′
𝑥
69
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑓𝑖𝑔. 10 − 𝑏
𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ 𝑗⃗
𝑦
𝑖⃗
𝑥
Figure 10 • Relative rotational motion of frame ℛ′ with
respect to frame ℛ.
We make the hypothesis that the frame of reference
ℛ′ is rotating relative to frame of reference ℛ about 𝑧
axis, We should, then, write the angular velocity ℛ′
relative to ℛ as follows:
𝑑𝜃
𝜔 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝜃̇𝑘⃗⃗
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ =
𝑑𝑡
We note that basis vectors (𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗′) are constant in ℛ′
because they are rotating with angular velocity 𝝎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝓡′ /𝓡
about 𝑂𝑧 axis. Position vector of point 𝑀 may be written,
in any frame of reference, in the form:
70
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ) = 𝑥(𝑡 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡 )𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑀 (𝑡 ) = 𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′
𝑂′𝑀 (𝑡 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑂′ = ⃗⃗ 0
Velocity of point 𝑀 with rectangular coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
in ℛ(𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑡) is given by:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 𝑑𝑥(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧(𝑡 )
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ = ] = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
In ℛ′, basis vectors (𝑖⃗′ , 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗′) are constant, we must then
write velocity vector of the same point 𝑀 in ℛ′ frame,
as :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 ) = ]
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ′
𝑑(𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧′(𝑡 )
= 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑗⃗′ + 𝑘⃗⃗′
We place the observer in frame of reference ℛ, we

express position of point 𝑀 in (𝑖⃗′, 𝑗⃗′, 𝑘⃗⃗ ′) basis. The
velocity vector of point 𝑀 could be written as (𝑂 = 𝑂′):
71
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = ] = ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
𝑑(𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
=
𝑑𝑡
Whence :
𝑑𝑥′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧′(𝑡 )
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑗⃗′ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ′
𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′ 𝑑𝑘⃗⃗ ′
+ 𝑥′(𝑡 ) + 𝑦′(𝑡 ) + 𝑧′(𝑡 )
Using results of paragraph 2 (curvilinear coordinates)

for this chapter, we obtain:
𝑑𝑥′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧′(𝑡 )
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑗⃗′ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ′ + 𝑥′(𝑡 )𝜃̇𝑗⃗′
− 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝜃̇𝑖⃗′
We remark that:
𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′
= 𝜃̇𝑗⃗′ = 𝜃̇(𝑘⃗⃗ ′ ∧ 𝑖⃗′) = (𝜃̇𝑘⃗⃗ ′) ∧ 𝑖⃗′ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑖⃗′, 𝑒𝑡 = −𝜃̇ 𝑖⃗′
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= −𝜃̇(𝑗⃗′ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ ′) = 𝜃̇(𝑘⃗⃗′ ∧ 𝑗⃗′) = (𝜃̇𝑘⃗⃗′) ∧ 𝑗⃗′ = 𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑗⃗′
Or :
𝑑𝑖⃗′ 𝑑𝑗⃗′
̇
= 𝜃𝑗⃗′ = 𝜔⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑖⃗′, 𝑒𝑡 = −𝜃̇ 𝑖⃗′
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑗⃗′
72
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
Finally, we may write :
𝑑𝑥′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑦′(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑧′(𝑡 )

𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑗⃗′ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ′ + 𝑥′(𝑡 )𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑖⃗′
+ 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑗⃗′
After some algebraic calculus, the following result may
be derived:
𝑥′(𝑡 )𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑗⃗′
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ (𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′)
Rotational instantaneous velocity vector has direction
along 𝑘⃗⃗′ axis, then we should have:
⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ (𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′)
𝜔
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ (𝑥′(𝑡 )𝑖⃗′ + 𝑦′(𝑡 )𝑗⃗′ + 𝑧′(𝑡 )𝑘⃗⃗′)
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=𝜔 𝑂′𝑀 = 𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
In conclusion, we may write :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀
] = ] +𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ′
If we put 𝑣⃗ℛ′/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝜔 𝑂𝑀, relative velocity
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
transformations in frames of reference rotating
relative to each other, could be written as :
⃗⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝒕) = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝒕) + 𝒗
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ (𝒕)
73
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
Where 𝒗
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ (𝒕) is called Drive velocity, i.e., the speed
relative to frame ℛ, of point 𝑀 if it would be fixed in
frame ℛ′.
• General case.
The above relation could be generalized for a
combination of translational and rotational motion
where velocity of 𝑂′ relative to ℛ and angular velocity
vector 𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ for ℛ′ rotating relative to frame of
reference ℛ, are used. Time-derivative of Chasles
relation:
𝑂𝑀 (𝑡 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑂′(𝑡 ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀(𝑡 )
May be written n the form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] + ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
The derivative of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 (𝑡 ) in frame of reference ℛ could
be expressed from the derivative of the same vector in
ℛ′, therefore:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] + ] ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+𝜔 𝑂′𝑀
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ′
74
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
We thus obtain velocity transformation law in the

general case:
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 (𝒕) = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ (𝒕) + 𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝑶′/𝓡 (𝒕) + 𝝎 𝓡 /𝓡 𝑶′𝑴
We distinguish two terms in the above expression:

- 𝒗
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ (𝒕) Represents velocity of 𝑀 relative to ℛ′
called Relative velocity of 𝑀 relative to ℛ′.
- 𝒗 𝑶′𝑴 is the Drive velocity of 𝑀 in
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝓡′ /𝓡 ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝑶′/𝓡 (𝒕) + 𝝎
its motion relative to ℛ. The latter is a sum of two
termes. The first term is the drive velocity due to
translational displacement of origin 𝑂′ (Translational
term) and the second corresponds to the drive
velocity due to the rotational motion of ℛ′ relative to
ℛ (Rotational term).
• ACCELERATION TRANSFORMATION LAW.
- Acceleraion Transformations Law.
We express the acceleration of point 𝑀 relative to ℛ′.
We assume we know motion characteristics relative to
ℛ′. We assume translational-rotational motion of frame
of reference ℛ′ relative to ℛ . Velocity transformations
give us :
⃗⃗ ′ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 ) + 𝑣⃗𝑂′/ℛ (𝑡 ) + 𝜔
ℛ /ℛ 𝑂′𝑀
75
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
On the other hand, we define time

derivative of the acceleration, and we
may write:
𝑑𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 )
𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = ]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
Therefore:
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑 (𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 ) + 𝑣⃗𝑂′/ℛ (𝑡 ) + 𝜔 𝑂′𝑀)
𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = ]
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
We thus get:
⃗⃗𝑀/ℛ′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑣
𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ (𝑡 ) = 𝛾⃗𝑂′/ℛ (𝑡 ) + ] +
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂′𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ
𝑑𝜔
+𝜔
⃗⃗ ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ ] + ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ 𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
Time-derivatives of different vectors could be written
in ℛ′ if we use rotating vector time differentiation rule
of preceding paragraph:
⃗⃗(𝒕)
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽⃗⃗(𝒕)
] = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝓡′ /𝓡 ∧ ⃗𝑽⃗
] +𝝎
𝒅𝒕 /𝓡 𝒅𝒕 /𝓡′
If we apply the above rule to vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀 and 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 )
we get:
76
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] = ] ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+𝜔 𝑂′𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
/ℛ /ℛ′
𝑑𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 )
] = ] +𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ′
The above result could be written as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑂′𝑀
] ⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ + 𝜔 𝑂′𝑀
𝑑𝑡
/ℛ
𝑑𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 )
⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ 𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ (𝑡 )
] = 𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ′ + 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
Substituting in the formula of acceleration, we may
write the velocity transformation law as :
𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ = 𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ′ + 𝛾⃗𝑒 + 𝛾⃗𝑐
With:
𝑑𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ′ /ℛ
𝛾⃗𝑒 = 𝛾⃗𝑂′/ℛ (𝑡 ) + 𝜔 ⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ (𝜔 𝑂′𝑀) + ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂′𝑀]
𝑑𝑡 /ℛ
𝛾⃗𝑐 = 2𝜔
⃗⃗ℛ ′ /ℛ ∧ (𝑣⃗𝑀/ℛ′ )
We possibly distinguish three terms in the above

expression:
77
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
✓ The first term of the right-hand side 𝛾⃗𝑀/ℛ′
represents the acceleration of 𝑀 relative to ℛ′ or
Relative acceleration.
✓ The second term of the last member is called

Coriolis acceleration ⃗𝜸⃗𝒄 . Is is the result of
rotational motion of ℛ′ relative to ℛ frame of
reference.
✓ The auxiliary term represents Drive acceleration
⃗𝜸⃗𝒆 . Both the above accelerations are a result of
rotational motion of ℛ′ relative to ℛ.
78
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
Correction of exercise N°01- Series N°05.

