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REVIEW HANDOUT 1
Area: GENERAL EDUCATION
Focus: Purposive Communication, Understanding the Self, Art Appreciation,
Readings in Philippine History, Mathematics in the Modern World

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as "the imparting, conveying, or

exchange of ideas, knowledge and information'. This can apply to words or body language.

Communication can be a process, interaction, or a social context.

Elements of communication
1. The sender (speaker)
2. The receiver (listener)
3. The message
4. The channel
5. The interference/noise
6. The environment
7. The feedback
8. The context

Models of communication
1. Linear model
2. Interactive model
3. Transactional model

Principles of Communication
1. Communication is a process.
2. Communication is a system.
3. Communication is both interactional and transactional.
4. Communication can be intentional or unintentional.

Getting over the right message is complex as the meaning of the message may be
misunderstood, misinterpreted, misheard, ignored or perceived as irrelevant.

Delivering the 'right' message

Careful thought on how the message is delivered is required, taking into account:
 What are we trying to convey?
 What are we inadvertently conveying?

Concepts related to gathering materials

1. copying (or cutting) and pasting – collecting material for like sounds and images from
sites on the internet, like Facebook, Google, blogs and vlogs, Twitter, Spotify, iTunes,
and YouTube
2. patchworking – exploiting certain threads in the materials gathered from various
sources and stitch
3. recontextualizing – placing the meaning of a material in a different context, like
presenting a multimodal text in a classroom setting

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4. plagiarism – act of stealing and passing off as your own the ideas, words, or any
other intellectual property produced by another person.

Language Registers

Language registers are variations according to the use of a language. The term
“register” refers to particular varieties or styles of speaking and writing, which vary in the
degree of formality depending on the topic (what), purpose (why), context (where), and
audience (who)

1. Very formal, frozen, or static register. This register is “frozen” in time and content
because it rarely or never changes. Examples are poetry, The Lord’s Prayer, laws,
marriage vows, insurance policies, leases and wills.
2. Formal or regulated register. This is the formal and impersonal language, which is
one-way in nature and used in formal situations. Examples are books, news reports,
magazine or journal articles, business letters, official speeches, and sermons.
3. Neutral, professional, or consultative register. This is the normal style of speaking
between communicators who use mutually accepted language that conforms to
formal societal standards. Examples are the types of communication between
strangers, teacher and student, superior and subordinate, doctor and patient, and
lawyer and client
4. Informal, group, or casual register. This is the informal language between friends and
peers, which uses slang, vulgarities, and colloquialisms. Examples are
conversations, chats and emails, blogs, tweets, and personal letters.
5. Very informal, personal, or intimate register. This is the private, intimate language
reserved for family members or intimate people. Examples are the kinds of
interactions between husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings, and parent
and child.

Semiotics and Text Analysis

Semiotics is concerned with “everything that can be taken as a sign”. Semiotics

involves “the study not only of what we refer to as ‘signs’ in everyday speech, but of anything
which ‘stands for’ something else; in a semiotic sense, signs take the form of words, images,
sounds, gestures, and objects”. Signs consist of signifiers (sounds and images) and
signifieds (concepts); “the sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier
with the signified”

Multimodal texts

A text is “multimodal” when it combines two or more of the five semiotic systems:
1. Linguistic or textual system, comprising aspects, such as vocabulary, generic
structure, and the grammar of oral and written language;
2. Visual system, consisting of aspects, such as color, vectors, and viewpoint in still
and moving images;
3. Audio system, with aspects, like volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and sound
effects;
4. Gestural system, including aspects, such as movement, speed, and, stillness in
facial expression and body language; and
5. Spatial system, covering aspects, like proximity, direction, position of layout, and
organization of objects in space.

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Examples of multimodal texts, which can be delivered via different media technologies,
are a picture book, in which the textual and visual elements are arranged on individual pages
that contribute to overall set of bound pages; a web page, in which elements, such as sound
effects, oral language, written language, music, and still or moving images are combined; or
a live ballet performance, in which gesture, music, and space are the main elements.