- Let there be the following frames of reference 𝓡(𝑶, 𝒊⃗, 𝒋⃗, ⃗𝒌⃗) and
⃗⃗′):
𝓡′(𝑶′, 𝒊⃗′, 𝒋⃗′, 𝒌
𝒛′
𝒚′
𝑶′
𝑶
𝒙′
𝒚
According to Chasles relationship:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝑶𝑶
𝒅𝑶𝑴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗′ 𝒅𝑶′𝑴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑴 = 𝑶𝑶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗′ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶′ 𝑴 → = + → ⃗𝒗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = ⃗𝒗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ + ⃗𝒗⃗𝓡′/𝓡 → ⃗𝒗⃗𝓡′/𝓡 = ⃗𝒗⃗𝒆
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
⃗⃗𝒂 − 𝒗
=𝒗 ⃗⃗𝒓 .
With:
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙′
𝒗𝒂 𝒙 =
= 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟒 𝒗𝒓𝒙 = = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟏
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚′
⃗⃗𝒂 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = 𝒗𝒂 𝒚 = = −𝟖𝒕𝟑 , ⃗⃗𝒓 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ = 𝒗𝒓 𝒚 = = −𝟖𝒕𝟑
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛′
{ 𝒗𝒂𝒛 = 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟔𝒕. { 𝒗 𝒓 𝒛
=
𝒅𝒕
= 𝟔𝒕.
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
Therefore, motion of 𝓡′/𝓡 is described by the drive velocity 𝒗

⃗⃗𝒆 , such that:
−𝟓
⃗⃗𝒆 = 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗𝒂 − ⃗𝒗⃗𝒓 = ( 𝟎 ) = −𝟓𝒊⃗.
𝟎
Motion is Uniform; therefore, frame of reference 𝓡′ is Galilean.
- Accelerations 𝜸
⃗⃗ et 𝜸
⃗⃗′ in 𝓡 and 𝓡′ .
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙′
𝜸𝒙 = =𝟐 𝜸′𝒙 = =𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒚′
⃗⃗ = 𝜸
𝜸 ⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡 = 𝜸𝒚 = 𝒅 𝟐𝒚 = −𝟐𝟒𝒕𝟐 , ⃗𝜸⃗′ = 𝜸
⃗⃗𝒂 = 𝜸 ⃗⃗𝒓 = 𝜸
⃗⃗𝑴/𝓡′ = 𝜸′𝒚 = = −𝟐𝟒𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒛 𝒅𝟐 𝒛′
{ 𝜸𝒛 = 𝒅𝒕𝟐 = 𝟔. { 𝜸′𝒛 = = 𝟔.
𝒅𝒕𝟐
Hence,
𝟐
⃗𝜸⃗ = ⃗𝜸⃗′ = (−𝟐𝟒𝒕𝟐 ).
𝟔
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
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Correction of exercise N°04- Series N°04.

1- Position vector in fixed frame of reference ℛ (𝑂𝑋𝑌) and relative frame of
reference ℛ′(𝑂′𝑋′𝑌′) (fig.1).
𝒚′
𝒚
𝜃 𝛽
𝒙′
𝑶′
𝒙
𝑶 𝑰
𝒇𝒊𝒈𝟏.
We have:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂′𝑀
𝑂𝐼 + 𝐼𝑂′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̅̅̅
𝑂𝐼 𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 + (𝑟 cos 𝛽 )𝑖 + (𝑟 sin 𝛽 )𝑗.
Or, Rolling without sliding is to justify the fact that the point I in contact with the
ground is at rest 𝑉 ⃗ , because ground imposes state at rest of point I.
⃗ 𝐼/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) = 0
this gives (see series N°04 of relative motion) :
⃗ 𝐼/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ 𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) + 𝜔⃗ ∧ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ →𝑉
𝑂′ 𝐼 = 0 ⃗ 𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) + (−𝜔𝑘⃗) ∧ (−𝑟𝑗) = 0⃗
→𝑉 ⃗ 𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) + (𝑟𝜔)(𝑘⃗ ∧ 𝑗) = 𝑉 ⃗ → 𝑉𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) = 𝑟𝜔
⃗ 𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) − (𝑟𝜔)𝑖 = 0
̅̅̅ = 𝑉𝑂′/ℛ(𝑂𝑋𝑌) 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔𝑡.
→ 𝑂𝐼
2nd approach. Rolling without sliding imposes:

̅̅̅ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑀
𝑂𝐼 ̂ = 𝑟|𝜃|
On the other hand (à 𝑡 = 0, |𝜃| = 0):
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑑|𝜃|
= 𝜔 → ∫ 𝑑|𝜃| = ∫ 𝜔𝑑𝑡 → |𝜃| = 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Hence:
̅̅̅ ̂ = 𝑟|𝜃| = 𝑟𝜔𝑡.
𝑂𝐼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑀
Or, from figure 1, we may write:

3𝜋 3𝜋
𝛽 + |𝜃| = →𝛽= − |𝜃|.
2 2
Thus:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐼
𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂′𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐼𝑂′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐼
̅̅̅ 𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 + (𝑟 cos 𝛽 )𝑖 + (𝑟 sin 𝛽 )𝑗
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑟𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 + 𝑟 cos ( − |𝜃|) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin ( − |𝜃|) 𝑗
2 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑟𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 + 𝑟 cos ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑟𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 + 𝑟 cos (𝜋 + − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin (𝜋 + − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑟𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 − 𝑟 cos ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 − 𝑟 sin ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
2 2
= (𝑟𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑟𝑗 − 𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 − 𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
= 𝑟(𝜔𝑡 − sin(𝜔𝑡))𝑖 + 𝑟(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))𝑗.
And:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑟 cos 𝛽 )𝑖 + (𝑟 sin 𝛽 )𝑗 = 𝑟 cos (3𝜋 − |𝜃|) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin (3𝜋 − |𝜃|) 𝑗
𝑂′𝑀
2 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 𝑟 cos ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑟 cos (𝜋 + − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑟 sin (𝜋 + − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= −𝑟 cos ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 − 𝑟 sin ( − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗 = −𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 − 𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑗.
2 2
Therefore, in frame of reference ℛ (𝑂𝑋𝑌) :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑥 = 𝑟(𝜔𝑡 − sin(𝜔𝑡))
𝑂𝑀 {
𝑦 = 𝑟(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))
And in the relative referential ℛ′(𝑂′𝑋′𝑌′) :
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ { 𝑥 = −𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑂′𝑀
𝑦 = −𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡)
2- The absolute velocity in frame of reference ℛ (𝑂𝑋𝑌) :
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑑𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂𝑀 𝑣𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑟𝜔(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))
𝑣𝑎 = ={ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑎𝑦 = = 𝑟𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Relative velocity in frame of reference ℛ′(𝑂′𝑋′𝑌′) :
𝑑𝑥′
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑂′𝑀 𝑣𝑟 = = −𝑟𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑣𝑟 = =
𝑥′
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦′
( )
{ 𝑣𝑟𝑦′ = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
- The magnitude of the absolute velocity:
‖𝑣𝑎 ‖ = √𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 = 𝑟𝜔√(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))2 + sin2 (𝜔𝑡)

1
= 𝑟𝜔√1 + cos 2 (𝜔𝑡) − 2 cos(𝜔𝑡) + sin2 (𝜔𝑡) = 𝑟𝜔(2(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡)))2
1
2
𝜔𝑡 2 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑟𝜔 (2 × 2 sin ( )) = +2𝑟𝜔 sin ( ).
2 2
We used :
𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 → 0 ≤ ( ) ≤ 𝜋 → sin ( ) ≥ 0.
2 2
3- Curvilinear displacement (𝑠(0) = 0):
𝑠 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝜔𝑡 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑡
𝑣= ( )
→ 𝑠 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 2𝑟𝜔 sin ( ) 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑟𝜔 (− ) cos ( )|
𝑑𝑡 0 0 0 2 𝜔 2 0
𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
= 4𝑟 (1 − cos ( )) = 8𝑟 sin2 ( ).
2 4
In other words, for a rotation of angle 𝜃 (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋) :
𝜃
𝑠(𝜃) = 8𝑟 sin2 ( )
4
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M. CHEKERKER
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CHAPITER IV
DYNAMICS OF A
PARTICLE: NEWTON
LAWS- GALILEAN-
INERTIAL FRAME OF
REFERENCE.
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Objectives :
• Acquire knowledge of some notions, like
mass, centre of mass of particle systems.
• Acquire knowwledge of notion of force and
torque of force.
• Acquire knowledge of a balance of forces
applied to a body or particle systems.
• Be able to solve any problems of particle
systems or body dynamics.
1- PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA : NEWTON’S FIRST
LAW.
Mechanics is a branch of physics based on principles.
The principles are fundamental and universal. To be able
to understand the interaction of particle, one should
define basic concepts, like force, linear momenta …etc.,
which account for the motion of a body or particle
systems. The study of a relationship of motion of a body
and the cause for this motion is called: Dynamics. The
Law of inertia or Newton’s first law is basic for the
study of particle systems or body motion. We assume
that the motion of the particle is relative to an observer
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which don’t interact with the particle. Such an observer

is called an inertial frame of reference.
1.1. Law of inertia: Newton’s first law.

According to the law of inertia, different inertial
observers may be in motion, relative to each other, and
in translational motion with constant velocity and
without changing directions relative to a fixed inertial
frame of reference, like the earth. Such inertial frame
of reference is called: galilean. The law of inertia states
that:
A centre of mass (G) of a free particle system (a

single free particle) always moves with constant
velocity relative to any Galilean frame of reference
𝓡 or is at rest.
That is a free particle either moves in a straight line

with constant velocity or is at rest (zero velocity).
Particle motion depends on inertial frame of reference
called Galilean frame of reference (see chapiter 3:
relative motion of the preceding chapter). Therefore,
law of inertia is valid in Galilean inertial frame of
reference only.
M. CHEKERKER
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1.2. Galilean frame of reference.
-definition.
A Galilean frame of reference is an inertial frame of

reference and, either moves with constant velocity or is
at rest relative to a fixed frame of reference (like the
earth).
1.3. Systems of particles.

a) Definitions.
A system of particles is a many bodies particle. We
discuss two types of particle systems:
• Rigid bodies: all particles are fixed relative to each
other within the system, which is a rigid body.
• Elastic bodies : Particle positions are not fixed
relative to each other within the system. For
Example, two bodies of different masses bound
together by a spring. The bodies move relative to
each other due to the elastic spring.
A free particle system (isolated system) or body moves
freely if the is no external interaction with other
particles.
M. CHEKERKER
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b) Mass and centre of mass (centre of gravity).

A Masse, noted 𝑀 or 𝑚 of a particle system or body, is
a quantity of matter variable or not, building the system.
In Newtonian mechanics, the inertia displays the ability
or difficulty to move an object freely. In international
unit system (𝑀𝐾𝑆𝐶), the mass is expressed by kilogram
(𝑘𝑔).
The centre of mass of a particle system (or centre of
gravity) is noted point 𝐺. If we note ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐺𝑀𝑖 c.o.m. positions
of particles of different masses 𝑚𝑖 . The definition of
c.o.m or centre of gravity would be written as:
𝑁
∑ 𝑚𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐺𝑀𝑖 = ⃗0
𝑖=1
For a 𝑁 particle system or a body, this may be written
in the form:
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀𝑖 ∑𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐺 =
∑𝑁𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑚
Where 𝑚 = ∑𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 is the total mass of the system.
1.4. Linear momentum.
- definition.
The linear momentum vector is defined by:
⃗𝑷
⃗ = 𝒎𝒗⃗
M. CHEKERKER
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Where 𝑚 is the mass and 𝑣 is the velocity of the

particle. It has the same direction as the velocity and
is designated by 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 in the international unit
system (𝑀𝐾𝑆𝐶).
The law of inertia (for an isolated system or body) leads
to a conservation of linear momentum or for short
momentum and we may write:
𝑑𝑃⃗
⃗
𝑣 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡 ⟹ 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡 ⟹ = ⃗0
𝑑𝑡
2- NEWTON’S SECOND LAW.

2.1. Concept of force. Definition.
A non-isolated system of c.o.m 𝐺, is some subject to
external actions. These actions are called force. It is
designated by ⃗𝑭.
We shall designate the time rate of change of
momentum of a particle system or body by:
⃗⃗
𝒅𝑷 𝒅(𝒎𝒗⃗)
⃗𝑭 = =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The force is a vector with direction and origin and can
be measured in Newton (symbol 𝑁) in the international
unit system (𝑀𝐾𝑆𝐶).
We distinguish different types of forces:
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• Interaction forces between bodies a certain

distance apart like gravitational forces,
electromagnetic forces, nuclear forces.
• Frictional forces and tension of a spring.
2.2. Newton’s second law in Galilean frame of
reference.
a) Newton second law of motion.
We consider a particle system or body of c.o.m 𝐺 and
mass 𝑚, moving relative to a Galilean frame of
reference. If the particle system interacts with other
particles, law of inertia predicts that there is a time
rate change in the Momentum of the system. Now, if the
particle system is subject to a set of 𝑁 external forces
(𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , … , 𝐹𝑁 ), Then, Newton’s second law gives the total
change of time rate of momentum of the particle system
as follows:
𝑁
𝑑𝑃⃗
∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
If the mass of the particle system is constant, then, the
above time rate change may be written in the form:
𝑁
𝑑𝑃⃗ 𝑑 (𝑚𝑣 ) 𝑑𝑣
∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = = =𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑖=1
M. CHEKERKER
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∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹1
𝐹3
𝐺
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 1
𝐹2
𝐹4
Newton’s second law:
The total change of time rate of momentum of a

particle system is equal to the the sum of external
forces on the system of mass 𝑚.
b) Angular momentum theorem.

- Definition of angular momentum. Consider a particle
𝑀 rotating about a fixed axis ∆ relative to a Galilean
frame of reference ℛ(𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧) (see fig. 2).
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑧
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 2
⃗𝑳𝑶
𝑂 𝑦
𝜃 ⃗
𝒗
𝑥 𝑀
∆
The angular momentum of a particle 𝑀 around a fixed

point 𝑂 of ∆ axis, is the vector product of momentum 𝑃⃗
noted by:
⃗ 𝑂 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐿 𝑂𝑀 ∧ 𝑃⃗ = 𝑟 (𝑡 ) ∧ 𝑚𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝑚𝑟 (𝑡 ) ∧ 𝑣(𝑡 )
According to the definition of the vector product, the
angular momentum is then a vector perpendicular to the
position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 (𝐿 𝑂𝑀(𝑡 ))) and to the
⃗ 𝑂 ⊥ (𝑟 (𝑡 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
velocity 𝑣 of particle 𝑀 (𝐿
⃗ 𝑂 ⊥ 𝑣 (𝑡 )). Therefore, it is
perpendicular to the curve of particle 𝑀 and change

direction and magnitude while the particle is in motion
(fig. 2).
M. CHEKERKER
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✓ Circular motion.
In the case of circular motion (seen in chapter

curvilinear coordinates) around origin 𝑂, the centre of
the circle of radius 𝑅, the position and velocity vectors
are perpendicular, so that:
𝜋
( ) ( ) ‖ ( )‖‖ ( )‖
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 = 𝑅𝜔, 𝑣 𝑡 ⊥ 𝑟 𝑡 ⟹ 𝐿𝑂 = 𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 sin ( )
2
= 𝑚𝑅 × 𝑅𝜔(𝑡 ) × 1 = 𝑚𝑅2 𝜔 (𝑡 )
✓ Curvilinear motion (Plane motion).
If the plane motion is not circular, but curvilinear, we
can decompose the velocity into its radial and transverse
components, that is:
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 ⟹ 𝐿 ⃗ 𝑂 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ (𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 )
= 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝜃
Because : 𝑣𝑟 ∕⁄𝑟 and 𝑣𝜃 ⊥ 𝑟 , therefore : 𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝑟 = ⃗0 and :
𝜋
⃗
𝐿𝑂 (𝑡 ) = ‖𝐿𝑂 (𝑡 )‖ = 𝑚‖𝑟 (𝑡 )‖‖𝑣𝜃 (𝑡 )‖ sin ( ) = 𝑚𝑟(𝑡 )𝑣𝜃 (𝑡 )
2
= 𝑚𝑟 (𝑡 ) × 𝑟 (𝑡 )𝜃̇(𝑡 ) = 𝑚𝑟 2 (𝑡 )𝜃̇(𝑡 ) = 𝑚𝑟 2 (𝑡 )𝜔(𝑡 )
In the case of a curvilinear motion, the radius 𝑟(𝑡 )
depends on time.
It is also possible to express the angular momentum in
terms of moment of inertia 𝑱∆ relative to an axis of
M. CHEKERKER
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rotation ∆= 𝑂𝑍. The angular momentum of a particle

relative to a ourvilinear frame of reference is (fig. 2):
⃗ 𝑂 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ (𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 )
𝐿
= 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣𝜃
= 𝑚(𝑟𝑢 ⃗ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑟𝜃̇𝑢
⃗ 𝜃 ) = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇(𝑢 ⃗ 𝜃)
⃗𝑟∧𝑢
= 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇𝑘⃗ = 𝐽∆ 𝜃̇𝑘⃗.
Therefore:
⃗ ∆ = 𝐽∆ 𝜃̇𝑘⃗ .
𝐿
The moment of inertia 𝑱∆ relative to an axis of rotation
∆ is defined as the product of mass times the square the
distance to the axis ∆
2
𝐽∆ = 𝑚𝑙 , 𝑙 = 𝑟
✓ Time Derivative of angular momentum in the frame
of reference ℛ.
In a Galilean frame of reference ℛ, the time derivative
of the angular momentum is:
⃗ 𝑂 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 (𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝐿 𝑑 (𝑟 ∧ 𝑣) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑣
= =𝑚 =𝑚 ∧ 𝑣 + 𝑚𝑟 ∧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑚𝑣 ∧ 𝑣 + 𝑚𝑟 ∧ = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑎 = 𝑟 ∧ (𝑚𝑎)
𝑑𝑡
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 ∧ (∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) = ∑ ℳ𝑂 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
Where we used Newton’s second law : ∑ 𝑭 ⃗.

⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂
M. CHEKERKER
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Angular momentum theorem:
In a Galilean frame of reference, the time rate of

change of the angular momentum of a particle, relative
to a fixed point 𝑂 is equal to the total torque of the
forces acting on the particle.
If the particle is at rest (in equilibrium), then, the sum

of torques of external forces is null and the angular
momentum is null.
✓ Central forces :
A force whose direction always passes throught a fixed

point 𝑂 is called a central force (fig. 3). In curvilinear
coordinate system, the central force is radial:
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 ∕∕ 𝑟, therefore, the direction of 𝐹 always passes
through point 𝑂. We compute the angular momentum of
this force in curvilinear coordinate system:
⃗ 𝑂 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∧ (∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) = 𝑟 ∧ 𝐹𝑟 = 0
= ∑ ℳ𝑂 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) = 𝑂𝑀 ⃗
𝑑𝑡
Because one component of the force 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 remains and

is radial : 𝐹𝑟 ∕∕ 𝑟.
M. CHEKERKER
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Therefore, the angular momentum 𝐿 ⃗ 𝑂 (𝑡 ) = 𝐶𝑠𝑡, remains

constant while the particle is in motion. Therefore, when
the force is central, the angular momentum relative to a
centre of force is a constant of motion. We call the
angular momentum 𝐿 ⃗ 𝑂 (𝑡 ) an invariant.
𝐹1 𝐹3
𝑂
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 3
𝐹2
𝐹4
M. CHEKERKER
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3- LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION. NEWTON’S

THIRD LAW OF MOTION.
3.1. Principle of action and reaction.
Consider two systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . If system 𝑆1 exerts an
action on system 𝑆2 , then, simultaneously, system 𝑆2
exerts an action (or reaction) system 𝑆1 and conversely
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 3.
Principle :
When two systems 𝑆1 et 𝑆2 interact, independently of

the frame of reference and no matter what their motion
is or at rest. The action of system 𝑆1 on system 𝑆2 is
exactly equal and opposite to the reaction of system 𝑆2
on system 𝑆1 .
Cause: 𝑆1 In interaction with 𝑆2 𝐹1/2
𝑆2
𝐹2/1 𝑆1 Effect : 𝑭
⃗ 𝟐/𝟏 = −𝑭
⃗ 𝟏/𝟐
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑓𝑖𝑔. 3. schematic figure for the law of action and

reaction.
This principle is universal. It applies to bodies in
interaction a certain distance apart or in contact at
macroscopic or microscopic scale.
3.2- Principle of conservation of momentum.
In any inertial frame of reference, The total
momentum of an isolated system is conserved
(constant).
Consider an isolated system of two particles (1) and (2),
the total momentum of the system is constant.
We say that there is a conservation of momentum of the
particles which are subject only to their mutual
interaction:
𝑃⃗ = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡𝑒.
During time interval 𝑑𝑡, we have: 𝑑𝑃⃗ = ⃗0. But 𝑃⃗ = 𝑝1 +
𝑝2 , therefore:
𝑑𝑃⃗ = 𝑑𝑝1 + 𝑑𝑝2 = ⃗0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑝1 = −𝑑𝑝2
Deviding the above relation by 𝑑𝑡, we get:
𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
System 𝑆1 of mass 𝑚1 and system 𝑆2 of mass 𝑚2 are
subject only to their mutual interactions:
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𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
= 𝐹2/1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐹1/2 ⟹ 𝐹2/1 = −𝐹1/2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐹2/1 is the force on particle 𝑚1 due to its interaction
with particle 𝑚2 and 𝐹1/2 is the force on particle 𝑚2 due
to its interaction with particle 𝑚1 . These two forces
have same direction same magnitude but opposite.
Let’s introduce a new quantity which will be defined in
1 1
chapter V, called kinetic energy: 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 =
2 2
𝑝12 𝑝22 1 1 𝑝′21 𝑝′22
+ and 𝐸𝑘′ = 𝑚1′ 𝑣′12 + 𝑚2′ 𝑣′22 = + and let’s
2𝑚1 2𝑚2 2 2 2𝑚1′ 2𝑚2′
define a quantity : 𝑄 = 𝐸𝑘′ − 𝐸𝑘 , called 𝑄 of reaction.
Then:
A) When 𝑄 = 0, there is no change in kinetic energy
and the collision is called elastic.
B) When 𝑄 < 0, there is a decrease in kinetic energy
with a corresponding increase in internal potential
energy and we say that there is an inelastic
collision of the first kind (endoergic).
C) When 𝑄 > 0, there is a increase of kinetic energy
at the expense of the internal potential energy
and we say that there is an inelastic collision of
the second kind (exoergic).
M. CHEKERKER
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4- TYPE OF FORCES.
4.1- Forces between bodies with certain distance
apart.
a) Gravitational force.
The gravitational force is a force acting on mass 𝑚2 in
interaction with mass 𝑚1 and conversely. This
interaction force increases with large masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
and small distances. The Fundamental formula is called
Law of Gravitational force.
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 4
⃗ : unit
𝒖 vector
⃗𝑭𝟐/𝟏 ⃗𝑭𝟏/𝟐
𝑂2
𝑂1
The law of gravitational force may be written

analytically in the form:
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟐/𝟏 = −𝑭
⃗ 𝟏/𝟐 = 𝑮 ⃗
𝒖
(𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 )𝟐
M. CHEKERKER
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If mass 𝑚1 pulls mass 𝑚2 according to Newton’s third

law, then mass 𝑚2 reacts and pulls back mass 𝑚1 . We
again recall Newton’s third: the law of action reaction.
It is a force of a certain type of pull between two bodies
at a distance apart. The law is written with a coupling
constant called gravitational interaction constant 𝐺. It
is universal and its value is: 𝐺 = 6.67 10−11 (𝑆. 𝐼. ).
b) Weight.
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∶ 𝑚
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ ∶ 𝑂 𝐹𝑁
⃗
𝒖 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∶ ℎ
𝑀 ∶ 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∶ 𝑅
Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚 rotating around the

earth in a uniform circular motion, then the
gravitational force 𝐹𝑁 acting on 𝑚 is a certain pull that
M. CHEKERKER
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is directed toward the centre of earth, which is

considered an inertial frame of reference or simply an
inertial frame. Therefore, the weight 𝑃⃗ of mass 𝑚
(here the satellite) could be defined as the normal
force 𝐹𝑁 acting on it as follows:
𝑴𝒎
⃗𝑷
⃗ = ⃗𝑭𝑵 = −𝑮 ⃗
𝒖
(𝑹 + 𝒉)𝟐
Its magnitude at a certain height ℎ is:
𝑴𝒎
𝑷(𝒉) = 𝑭𝑵 = 𝑮
(𝑹 + 𝒉)𝟐
We can relate this downward force with downward
acceleration 𝒈
⃗⃗ (𝒉) by using Newton’s second law:
𝑴𝒎
⃗𝑷
⃗ (𝒉) = 𝒎𝒈
⃗⃗ (𝒉) = −𝑮 ⃗
𝒖
(𝑹 + 𝒉)𝟐
Its magnitude is given by:
𝑴𝒎
𝑷(𝒉) = 𝒎𝒈(𝒉) = 𝑮
(𝑹 + 𝒉)𝟐
At the ground (𝒉 = 𝟎), which is considered as an
inertial frame:
𝑴𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒉 = 𝟎) = 𝒎𝒈𝟎 = 𝑮
𝑹𝟐
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑀
Then 𝑔0 = 𝐺 ( 2 ) = 9.81 𝑚/𝑆 2 is called free fall
𝑅
acceleration at the ground on the equator and for small
heights.
c) Coulomb interaction.
Coulomb interaction is analogous to gravitational
interaction electrically charged particles. The
interaction force of a charge 𝑄1 located at point 𝑂1
acting on a charge 𝑄2 located at point 𝑂2 may be written
in the form:
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
⃗𝑭𝑸 /𝑸 = −𝑭
⃗ 𝑸 /𝑸 = 𝑲 ⃗
𝒖
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 (𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 )𝟐
⃗ : unit vector
𝒖
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 5
𝑂1 ⃗𝑭𝑸 /𝑸 ⃗𝑭𝑸 /𝑸 𝑂2
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑲 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑺. 𝑰.
c) Electromagnetic interaction.
A force of an electric charge subject to an electric field
𝐸⃗ and a magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ is called Lorentz force and may
be written as:
𝐹 = 𝑄(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 ∧ 𝐵
⃗)
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Where 𝑣 is the velocity vector of the charge.
4.2- Forces between bodies in contact.
a) Frictional forces.
Forces of friction are due to a resistance which
opposes relative motion of two bodies or if the body is
at rest. The force of friction always opposes motion of
a body. If a body is in motion on a horizontal or inclined
plane, it slows down and eventually stops. This loss of
momentum indicates that there is a force opposing
motion, called sliding friction. There are two types of
friction: fluid friction (rigid body-fluid in contact) and
rigid body friction (rigid body-rigid body in contact).
- Experiment of friction between two rigid bodies :
a body of mass 𝑚 sliding on an inclined plane.
✓ Body at rest (equilibrium).
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑦 ⃗𝑹
⃗
𝛼 ∶ 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
⃗𝑵
⃗
𝛼
⃗𝒇
𝑚
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 6
⃗⃗ 𝒙
𝑷
𝑥
𝛼 ⃗𝑷
⃗𝒚
𝛼 ⃗𝑷
⃗
The relation at rest of mass 𝑚 is:

∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ⃗0 ⟹ 𝑃⃗ + 𝑁
⃗ + 𝑓 = ⃗0
Both projection over 𝑂𝑋 axis:

𝑃𝑥 − 𝑓 = 0 ⟹ 𝑓 = 𝑃𝑥
And Projection on 𝑂𝑌 axis:
𝑁 − 𝑃𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑁 = 𝑃𝑦
Could be written as :
𝑓 = 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃 sin 𝛼 , 𝑁 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝛼
There fore :
𝑓 𝑃 sin 𝛼
= = tan 𝛼 ⟹ 𝑓 = (tan 𝛼)𝑁.
𝑁 𝑃 cos 𝛼
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We can experimentally verify that the force of friction