Prescriptivists and correct language use

Prescriptivists (people who set down rules for correct language use) equate
correctness to strict observance of the rules of grammar. Prescriptivists, as well as educated
speakers of the majority of English dialects or varieties, believe that Standard English is
synonymous with correct English. Prescriptivists are the educated members of society who
have the power to sanction speakers for not following language rules. They are the teachers,
managers, supervisors, or person of authority who can give failing grades in school, who can
make applicants fail job interviews, or who can approve or disapprove employees`
promotions.

Text or message

Message” (or text) refers to any recorded message (e.g., writing, audiorecording,
audio- and video recording) that is physically independent of its sender or receiver, a text is
an “assemblage of sights (such as words, images, sounds and/ or gestures) and constructed
(and interpreted) with reference to the conventions associated with a genre and in a
particular medium of communication (such as verbal, nonverbal, or both)”

Hypermedia

Hypermedia is the integration of different channels of communication, such as written

texts, still pictures, motion pictures and sound.

Evaluating sources of information – the CRAAP test

1. Is the source current to the topic? When was the information published or posted?
Has the information undergone revision? Is it up to date?
2. Is it relevant to your research? Is the information related and connected to your
topic? Does it help you achieve your goal?
3. Does the source have authority behind it? What are the author’s credentials and
qualifications to write on the topic? Is the author acknowledged or cited by other
authors in their writings?
4. Is the information accurate? Is there a way of validating the information or verifying it
in another source? Are the authors’ claims validated by way of citations or
references?
5. What is the purpose of the source of the information? Does the information intend to
explain, to inform, to teach, to reinforce an existing belief, to sell an idea, to convince
or persuade?

Persuasive techniques
1. Emotive words – words that stir up emotions
2. Rhetorical questions – questions that the reader answers in his mind
3. Contradictory statement – a statement that contradicts or overturns a previous
statement

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4. Power of 3 – they come in threes used in sequence – nouns, adjectives, adverbs,

and the like
5. Personal pronouns – using first-person and second-person pronouns like “we”, “us”,
and “you” to make the writing more engaging
6. Humor – witty and amusing expression of a viewpoint
7. Evoke sympathies – make the reader feel sorry for something or someone
8. Hyperbole – intentional exaggeration for emphasis
9. Repetition of key words and phrases – deliberate use of the same word or phrase
more than once for emphasis
10. Catchy phrase – distinctive or eccentric word or phrase to attract attention and easy
recall
11. Figures of speech – figurative language like similes and metaphors to add color to
the writing and awaken the imagination
12. Anecdote – short story to illustrate a point
13. Play on the reader’s guilt – make the reader feel bad about something
14. Imagery – vivid words to create a picture in mind
15. Quotation – inspirational and wise sayings to support a point
16. Parallel structure – expressing ideas in the same grammatical structure
17. Statistics – factual data like numbers used in a persuasive way
18. Short sentences – intended to create punch, grab attention, signal completion
19. Shock tactics – words and phrases that have powerful associations or connotations
20. Local color – historical or geographical references to cause the writer to identify with
the reader
21. Fragments – deliberate use of incomplete sentences for style and impact

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

The Nature of the Self

The self is a thinking and feeling being within ‘us’ and within ‘ourselves’. The self generally is
the distinct identity which is a summation of the experiences of an individual.

Philosophers’ Conceptions about the Self

1. Socrates – believed that it is the duty of the philosopher to know oneself. Socrates
saw a person as dualistic, i.e., every person is composed of body, the imperfect and
impermanent, and soul, the perfect and the permanent.
2. Plato – stated that the soul has three parts or components: the appetitive soul, one
responsible for the desires and cravings of a person; the rational soul, the thinking,
reasoning, and judging aspect; and the spirited soul accountable for emotions and
makes sure that the rules of reason is followed in order to attain victory and/or honor.
3. St. Augustine – believed that there is this imperfect part of us, which is connected
with the world and can therefore attain immortality.
4. Rene Descartes – claimed that a person is composed of the cogito or the mind, and
the extenza or the body, which is the extension of the mind; thus his famous quote
“cogito ergo sum”
5. John Locke – he believed that a person’s mind is a blank slate or tabula rasa at birth

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6. David Hume – believed that all concepts as well as knowledge come from the senses
or experiences; there is no self beyond what can be experienced
7. Immanuel Kant – believes that there must be necessarily something in us that
organizes these sensations to create knowledge and ideas; reason, not mere
experience, is the foundation of knowledge
8. Sigmund Freud – established psychoanalysis, a school of thought revolving around
the role of psychological conflicts within the unconscious which is which is relevant in
the development of human behavior as well as personality; the structural theory of
personality involves the id, ego, and superego
9. Gilbert Ryle – believed that mental phenomena are explained by observing public
behavior
10. Paul Montgomery Churchland – argued that ‘nothing but matter exists’ also known as
materialism; hypothesized that the human consciousness can be explained through
the neural networks communicating through its hub in the brain which is the thalamus
11. Maurice Merleau Ponty – argued that perception is the determinant of one’s
consciousness

The Self in the Allied Sciences

1. Sociology – the self basically is considered as a product of social interaction

through the utilization of language.
2. Anthropology – the self is a product of cultural practices
3. Psychology – pertains to how one creates a schema of his person

Carl Rogers asserted that self-concept has three different components:

1. Self-image
2. Self-esteem
3. Ideal self

The Lateralization of the Brain

Functions of the Left Brain Functions of the Right Brain

Analytical thought Intuitive thought
Detail-oriented perception Holistic perception
Ordered sequencing Random sequencing
Rational thought Emotional thought
Verbal Non-verbal
Cautious Adventurous
Planning Impulsive
Math/Science Creative writing/Art
Logic Imagination
Right field vision Left field vision
Right side motor skills Left side motor skills

On the Physical Self

1. Shavelson – described the total self or general self as being made up of academic
self and non-academic self
2. K. R. Fox – emphasized the factors that encompass physical self-esteem, which
include sport competence, attractive body, physical power, and physical condition,
and how they actually shape the global self-esteem

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3. Sigmund Freud – posited that the concept of the self and personality makes the
physical body the core of human experience
4. Erik Erikson – considered experience as firmly associated on the ground-plan of the
body
5. Abraham Maslow – laid down the Hierarchy of Needs; once the physiological needs
are met, the person becomes dedicated to attaining the higher order needs

The Sexual Self

1. Sex – refers to the physical or physiological differences between males and females,
including both the primary sex characteristics and the secondary characteristics
2. Male – a person with the penis or the male reproductive organ
3. Female – a person with vagina or the female reproductive organ
4. Intersex – a person born with the sexual anatomy or chromosomes that do not fit the
traditional definition of male or female
5. Gender – refers to the social or cultural roles played by males and females in the
society
6. Gender expression – describes how someone prefers to express his or her gender to
the world
7. Cisgender – a person identifying himself or oneself with the sex assigned to them at
birth
8. Transgender – gender identity that does not match the sex assigned to birth
9. Gender fluid – a person whose gender identity is not fixed and/or shifts depending on
the situation
10. Heterosexual – a person attracted to people of the opposite sex
11. Homosexual – a person attracted to people of the same sex
12. Bisexual – a person attracted to both sexes
13. Asexual – a person having no sexual attraction
14. Pansexual – attraction to multiple genders

Self and Objects through Life Stages

1. Our relationship with the material world starts with the idea that whoever gets
something first is its owner. These objects were seen as “transitional objects” which
aims to develop the skills of a child toward more independence.
2. In adolescents, the attachment to objects increasingly depends on who people are,
or how they want to be perceived, especially by the peers; young people seems to
value possessions based on “emotional attachment”.
3. The adult self continues to extend more objects as the needs as well as the means to
acquire changes.
4. Old age brings another aspect to the relationship between the owner and the object.
The object now becomes a vessel of memory, a source of comfort, and a sort of
legacy for the future.

The Spiritual Self

The spiritual self is considered as the higher self, the inner self, and a person’s true
being that is greatly influenced by a spiritual deity.