𝑓 has a magnitude that, for most practical purposes, may
be considered proportional to the normal force 𝑁 and
increases with the angle 𝛼. We can, then, define the
coefficient of friction by:
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑆 = 𝜇𝑁.
In case of an inclined plane, we note that 𝜇 = tan 𝛼.
Therefore, we define the static coefficient of friction
𝜇𝑆 as :
𝝁𝑺 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜶𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
The mass 𝑚 is at rest so long as:
𝒇𝑺 ≤ (𝒇𝑺 )𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where (𝑓𝑆 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑁 = tan(𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑁 represents the
static force of friction, that gives the minimum force
required to set in relative motion two bodies that are
initially in contact and at relative rest and the angle 𝛼 is
called angle friction.
✓ Sliding friction :
For 𝛼 > 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , mass m is in motion. In that case, we
define the kinetic coefficient of friction 𝜇𝑑 or sliding
friction coefficient 𝜇𝑔 . It has been found
experimentally that 𝜇𝑆 is larger than 𝜇𝑑 for all materials
so far tested: 𝜇𝑑 < 𝜇𝑆 . We may write:
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒈 = 𝝁𝒈 𝑵
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The coefficient of friction depends on surfaces of two

bodies in contact and the nature of materials used.
Study of friction is one branch of physics called :
tribology.
b) Friction in general.
Whenever there are two bodies in contact, if we apply
an external force 𝐹𝑒 on one body (pull a body resting on
a table to the right), it starts moving relative to the
second body giving it some velocity. After we release it
(𝐹𝑒 = ⃗0), it slows down and eventually stops. Therefore,
there is a resistance which opposes the relative motion
of the two bodies. This loss of momentum indicates that
there is a force opposing the motion. This force is called
sliding friction (force). For practical purposes, we can
experimentally show that it is proportional to the normal
force as shown in the figure:
⃗
𝑁 +
𝑓 𝐹𝑒
𝑃⃗
M. CHEKERKER
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Using Newton’s second law, the equation of motion may

𝐹𝑒 + 𝑓 + 𝑃⃗ + 𝑁
⃗ = 𝑚𝑎
Projection along the + axis gives:

𝐹𝑒 − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
And perpendicular to the + axis:
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑁, 𝑁 = 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔
Therefore, the equation of motion may be expressed
as:
𝐹𝑒 − 𝜇𝑑 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
When the external force increases from 0 to some
value allowing body to move, the sliding friction force
increases to the maximum value 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑁. Therefore,
we draw the following conclusion and graph:
Body at rest 𝑓 = 𝐹𝑒 < 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
Body in motion 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑁 < 𝐹𝑒
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𝑓 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑁
𝐹𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Coefficients of friction.
Material 𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑑
Steel on steel (hard) 0.78 0.42
Steel on steel (mild) 0.74 0.57
Lead on steel (mild) 0.95 0.95
Copper on steel (mild) 0.53 0.36
Nickel on nickel 1.10 0.53
Teflon on Teflon 0.04 0.04
M. CHEKERKER
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c) Tension force of a spring.

When a mass 𝑚, at rest, is hanging over a massless cord
or string, the force on the cord (action of the cord on
the mass) opposes the weight of mass 𝑚 (action of mass
𝑚 on the cord) according to the principle of action and
reaction. It has the same magnitude all over at each
point of the string.
When the string is elastic (fig. 7), the tension of the
cord could be expressed linearly as a function of its
length and increases proportionally with the distance it
stretches (on condition that exerted forces are not so
important). The coefficient of stretch is called spring
constant 𝒌 of the string. A typical example of an elastic
cord (string) is the spring. The force of tension of a
spring of length at empty 𝑙0 and extended the length 𝑙
may be expressed as:
𝑇⃗ = −𝑘(𝑙 − 𝑙0 )𝑢
⃗ = −𝑘𝑥𝑢
⃗
Where 𝑢 ⃗ is a unit vector that points toward the
direction of the extension.
Sign – in this relation shows that the force of the spring
opposes the distance expanded.
M. CHEKERKER
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⃗𝑻
𝑙0
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 7 𝑙
⃗𝑻
⃗
𝒖 ∆𝑙 = 𝑙 − 𝑙0 = 𝑥
⃗⃗
𝑷
⃗𝑷
⃗
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Solution Exam (2018-2019).
1- Forces are represented on fig.1.

2- Equilibrium condition may be written as:
Body A: 𝑃⃗1 + 𝐶1 + 𝑇
⃗ 1 = ⃗0 and for body B: 𝑃⃗2 + 𝐶2 + 𝑇
⃗ 2 = ⃗0
Projections on the axes give:
−𝑃1 sin 𝛼 − 𝑓1 + 𝑇1 = 0, on ox 𝑃 sin 𝛽 − 𝑓2 − 𝑇2 = 0, on ox

Body A{ , Body B: { 2 ,
−𝑃1 cos 𝛼 + 𝑁1 = 0, on oy −𝑃2 𝛽 + 𝑁2 = 0, on oy
Moreover, 𝑓1 = 𝑓1𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑁1 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑚1 𝑔 cos 𝛼, 𝑓2 = 𝑓2𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑁2 =
𝜇𝑆 𝑚2 𝑔 cos 𝛽, .
𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐, cord inextensible and massless. Upon addition of the two
projections on ox, one obtains:
−2𝑃1 sin 𝛼 − 2𝑓1 + 𝑃2 sin 𝛽 − 𝑓2 = 0
Hence,
−2𝑃1 sin 𝛼 + 𝑃2 sin 𝛽 − 2𝜇𝑆 𝑚1𝑔 cos 𝛼 − 𝜇𝑆 𝑚2𝑔 cos 𝛽 = 0
So that,
−2𝑚1𝑔 sin 𝛼 − 2𝜇𝑆 𝑚1 𝑔 cos 𝛼 + 𝑚2 𝑔 sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝑆 𝑚2 𝑔 cos 𝛽 = 0
Whence,
−2𝑚1(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝑆 cos 𝛼) + 𝑚2(sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝑆 cos 𝛽) = 0
Finally:
𝑚1 (sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝑆 cos 𝛽 )
=
𝑚20 2(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝑆 cos 𝛼 )
N.A.
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𝑚1
= 0.19 𝑘𝑔
𝑚20
Therefore:
𝑚20 = 5.28 𝑘𝑔
3- Tensions of strings
2𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇 = 2(𝑃1 sin 𝛼 + 𝑓1 ) = 2(𝑚1𝑔 sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝑆 𝑚1𝑔 cos 𝛼 )

= 2𝑚1𝑔(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝑆 cos 𝛼 ) = 18.66 𝑁.
4- We are interested on motion of the moving pulley 𝒫2 .
𝑶 𝒀
𝑣𝑟
𝑮 𝒀′
𝑿 𝑨
𝑩
𝜽
𝑣𝑟′
𝑿′
M. CHEKERKER
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Consider 𝓡′(𝑮,𝑿′,𝒀′) the Galilean relative frame of reference (moving
pulley P2
P 2) with drive velocity 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑣𝐺 = 𝑣2 in translational motion
relative to fixed frame of reference 𝓡(𝑶,𝑿,𝒀) ; Therefore, the
absolute velocities of points A et B would be:
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝑟′ + 𝑣𝑒
With:
𝑣𝑟 = −𝑣𝑟′ = −𝑅𝜃 = −𝑅𝜔

⃗
Rotational relative velocities. That gives:
⃗ + 𝑣𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝐵 = ⃗0 = 𝑅𝜔
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣1 = −𝑅𝜔 ⃗ + 𝑣𝐺
(𝐫olling without sliding at 𝑩: Cord fixed at 𝐁 on the wall). Therefore,

𝑣1 = 2𝑣𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎1 = 2𝑎𝐺 = 2𝑎2
Projections give:
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐𝒂𝟐
5- We give 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟖 𝒌𝒈, mass 𝒎𝟏 allows downward motion for body B.
We Apply Newton’s second law for the motion of the two masses:
Body A: 𝑃⃗1 + 𝐶1 + 𝑇
⃗ 1 = 𝑚1𝑎1 and for body B: 𝑃⃗2 + 𝐶2 + 𝑇
⃗ 2 = 𝑚2 𝑎 2
Projections give:
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−𝑃1 sin 𝛼 − 𝑓1 + 𝑇1 = 𝑚1𝑎1 , on ox

Body A: { ,
−𝑃1 cos 𝛼 + 𝑁1 = 0, on oy
𝑃 sin 𝛽 − 𝑓2 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚2 𝑎2 , on ox
Body B: { 2 ,
−𝑃2 cos 𝛽 + 𝑁2 = 0, on oy
Moreover,𝑓1 = 𝜇𝐷 𝑁1 = 𝜇𝐷 𝑚1𝑔 cos 𝛼, 𝑓2 = 𝜇𝐷 𝑁2 = 𝜇𝐷 𝑚2 𝑔 cos 𝛽, .
𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 et 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐𝒂𝟐, cord inextensible and massless. Therefore, upon

addition of the two projections over ox, one obtains:
−2𝑃1 sin 𝛼 − 2𝑓1 + 𝑃2 sin 𝛽 − 𝑓2 = (4𝑚1 + 𝑚2)𝑎2 −
Hence,
−2𝑃1 sin 𝛼 + 𝑃2 sin 𝛽 − 2𝜇𝐷 𝑚1 𝑔 cos 𝛼 − 𝜇𝐷 𝑚2 𝑔 cos 𝛽

= (4𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎2
So that,
−2𝑚1𝑔 sin 𝛼 − 2𝜇𝐷 𝑚1 𝑔 cos 𝛼 + 𝑚2𝑔 sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝐷 𝑚2 𝑔 cos 𝛽

= (4𝑚1 + 𝑚2)𝑎2
Therefore,
−2𝑚1𝑔(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛼) + 𝑚2𝑔(sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛽

= (4𝑚1 + 𝑚2)𝑎2 ( 1)
For body B to move downward in the indicated direction, We must
have: 𝒂𝟐 > 𝟎. Then,
𝑚1 (sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛽 )
<
𝑚2 2(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛼 )
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- Acceleration of A. 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟖𝒌𝒈. One must check that:
𝑚1 1 (sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛽 )
= < = 0.19
𝑚2 8 2(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛼 )
Equation (1) gives:

𝑚2 (sin 𝛽 − 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛽 ) − 2𝑚1(sin 𝛼 + 𝜇𝐷 cos 𝛼 )
𝑎2 = [ ]𝑔
(4𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
N.A 𝒂 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝟐. Motion is carried out in the indicated direction.
P1
⃗1
𝑇
P2
⃗2
𝑁
⃗1
𝑁
𝑓1
⃗2
𝑇
𝒎𝟐
𝑃⃗1
𝑓2
𝒎𝟏
𝜶
𝛽 𝑃⃗2
M. CHEKERKER
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CHAPITER V
WORK, POWER, ENERGY
M. CHEKERKER
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Objectives :
• Calculus of work of a variable or a non-variable
force along an arbitrary displacement.
• Application to work of a weight and to a force of a
spring.
• Use of kinetic energy theorem.
• Definition of potential energy of conservative
forces.
• Use of mechanical energy theorem.
1- WORK OF A FORCE.
1.1- Constant force along a rectilinear displacement
from A to B.
Consider a particle 𝑀 moving along a rectilinear path,
from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵, under the action of a constant
force 𝐹 along the displacement:
⃗𝑭
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 8
𝑨 𝜶 𝑩
M. CHEKERKER
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Work of a force 𝐹 constant in magnitude and direction

along a rectilinear displacement 𝐴𝐵 (𝑓𝑖𝑔. 8) is equal to
the scalar product of the vector force times the vector
displacement:
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹 ) = 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ cos 𝛼
𝐴𝐵 = ‖𝐹 ‖ × ‖𝐴𝐵
where 𝛼 is the angle between 𝐹 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 . Work is either
positive, nul or negative with regard to the direction of
the force relative to displacement. When 𝐹 is
perpendicular to the displacement, Work is nul. When
the force opposes motion, it is resistant and work is
negative. Work of a Motor force positive.
Unit of work in (𝑆. 𝐼) joule (symbol 𝐽).
1.2- Infinitesimal work.

In case where a force is moving along an arbitrary path,
the preceding expression no longer holds. Indeed the
force is no longer constant neither in direction nor in
magnitude. In order to calculate work, we divide the
path 𝐴𝐵 to successive infinitesimal displacements 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑀𝑀 ′ therefore rectilinear (fig. 9). The force could be
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
considered as constant and the expression of
elementary work on such a displacement would be
defined by:
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𝑑𝑊𝑀→𝑀′ (𝐹 ) = 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑀 ′ = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑙
⃗ (𝑴)
𝑭 𝑩
𝑴"
𝑴′
𝑨
𝑴 𝒅𝒍
⃗𝑭(𝑴")
1.3- Variable force along an arbitrary

displacement.
For us to obtain total work on total displacement 𝐴𝐵, we
must add infinitesimal works 𝑑𝑊𝑀→𝑀′ (𝐹 ) over
elementary displacements 𝑑𝑙 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑀 ′ in going from point
𝐴 to point 𝐵. Work of the force 𝐹 along displacement
𝐴𝐵 may be defined by a circulation 𝐶 of force field along
the path:
𝐵
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹 ) = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐶𝐹𝐴→𝐵
𝐴
2- EXAMPLES OF CALCULUS OF WORK.
2.1- Work of weight of a body.
Consider a mass 𝑚 moving from point 𝐴 of height 𝑧𝐴 to
point 𝐵 of height 𝑧𝐵 and compute work of the weight
of the body during displacement (see figure below).
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𝒛 𝑨
𝒛𝑨
⃗⃗
𝒈
𝑓𝑖𝑔. 10
𝑴
𝒛𝑩
⃗𝑷
⃗ 𝑩
⃗𝒌
𝒋
𝒊 𝒚
From fig. 10, components of weight 𝑃⃗ = 𝑚𝑔 and the

coordinates of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 in frame of reference 𝑂𝑋𝑌𝑍
are given by:
0 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴
𝑃⃗ = 𝑚𝑔 { 0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = {𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴
𝑒𝑡 𝐴𝐵
−𝑚𝑔 𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴
Weight is a force constant in magnitude and direction,
therefore, according to paragraph 1, this yields:
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝑃⃗ ) = 𝑃⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 )
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
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This expression might be calculated with 2nd

method using elementary work of the weight in
rectangular frame of reference (𝑂𝑋𝑌𝑍):
𝑑𝑊(𝑃⃗ ) = 𝑃⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = (−𝑚𝑔𝑘⃗). (𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘⃗) = −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑧
Upon integrating elementary works over path 𝐴𝐵, total
work of the weight may be written in the form:
𝐵 𝐵
𝑧𝐵
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝑃⃗ ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑊(𝑃⃗ ) = ∫ 𝑃⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑧 |
𝐴 𝐴 𝑧𝐴
= 𝑚𝑔(𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 )
We notice that work of weight is independent of the
path but depends only on the difference between the
heights of the two endpoints: ℎ = 𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 .
2.2- Work of tension force of a spring.
Consider a mass 𝑚 attached to a spring of constant of
force 𝑘, and length at empty 𝑙0 , as shown on fig. 11. The
spring and mass are placed in horizontal position and we
will be interested only on the spring tension force.
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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F- t F- t
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𝑙0
∆𝑙 = 𝑙 − 𝑙0 = 𝑥
𝑂
𝒊
⃗
𝑻
𝑙
Spring tension force ⃗𝑻, is a force that changes with the
extension ∆𝒍 = 𝒍 − 𝒍𝟎 = 𝒙 of the spring, therefore
changing during displacement. It may be expressed as
follows:
⃗ = −𝑘∆𝑙𝑖 = −𝑘(𝑙 − 𝑙0 )𝑖 = −𝑘𝑥𝑖
𝑇
To compute the work of that force, we must calculate
the elementary works of tension force 𝑇 ⃗.
Elementary work of spring force when a mass 𝑚 moves
from position 𝑥 to position 𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑥, is given by:
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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⃗)=𝑇
𝑑𝑊𝑥→𝑥+𝑑𝑥 (𝑇 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = (−𝑘𝑥𝑖). (𝑑𝑥𝑖) = −𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
1 2
= −𝑑 ( 𝑘𝑥 )
2
When we move from position 𝑥1 to position 𝑥2 , work of
tension force 𝑇
⃗ may be written as:
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
⃗ ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑊(𝑇
𝑊𝑥1 →𝑥2 (𝑇 ⃗)=∫ 𝑇
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ −𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑥1
𝑥2
1 2 1 2 𝑥2 1
= ∫ −𝑑 ( 𝑘𝑥 ) = − 𝑘𝑥 | = 𝑘 (𝑥12 − 𝑥22 )
𝑥1 2 2 𝑥1 2
We notice that work does not depend on the path but

depends only on the difference between the distance of
the two endpoints: initial and final positions of the
spring.
3- POWER OF A FORCE.
Upon introducing definition of elementary work of force

done between instant 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝑑 𝑡, the instantaneous
power 𝑃 (𝑡) may be written in the form:
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑙
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = = 𝐹. = 𝐹. 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This quantity may be expressed in international unit
system (𝑆. 𝐼. ) in Watts using symbolic notation 𝑊.
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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Therefore, infinitesimal work may also be expressed

from the power of force and is written as follows:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑃(𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
This yields the following expression for the work of

force :
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑊𝑡1→𝑡2 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑃 (𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡1
4- ENERGY.
4.1- theorem of change of kinetic energy.
Consider a particle 𝑀 moving, in a Galilean frame of
reference ℛ, under the action of a set of external
forces. Motion of the particle is given by Newton’s
second law:
𝑑𝑣
∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
During elementary displacement 𝑑𝑙 , sum of infinitesimal
works of external forces is given by:
𝑑𝑣
∑ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑚 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡
Upon integration of the above relation along path AB we
get:
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
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𝑣𝐵 𝐵
𝑚 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = ∑ ∫ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙 = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
𝑣𝐴 𝐴
Thus:
1
𝑚(𝑣𝐵2 − 𝑣𝐴2 ) = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
2
According to the preceding equation, one might define a

state fonction, independent of velocity of particle,
named kinetic energy
One can define kinetic energy of a particle, moving
with velocity 𝒗 in Galilean frame of reference, by:
𝟏
𝑬𝑪 (𝑴) = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 .
𝟐
According to this definition and the preceding equation,
one can express in words the theorem of change of
kinetic energy:
In a Galilean frame of reference, the change in the

kinetic energy on a particle under the action of a set
of external forces, from position 𝑨 to position 𝑩 is
equal to the sum of works of its external forces
between the two endpoints:
𝑩
⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕 )
∆𝑬𝑪 | = 𝑬𝑪 (𝑩) − 𝑬𝑪 (𝑨) = ∑ 𝑾𝑨→𝑩 (𝑭
𝑨
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
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4.2- Potential energy.