The Political Self

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According to Section 1, Article IV of the Philippine Constitution, the following are

citizens of the Philippines:

1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution (referring to the 1987 Constitution)
2. Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines
3. Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority
4. Those who are naturalized in accordance with law

Values and Traits of the Filipinos

1. Respect for elders

2. Close family ties
3. Self-sacrifice
4. “Bayanihan”
5. “Bahala na” attitude
6. Colonial mentality
7. Crab mentality

Metacognition

Metacognition is commonly defined as “thinking about thinking”. It is the awareness of

the scope and limitations of your current knowledge and skills. Due to this awareness,
metacognition enables the person to adapt their existing knowledge and skills in order to
approach a learning task, seeking for the optimum result of the learning experience.

Four types of metacognitive learners are:

1. Tacit learners – who are unaware of their metacognitive processes although they
know the extent of their knowledge
2. Aware learners – who are aware of some of their metacognitive strategies but use
techniques that are not always planned
3. Strategic learners – who strategize and plan their course of action toward a
learning experience
4. Reflective learners – who reflect on their thinking while they are using the
strategies and will adapt their metacognitive skills depending on the situation

The Digital Self

A. ART APPRECIATION

Humanities – derived from the Latin word humanus, which means refined or cultured human,
studies about human culture, such as literature, philosophy, and history

Art appreciation – pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the universal and timeless
qualities characterizing works of art

Art history – study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts

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Basic assumption of arts

1. Art has been created by all people at all times

2. Art involves experience
3. Art is not nature, nature is not art
4. Art is cultural
5. Art is a form of creation
6. Art is subjective

Nature of arts

1. Art is a diverse range of human activities

2. Art represents reality
3. Art is an expression
4. Art serves as a means of communication of emotions
5. Art matters
6. Art is universal
7. Art is creation

Functions of art

1. Personal function
2. Social function
3. Physical function

Visual arts

1. Fine arts
2. Contemporary arts
3. Decorative arts and crafts

Philosophical perspective of art

1. Art as mimesis (Plato)

2. Art as representation (Aristotle)
3. Art for art’s sake (Kant)

Subject of art

1. Representational or objective – represents objects or events in the real world

2. Non-representational or non-objective – it has no recognizable objects
Sources of subjects of art

1. Primary sources – first-hand testimony or direct evidence

2. Secondary sources – interpretation and analysis of primary sources

- Nature
- History
- Greek and Roman mythology
- Judaeo Christian tradition

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- Oriental sacred texts

- Other works of art

Elements and Principles of Art

1. Lines
2. Shape
3. Form
4. Value
5. Color
6. Texture
7. Light
8. Space

Principles of Design

1. Contrast
2. Harmony
3. Balance
4. Rhythm and Movement
5. Unity and variety
6. Emphasis and subordination
7. Scale and proportion
8. Depth and perspective

Methods in Reading Art

1. Formalism and style – gives importance to the formal qualities as basis for the
meaning of art
2. Iconography – focuses on the subject matter primarily over form
3. Contextual approaches – context becomes an important factor in criticizing artworks
here
4. Biography and autobiography – considers the life and context of the artist
5. Semiotics – an artwork or art form is assumed to be composed of a set of signs that
may have significant cultural and contextual meanings beyond itself
6. Psychoanalysis – one is concerned about the unconscious mind in relation to the
artist, the viewer, and the cultural context it is involved in
7. Aesthetics and psychoanalysis – notion of what is considered acceptable, beautiful,
or attractive in works of art are influenced by psychological factors

Techniques in painting

1. Encaustic
2. Fresco secco
3. Fresco
4. Egg tempera
5. Mosaic
6. Oil paint
7. Water color
8. Acrylic
9. Collage

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10. Drawing
11. Printmaking

Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA) – award that acknowledges folk and indigenous
artists

1. Darhata Sawabi – Tausug weaver

2. Eduardo Mutuc – artist from Pampanga who dedicated his life creating religious and
secular art
3. Haja Amina Appi – master mat weaver
4. Alonzo Saclag – Kalinga master of dance
5. Federico Caballero – Bukidnon epic chanter
6. Uwang Ahadas – a Yakan musician
7. Lang Dulay – T’boli traditional weaver
8. Salinta Monon – Tagbanua Bagobo traditional weaver
9. Ginaw Bilog – Hanunuo Mangyan poet
10. Masino Intaray – a prolific epic chanter

Performance art

1. Music
2. Opera
3. Dance
4. Drama

Forms in Music

Form is a musical work’s shape, structure, and the organized arrangement of its
elements, and how these elements are manipulated so that the work makes sense
1. Binary form – a type of musical form with two contrasting parts, A and B
2. Ternary form – a type of musical form with three parts, the first part is repeated after
the second part, A, B and A

Filipino Artists

1. Fernando Amorsolo – first National Artist of the Philippines for painting, coined as the
master of Philippine light
2. Vicente Manansala – developed renditions of transparent cubism techniques
3. Hernando Ocampo – most of his works are purely abstraction; unique in his works
are abstract compositions of biological forms
4. Napoleon Abueva – worked on planar and geometric look in his sculptures
5. Guillermo Tolention – sculptured the famous UP Oblation

Western Musicians

1. Franz Joseph Haydn – considered the “Father of the Symphony”

2. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – composed familiar tunes like Twinkle, Twinkle Little
Star and Rondo alla Turca (Turkish March)
3. Ludwig van Beethoven – known for his Fur Elise and the 9th symphony, continued
composing long after he lost his sense of hearing
4. Franz Liszt – his most prominent work is The Piano Sonata In B Minor

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5. Niccolo Paganini – greatest violinist during his time; most notable of work is “Twenty
four caprices for unaccompanied violin”
6. Robert Schumann – one of the greatest composers of the Roman era; one of his
most characteristic piano works is Carnaval, Op. 9
7. Frederic Chopin – popularly called the “Poet of the Piano”
8. Johannes Brahms – he is sometimes grouped with Johann Sebastian Bach and
Ludwig van Beethoven as one of the “Three B’s” of music; his most famous work
was Ein deutsches Requiem (A German Requiem)
9. Felix Mendelssohn – most popular of his works are “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”
and the violin concerto E minor

Music of the 20th century

1. Impressionism – its central figure is Claude Debussy; a reaction toward realistic

portrayals of subjects
2. Minimalism – a tendency towards simplicity in music; foremost figures in this style
were Steve Reich, Terry Riley, La Monte Young, and Philip Glass
3. Electronic music – the movement started primarily after World War II; sound editing
and other transformational processes such as ‘splicing’, ‘back-masking’, and
‘overdubbing’; well-known figures in this style were Milton Babbitt, Karlheinz
Stockhausen, and Luciano Berio

Indigenous Music of the Philippines

Instruments in the Northern part

1. Bansi – a type of flute
2. Kudyapi – a two stringed guitar-like instrument
3. Kimbal – conical drum
4. Gangsa – flat gongs usually played through topayya (strucking by hand) or palook
(strucking with sticks)
Instruments in the Southern part
5. Agung and gandingan – gongs which are suspended
6. Kulintang – gongs which are laid flat in a row
7. Palendag – lip-valley flue
8. Kubing – jew’s harp
9. Gabbang – xylophone
10. Biola – violin
11. Kagul – percussion beams

Native local genres of music

1. Kundiman – a type of Filipino art song that is written in triple time, usually begins in a
minor key; notable kundiman are ‘Pakiusap’, ‘Madaling-araw’, and ‘Anak ng Dalita’ all
composed by Francisco Santiago
2. Kumintang – historians referred to as the “national song and dance” of the
Philippines, a love dance performed in a sad song
3. Performing groups
4. Choral groups – examples are the Philippine Madrigal Singers, UP Concert Chorus
and Loboc Children’s Choir of Bohol
5. Bands – composed of woodwind, brass and percussion instruments
6. Musikang Bumbong – a type of ensemble that has instruments made of bamboo