a) Conservative forces.
One can define a second state function namely potential
energy of the system. For that purpose, one can
distinguish two classes of external forces:
• Conservative forces are forces such that work is
independent of the path followed but depends only on
initial and final positions. Example: work of weight,
work of tension force of a spring, work of a constant
force.
• Non conservative forces which work
depends on the path followed, like, for
example, frictional forces.
b) Potential energy.
Work of conservative forces is independent of the path
but only on initial et final state of the system. One can,
thus, define work of those forces by a state function
namely potential energy 𝑬𝑷 . One might define, in these
conditions, change in potential energy as the opposite of
work of conservative forces:
𝐵 𝐶
∆𝐸𝑃 | = 𝐸𝑃 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝑃 (𝐴) = − ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
𝐴
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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The above relation leads to an integral definition of the

potential energy:
𝐵
𝐶
𝐸𝑃 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝑃 (𝐴) = − ∫ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
In integral expression, one may deduct the differential

definition of potential energy showing the elementary
work of conservative force, so that:
𝐶
𝑑𝐸𝑃 = −𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙
Finally, potential energy is a differential function
(differential), therefore, may be expressed as a
gradient function:
𝑑𝐸𝑃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐸𝑃 ). 𝑑𝑙
Then, local definition of potential energy yields:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝐸𝑃 ) = −𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐶
Three preceding forms are equivalent.

c) Examples of potential energy.
Potential energy of weight. According to results
obtained in sub-section 2.1 of section 2, One may
introduce notion of change in potential energy, so that:
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
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𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝑃⃗ ) = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 ) = 𝐸𝑃𝑝 (𝐴) − 𝐸𝑃𝑝 (𝐵)

One might, thus, define a state function namely
potential energy of weight 𝑬𝑷𝒑 (𝒛) such that:
𝑬𝑷𝒑 (𝒛) = 𝒎𝒈𝒛 + 𝑪
Where 𝐶 is a constant to be fixed. Generally, potential
energy of weight is null at 𝑧 = 0 at ground. This leads
to: 𝐶 = 0, and consequently we redefine potential
energy of weight as follows:
𝑬𝑷𝒑 (𝒛) = 𝒎𝒈𝒛
If 𝑂𝑍 axis points vertically to the top, and mass is placed

at coordinate 𝑧 above origin of potentials, and we write:
𝑬𝑷𝒑 (𝒛) = −𝒎𝒈𝒛
If mass is placed at coordinate 𝑧 below origin of
potentials.
Potential energy of a spring. As a reminder of results
of section 2.2:
1
⃗
𝑊𝑥1 →𝑥2 (𝑇 ) = 𝑘(𝑥12 − 𝑥22 )
2
One may notice that potential energy of a spring may be
defined as follows:
1
𝐸𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
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Where 𝐶 is a constant to be determined. One might

choose a null potential energy for a null stretch, i.e.,
Spring at empty. Constant 𝐶 is, therefore, null and we,
finally, get:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬𝑷𝒆 = 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
Remarque. In the above expression 𝑥 represents the
extension (or compression) of spring.
Upon defining expansion ∆𝑙 in terms of length 𝑙 and
length at empty 𝑙0 of the spring, potential energy may
𝟏
𝑬𝑷𝒆 = 𝒌(∆𝒍)𝟐
𝟐
Independent of choice of origin of potential energy.
4.3- Conservation of energy of a particle.

In parallal , One introduces a new state function namely
total energy of a un system. Its a constant of motion
or namely an invariant. In order to define such a
function, one may use the change of kinetic energy
theorem to express total work of external forces of
conservative forces and non-conservative forces, so
that:
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
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𝐶 𝑁.𝐶.
𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝐶 (𝐴) = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) + ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
Total potential energy is a sum of potential energies of

conservative forces:
𝐶
𝐸𝑃 (𝐴) − 𝐸𝑃 (𝐵) = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
Substituting the preceding equation in the equation of

change of kinetic energy, we may write:
𝑁.𝐶.
𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝐶 (𝐴) = 𝐸𝑃 (𝐴) − 𝐸𝑃 (𝐵) + ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
Combining all the changes in the energies on the left-

hand side of the equation, we can write:
𝑁.𝐶.
[𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝐶 (𝐴)] + [𝐸𝑃 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝑃 (𝐴)] = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
If we recombine in the left-hand side of the above

equation, all functions dependent only on 𝐵 and 𝐴, we
may, finally, write:
𝑁.𝐶.
[𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) + 𝐸𝑃 (𝐵)] − [𝐸𝐶 (𝐴) + 𝐸𝑃 (𝐴)] = ∑ 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
One might, therefore, define a new state function

namely total energy 𝑬𝑻 of the system:
𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬𝑪 + 𝑬𝑷
This leads to the following balance sheet of system:
⃗ 𝑵.𝑪.
𝑬𝑻 (𝑩) − 𝑬𝑻 (𝑨) = ∑ 𝑾𝑨→𝑩 (𝑭 𝒆𝒙𝒕 )
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
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One can state conservation of total energy within the

following theorem: Theorem of conservation of total
energy.
Change in total energy of a system between two

endpoints 𝑨 and 𝑩 is equal to the sum of works of
non-conservative external forces applied to the
system.
For an isolated system, total energy remains constant,

We, then, say it is an invariant and we may write:
𝑩
∆𝑬𝑻 | = 𝑬𝑻 (𝑩) − 𝑬𝑻 (𝑨) = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝑬𝑻 = 𝑪𝒔𝒕𝒆.
𝑨
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
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!
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4.4- Stability of a system.

a- Definition of stability.
For a system under the action of one conservative force
only, it is interesting to know the existence of
equilibrium positions. Local form the potential energy
may be written in the form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸𝑃
𝐹⃗ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑
In case where potential energy depends only on one
variable 𝑥, i.e., of one degree of freedom, preceding
relation may be written as follows:
𝑑𝐸𝑃
𝐹⃗ = − 𝑖⃗
𝑑𝑥
Equilibrium condition 𝐹⃗ = ⃗⃗
0 leads to:
𝑑𝐸𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑥
One equilibrium position corresponds to a extremum
(maximum or minimum) of the potential energy function.
An equilibrium position is stable because, when the
particle is slightly displaced from that position of
equilibrium, a force tends to restore it spontaneously to
its initial position. Conversely, equilibrium is instable,
since a slight displacement from the equilibrium position
causes the particle to be moved even further away from
that position.
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
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PD
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b- Conditions of stability.
For potential energy of a spring, it depends only
on the extension 𝑥. We suppose that:
𝑑𝐸𝑃
| = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥0 =0
For a displacement bringing the system at 𝑥 < 𝑥0 = 0,
the algebraic value of the tension force 𝑻(𝒙) must be
positive to bring back the system toward 𝑥0 = 0 so that
𝑑𝐸𝑃 (𝑥)
| < 0. On the contrary 𝑥 > 𝑥0 = 0, the tension
𝑑𝑥 𝑥0 =0
𝑑𝐸𝑃 (𝑥)
force 𝑻(𝒙) must be negative so that | > 0 (see
𝑑𝑥 𝑥0 =0
fig. 1). The function 𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) is decreasing or downward
before 𝑥0 = 0 and is increasing or upward after 𝑥0 = 0 .
It is a minimum for 𝑥 = 𝑥0 = 0. Taylor series expansion
of the function 𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) in the range around equilibrium
𝑥0 = 0 yields:
𝑑𝐸𝑃 𝑑 2𝐸
𝑃
𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝐸𝑃 (𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) | + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 | +⋯
𝑑𝑥 𝑥0 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥
0
𝑑 2 𝐸𝑃
Conditions of stability: 𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) is a minimum if | >
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥0 =0
0 in the range around 𝑥0 = 0. On the contrary, the
position of equilibrium would be instable.
N.B. Position of equilibrium 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎 corresponds to a
spring at empty.
M. CHEKERKER
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𝒍𝟎
𝒇𝒊𝒈. 𝟏
⃗𝑻⃗
𝒙
𝒙 < 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎 𝑶
⃗𝑻⃗
𝒙 < 𝒙𝟎
𝒙
𝒙 > 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎
equilibrium position 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎
Conclusion.
Stable equilibrium for 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 ⟺ 𝑬𝑷 (𝒙𝟎 ) is a minimum
⇕
𝒅𝑬𝑷 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝑷
| = 𝟎 𝒆𝒕 | >𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒙
𝟎
Instable equilibrium for 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 ⟺ 𝑬𝑷 (𝒙𝟎 ) is a

maximum
M. CHEKERKER
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⇕
𝒅𝑬𝑷 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝑷
| = 𝟎 𝒆𝒕 | <𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒙
𝟎
A system always evolves spontaneously toward a state

of equilibrium that corresponds to a stable position,
which potential energy is a minimum.
c- Example.
Consider a ball of mass 𝑚 moving on the ground where
the bottom is a hollow and the top is a bump as indicated
in fig. 2. Potential energy of weight of mass 𝑚 changes
between a maximum (top of the bump) and a minimum
value (hollow). For the top of the ground, i.e., the bump,
the position is an instable equilibrium: if we displace
slightly the mass 𝑚 from top, the latter recedes
further away. For the hollow, the mass m, once slightly
displaced from that position, tends to be brought back
to the bottom.
M. CHEKERKER
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𝒇𝒊𝒈. 𝟐
Potential energy of weight is a
maximum : instable equilibrium
Potential energy of of weight is a

minimum : Stable equilibrium
Spontaneous evolution : weight points toward

decreasing potential energy
M. CHEKERKER
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D – Discussion of potential energy curves. Exemple:

harmonic hoscillator.
Consider an harmonic oscillator of one degree of
freedom (see figure below). We will be discussing
motion and stability of equilibrium of a mass 𝑚 using
potential energy curves 𝐸𝑃(𝑥) without the help of
equations du motion. One may apply the principle of
conservation of total energy for the mass 𝑚. For
that purpose, we compute total energy of the
particle at point 𝑀(𝑥).
𝒍𝟎
⃗𝑻 𝒙𝟎 𝑬𝑷 = 𝟎
⃗𝑷
⃗
M. CHEKERKER
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Let there be:

a) 𝑥 elongation at 𝑡 of spring.
b) 𝑥0 elongation at equilibrium.
c) 𝑙0 Length at empty of spring.
d) 𝑘 elastic constant (spring constant) of spring.
⃗⃗ Tension force of spring.
e) 𝑇
f) 𝑃⃗⃗ the weight.
- Condition of equilibrium of a mass :
∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑇 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝑃⃗⃗ = 0
Projections along 𝑂𝑥 :
−𝑇 + 𝑃 = 0
Therefore,
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑥0 , 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔, Donc
:
𝑇 = 𝑃 ⟹ 𝑘𝑥0 = 𝑚𝑔
- Motion of masse 𝑚 at 𝑡 :
One may calculate total energy at point 𝑀(𝑥):
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𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑃 = 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑃𝑒 + 𝐸𝑃𝑝
1 1
= 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘 (𝑥 + 𝑥0 )2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑘𝑥02 − 𝑚𝑔𝑥
2 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
= 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥0 + 𝑘𝑥𝑥0 + −𝑚𝑔𝑥
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥02 + 𝑥(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝑚𝑔)
2 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
= 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥0
2 2 2
Normal force 𝑁 ⃗⃗ do not work: 𝑊(𝑁 ⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ) = ∫ 𝑁
because: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑁 ⊥ 𝑑𝑙⃗, weight and tension force of spring are
conservative forces, then:
𝑑𝐸𝑇 (𝑥)
𝐸𝑇 (𝑀) = 𝐸𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑠𝑡 ⟹ =0
𝑑𝑡
1 1 1
𝑑 ( 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥02 )
⟹ 2 2 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑 (𝑣 2 ) 1 (𝑥 2 ) 1 (𝑥02 )
= 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Preceding equation is a second order homogeneous

equation without second member with constant
coefficients of the form:
𝑑2 𝑥 2𝑥 = 0
+ 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2
M. CHEKERKER
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𝑘
Where 𝜔 = √ is the pulsation. The equation indcates
𝑚
that motion is harmonic and oscillatory, of pulsation

𝑘 2𝜋 𝑚
𝜔=√ And period 𝑇 = = 2𝜋√ , 𝜔 is measured in
𝑚 𝜔 𝑘
𝑅𝑎𝑑 ∕ 𝑠 or 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ∕ 𝑠 and the period is measured in

seconds in (𝑆.𝐼.).
- Solution of the differential equation.
Preceding differential equation has a solution:
𝑥(𝑡 ) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑0 )
Where 𝐴 and 𝜑0 are constants to be determined and

𝜑0 is the phase at the origin.
- Initial conditions.
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥1 ; 𝑣(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑣0 = 0.
Use of initial conditions allows to write:
𝑥1 = 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝐴 sin 𝜑0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣0 = 𝑣(𝑡 = 0)
𝑑𝑥 (𝑡 ) 𝜋
= | = 𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜑0 = 0 ⟹ 𝜑0 = ±
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0 2
Therefore,
𝜋
𝑥1 = 𝐴 sin 𝜑0 = ±𝐴 sin ( ) = ±𝐴 ⟹ 𝐴
2
= ±𝑥1
Final solution: 𝒙(𝒕) = ±𝒙𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕).
M. CHEKERKER
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Puit de potentiel : Potential well - Point de

rebroussement : turning point - Barrière de potentiel :
Potentiel Barrier
M. CHEKERKER
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On the figure shown above, we represented the

potential energy curve in the case of a harmonic
oscillator of one degree of freedom. Slope of the
curves may be given by:
𝑑𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) 𝑑𝐸𝑃′ (𝑥)
tan 𝛼 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝛽 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
When we use the two equations, the force acting on

the particle may be written in the form:
′( )
𝑑𝐸𝑃 (𝑥) 𝑑𝐸𝑃 𝑥
𝐹𝑥 (𝑥) = − = − tan 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑥′ (𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= − tan 𝛽
Where tan 𝛼 and tan 𝛽 represent slopes of the curve

𝐸𝑃(𝑥). The slope is positive when the function is
increasing, and negative upon decreasing. Therefore,
the force 𝐹⃗ is of opposite sign to the slope, and is
negative and point to the left when potential energy is
increasing; it is positive and points to the right when
potential energy is decreasing. We displayed that
situation horizontal arrows on the plot of the graphs
of energies.
Potential energy is a minimum, for 𝑥0 = 0 , one has
𝑑𝐸𝑃 (𝑥)
= 0, and then, 𝐹𝑥 (𝑥) = 0. It is a position of stable
𝑑𝑥
M. CHEKERKER
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equilibrium; since a slight displacement of the particle

from its equilibrium position, a force acting on it tends
to restore it to its initial position. The same discussion
is considered for the instable equilibrium when if the
particle is slightly moved away from equilibrium, a
force acting on it makes it receding even further away
from its initial position because potential energy is a
maximum. This situation brings back the particle to a
state of minimum energy.
M. CHEKERKER
hange E hange E
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Bibliography :
a- Fundamentals of PHYSICS, Halliday and Resnick,
10th Edition-JEARL WALKER-Extended WILEY
b- H. PREPA. Exercices et Problèmes 1ère Année-
PHYSIQUE MPSI/PCSI/PTSI
Hachette supérieure
c- SCIENCES SUP. Cours et Exercices Corrigés Licence 1ère et
2ième Année COURS DE PHYSIQUE-MECANIQUE DU
POINT-2ème Edition- ALAIN GIBAUD, MICHEL HENRY
DUNOD
d- M. ALONSO et E. J. FINN FUNDAMENTAL UNIVERSITY
PHYSICS VOLUME I: MECANICS, VOLUME II:
ELECTRICITY-ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
e- J. L. Caubarère, J.Fourny et H. Ladjouze et H. Djelouah,
Electricité et Ondes, Ed OPU, Alger
f- J. L. Caubarère, J.Fourny et H. Ladjouze et H. Djelouah,
Mécanique, Ed OPU, Alger

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hange E hange E

CHAPTER I- Vector calculus.

CHAPTER II- Scalar and vector fields.

CHAPTER III- Kinematics of a particle.

Ecole Ntionale Polytechnique 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

- Cylindrical frame of reference. Example of

CHAPTER IV- Relative motion. Change of frame of

CHAPITRE V- Dynamics of a particle : Newton’s

Ecole Ntionale Polytechnique 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

- Force of contact: Frictional force. Tension

CHAPITRE VI- Work, Power, Energy.

Ecole Ntionale Polytechnique 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

a- Scalars : like mass, volume, Density, work, power,

b- Vectors : are expressed by vectors.

These are oriented physical quantities like position,

vectors are classified as follows:

• Free vectors : Dont have precise origin like

1- Le vecteur : It is represented by a line

2- Cartesian frame : noted 𝓡(𝑶, 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) or

𝑖⃗ ⊥ 𝑗⃗, 𝑗⃗ ⊥ 𝑘⃗⃗ , 𝑘⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑖⃗

⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

• Sum : Let there be the vectors

Shown in the figure by :

• Product of a vector by a scalar function 𝝀:

Let there be:

The scalar product of two vectors is a Scalar function

where 𝜇 is a real scalar.

- The cartesian frame is direct if:

- 𝑖⃗. 𝑗⃗ = 𝑗⃗. 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ . 𝑖⃗ = 0, 𝑖⃗. 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗. 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ . 𝑘⃗⃗ = 1

positively oriented straight line of ⃗⃗ :

• Cross Product or vector product of two

indicating the direction of 𝐶⃗ assigned by the

The Following relations hold :

- The cartesian frame is a direct reference frame such

- 𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ , 𝑗⃗ ∧ 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗, 𝑖⃗ ∧ 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗ ∧

Therefore, cartesian expressions of the cross or vector

That is formally designed as a determinant:

Scalar and Vector fields.

- For the vector displacement: 𝑟⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ ,

𝐴⃗ = 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑖⃗ − 2𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑘⃗⃗

• Coordinate system of reference : cartesian,

• Acquire knowledge of velocity vector, state

To analyse the motion of a single particle in a frame of

1- Rectangular frame of reference.

✓ Position vector : Determine the position at instant

Where ∆𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡0 is the elapsed time.

The displacement vector could be expressed as :

𝑀0 𝑀 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘⃗⃗

✓ Average velocity vector (mean value) : designed

It has the same direction as the displacement

✓ Path of a single particle: designed by (𝑪) .It is

The instantaneous velocity vector 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) is always

✓ Average acceleration vector (mean value): designed

It computes the variation of 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) in magnitude and

✓ Magnitude (length) of the velocity vector or

If we put 𝑔(𝑡 ) = ‖𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )‖2 = 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ), we may write:

𝑑𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ))

𝑑𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ))

𝑑(𝑣⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 )) 𝑑𝑣⃗ (𝑡 )

Analysis of the particle motion:

a- Accelerated motion : 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗ (𝑡 ) > 0.

Moreover, if the acceleration vector 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ) is constant,

d- Uniformly accelerated motion: 𝑎⃗(𝑡 ). 𝑣⃗(𝑡 ) > 0.

For the rectilinear motion, algebraic values may be