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7. Orchestra
8. Rondalla – an ensemble called the Filipino “stringed band”; usual instruments are the
bandurria, laud, octavina, guitar, and double bass

B. READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

History – search for knowledge and truth; any integrated narrative or description of past
events or facts

History is studied to
- Learn about the past
- Understand the present
- Appreciate our heritage in a broad perspective
- Acquire a background for critical thinking

Historical Sources

1. Primary sources – sources produced at the same time as the event, period or subject
is being studied. Examples are minutes of convention, newspaper clippings, letters,
census, and government records
2. Secondary sources – produced by an author who used primary sources to produce
the material. Examples are book authors who used primary sources for their research

Local history

Local history is the study of the history of a particular community or a smaller unit of
geography.

Some Historical Accounts

1. The Treaty of Paris was an agreement signed between Spain and the United States
of America regarding the ownership of the Philippines Islands and other Spanish
colonies in South America.
2. The People Power Revolution of 1986 was widely recognized around the world for its
peaceful character. It was led by Corazon Cojuangco Aquino, first woman president
of the country together with leading military officials, Juan Ponce Enrile and Fidel
Ramos.
3. The GomBurZa is the collective name of the three martyred priests Mariano Gomez,
Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, who were tagged as masterminds of the Cavite
mutiny.
4. The precursor of the Katipunan as an organization is the La Liga Filipina, an
organization founded by Rizal.
5. The government has three branches: the Executive, headed by the President and
Cabinet Members; the Legislative, resides in the Congress divided into two houses:
the Senate and the House of Representatives; and the Judicial, composed of the
Supreme Court and lower courts as created by law.
6. Only the House of Representatives can initiate the impeachment of the president,
members of the Supreme Court, and other constitutionally protected public officials
such as the Ombudsman.
7. The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was the provisionary constitution of the Philippine
Republic during the Philippine Revolution.

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8. Forced labor called polo y servicio was a character of Spanish colonial taxation in the
Philippines. Males were required to provide labor for 40 days a year but may opt out
by paying the falla of three pesos per annum.

Salient provisions of the 1898 Constitution

1. Government is composed of three branches

2. Legislature was more powerful than the executive
3. When not in session, legislative power is exercised by a Permanent Commission
composed of seven assemblymen
4. Cabinet secretaries were responsible to the legislature, not to the President

Salient provisions of the 1935 Constitution

1. Preamble
2. Government is composed of three co-equal branches
3. Clear enumeration of rights of citizens
4. Females are not allowed to exercise suffrage

Salient Provisions of the 1973 Constitution

1. Preamble
2. Broader and clearer provisions of national territory
3. Additional state policies on family, youth, and social services
4. Age of suffrage is at least 18
5. Additional duties of citizens on military service
6. Adopted a parliamentary form of government
7. Creation of a Special Court called Sandiganbayan

Salient Provisions of the 1987 Constitution

1. Preamble
2. National Territory
3. Provided mechanisms to prevent the rise of a dictator
4. Provision on initiative and referendum
5. Party-list system

C. MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Fibonacci Sequence

The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … is called the Fibonacci sequence, named after

Leonardo Fibonacci (Leonardo, son of Bonaccio), an Italian mathematician. The numbers in
the sequence are called Fibonacci numbers.

A Fibonacci sequence is a sequence such that each term is the sum of the two
preceding terms.

a1 a3 = a1 + a2
a2 = a1 a4 = a2 + a3

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Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are measures indicating the center of a set of data,
arranged in an increasing or decreasing magnitude. The most commonly used measures are
the:

1. Mean – the mean is the sum of the total population and divided by the number of
cases.
2. Median – the value found at the middle when the data are arranged in an array
form from the highest to the lowest or from the lowest to the highest. If there are
two middle values, the average is taken
3. Mode – the value which occurs most often or with greatest frequency. A distribution
having only one mode is called a unimodal distribution while a distribution having
two modes is called bimodal distribution

Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion or measures of variation describes how scores in a distribution

are varied. Some of these measures are range, average deviation, standard deviation,
quartile deviation, and variance.

1. Range is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in a given
distribution.
2. The average deviation is a measure of variation that takes into consideration the
deviations (or difference) of the individual scores from the mean.
3. The variance is the average of the squared differences from the mean. The symbol
for variance is s2.
4. The square root of the variance is called standard deviation. The symbol for standard
deviation is the Greek letter sigma (σ).
5. The quartile deviation is the product of half of the difference between the upper and
lower quartiles.

Polygonal Numbers

The ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes

associated with numbers. For instance, they noticed that triangles can be constructed using
1, 3, 6, 10, or 15 dots, as shown in Figure 1.1 on page 23. They called the numbers 1, 3, 6,
10, 15, ... the triangular numbers. The Greeks called the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... the
square numbers and the numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ... the pentagonal numbers.

Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887–1985). The problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of
the following four steps:

1. Understand the Problem. This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often

overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you
focus on understanding the problem, consider the following questions.
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?

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 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?

 What is the goal?

2. Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.

3. Carry Out the Plan. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have
to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

4. Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems

Sets
Any group or collection of objects is called a set. The objects that belong in a set are
the elements, or members, of the set. The following two methods are often used to
designate a set.
1. Describe the set using words.
2. List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }. This method is called the
roster method. Commas are used to separate the elements.

The empty set, or null set, is the set that contains no elements. The symbol ø or { } is
used to represent the empty set.

3. Another method of representing a set is set-builder notation. Set-builder notation is

especially useful when describing infinite sets. For instance, in set-builder notation,
the set of natural numbers greater than 7 is written as follows: {x | x ∈N and x > 7}
membership conditions x is an element of the set of natural numbers and x is
greater than 7 such that the set of all elements. The preceding set-builder notation
is read as “the set of all elements x such that x is an element of the set of natural
numbers and x is greater than 7.” It is impossible to list all the elements of the set,
but set-builder notation defines the set by describing its elements.

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A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether any given item is an element
of the set.

Logic

1. A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and
false.
2. A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement
is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
3. The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value of
a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements.
4. In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol (~) is used to denote the negation of a statement.
If a statement p is true, its negation ~p is false, and if a statement p is false, its
negation ~p is true. The negation of the negation of a statement is the original
statement. Thus ~(~p) can be replaced by p in any statement.

Perimeter and Area

The perimeter of a plane geometric figure is a measure of the distance around the
figure. The area is the number of square units inside a plane geometric figure.

Modular arithmetic

- To determine the time 8 hours from 9 o’clock, it is 8 + 9, after passing 12 o’clock the
count begins with 1, hence 8 + 9 = 5
-
Algebraic system – a set of elements along with one or more operations for combining the
elements
Example: the real numbers and the operations of addition and multiplication
Group – a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following four properties:
4. The set is closed with respect to the operation
5. The operation satisfies the associative property
6. There is an identity element
7. Each element has an inverse

REFERENCES

Alata, E.J., et al. (2021) A Course Module for Understanding the Self. Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Aufmann, R., et al. (2013) Mathematical Excursions. Cengage Learning.
Candelaria, J.L.P. & Alporha, V.C. (2018) Readings in Philippine History. Rex Bookstore,
Inc.
Corpuz, R. M., et al. (2017) Readings in Philippine History. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Dapat, J.R.O., et al. (2016) Oral Communication in Focus. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Leano, R. D., et al. (2017) Art Appreciation for College Students. Mindshapers Co., Inc.

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Lim, J.M.A., et al. (2019) A Course Module for Purposive Communication. Rex Bookstore,
Inc.
Magalona, E., et al 2023.
Mathematics in the Modern World (2018) Rex Book Store, Inc.
Padilla, M.M., et al. (2018) Communicate and Connect. Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Roldan, A.N.J. & Dellosa, C.P. (2019) A Course Module in Art Appreciation. Rex Bookstore,
Inc.
Sebastian, E. & Banawis, A. (2023) Purposive Communication. Mindshapers Co., Inc.

Ballado, R. Review Handouts for Educ 13/Prof Ed 16 (Seminar in Teacher Education)