2 Ecology and Ecosystem

Chapter 2
ECOLOGY AND
ECOSYSTEM
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the different biological components.

2. Explain ecosystem structure.
3. Discuss the biogeochemical cycles.
4. Describe a food chain, food web, and ecological pyramid and their effects to the
maintenance of life.
5. Differentiate between the classification of ecosystems.
2.1. Ecology defined
Ecology is the scientific study of living organisms and their relationship with the
environment. The term relationship includes all interactions with the physical environment,
within species and between species. Such relationship can be positive or negative. Man, as a
social entity is the most important component of the environment as we are capable of
affecting change in our environment more than other species can.
The environment includes all the physical factors and biological conditions that influence the
survival, growth and reproduction of the organism. Physical factors include temperature,
humidity, moisture, soil and others. Biological conditions include all factors that are not
directly utilized by the organisms but affect their survival, growth, and development. For
example, pH is a biological condition of a plant because it is not directly utilized by the plant
but is an important attribute of the soil which affects the availability of nutrients essential
for the growth and development of a plant. Similarly, a dumpsite is a biological condition to
the people of nearby residential areas as it affects their daily lives.
Ecology forms the core of environmental science. Ecology is a basic biological science. On
the other hand, environmental science concentrates on the application of ecological
principles in studying the effects of human activities on the environment. Environmental
science therefore is applied ecology.
Ecology studies can be focused on the increasing hierarchical levels of organization of life
namely: individual organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. Individuals
of the same kind make up a species. These individuals of the same species living together in
the same area at a given time comprise a population. Populations living and interacting with
one another in one area at a particular time make up a community. The various species
populations in a community interacting with each other and with the physical environment,
and exchanging matter and energy make up the ecosystem.
2.2. Structure of Ecosystem
Structure refers to parts and the way they fit together as a whole. There are two parts in
every ecosystem, the organisms and the environmental factors. All the organisms – plants,
animals, and microbes are referred to as biotic. The non-living chemical and physical factors
of the environment such as climate, soil quality, etc. are referred to as abiotic structure.
Figure 1. Concept Map of Ecosystem

A. Biotic Structure
An assemblage of organisms in a prescribed physical habitat. A diversity of species usually
occupies an area sharing resources and competing on other factors. A group of similar
species form a population, and several populations constitute a biotic community.
Therefore, it is a unit of life with its own characteristics structure and functional
interrelationships.
1. Producers: Autotrophic organisms that

make their own food.
a. Phototrophic: plants use light energy
from the sun to covert carbon
dioxide (from the atmosphere) and
water (from the soil) to a sugar
called starch and release oxygen as
a
byproduct. The process of chemical conversion by light energy is called
photosynthesis.
b. Chemotrophic: organisms use chemicals other than H20, such as H2S.
|Environmental Science| 7
2. Consumers. These are organisms that
cannot produce their own food but must
feed on other organisms in order to obtain
energy and nutrients. Also known as
Heterotrophs. Consumers are divided into
various subgroups according to their source
of food.
a. Primary Consumers (Herbivores). Animals that feed directly on producers.
b. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores). Animals that feed on primary
consumers.
3. Detritus Feeders and Decomposers. These are
organisms that feed on the dead and break down their
complex substances to simpler forms and return these
substances to the abiotic environment.
a. Organisms that feed on dead plants and animal are
called detritus (scavengers). Examples are vultures,
earthworms, crayfish, termites, and ants.
b. Organisms that feed on detritus are called detritus
feeders (decomposers). Examples are: fungi and
bacteria.
Characteristics of Life
1. Living things are made up of cells.
2. Living things undergo metabolic processes in their bodies (obtain and use energy).
 Metabolism refers to the sum of chemical processes taking place within the cell
that provides for the organism’s growth, maintenance and repair.
3. Living things can react to stimuli or changes in their surroundings.
 Irritability is the ability to react and respond.
4. Living things are capable of growth and development.
5. Living things can reproduce.
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
6. Living things can adapt to their environment.
 Adaptation is a characteristic that enables an organism to survive in this
changing world.
i. Structural Adaptation – an organism has certain body parts that allow it to
become suited to its habitat. E.g. Fish
ii. Behavioral Adaptation – an organism adapts by adjusting its behavioural
pattern and biological clock to the changing conditions of its environment. E.g.
Polar bears
B. Abiotic Structure
The abiotic environment is a habitat with specific and complex sets of non-living factors
affecting life of the organism. If an organism is to live in a certain habitat, it must be able to
obtain the material it needs for survival. Abiotic factors refer to the chemical and physical
factors that affect the living organisms.
1. Soil: A critical physical factor and a chemical storehouse.
 More than dirt or rock particles where many living things are anchored.
 A critical factor because it has the capacity to store water and soil mineral
needed by living things.
2. Water: An essential substance of life.
 Universal need of all living things
 Plant photosynthetic activity is dependent upon water.
 Determines survival of aquatic organisms.
3. Light: Ultimate source of energy.
4. Air (atmosphere): A chemical storehouse.
 Most organisms need oxygen for life.
 Concentration of CO2 is needed for photosynthesis.
5. Temperature: acting with moisture.
 Has limiting effect on organisms when moisture conditions are extremely
high or low.
6. Topography: physical feature of habitat.
 Geographical characteristics of a region determines the amount of solar
radiation, the amount of moisture, and the extreme temperatures of a
habitat.
Abiotic factors can be classified as resources and conditions. Resources are those
environmental factors that are directly consumed by the organism in their growth and
development (CO2 for plants) while environmental conditions are factors that are not
directly consumed but affect the growth and survival of the organism (temperature for plant
and animals).
References
Agsalud, Priscilla Signey L., et al. 2013. Environmental Science. Malabon City:
Jimczyville Publications.
Bentillo, Eulalia N., et al. 2004. Science and Technology Textbook for Fourth Year.
Quezon City: Book Media Press, Inc. 2004. Teacher’s Guide, Science and
Technology Textbook for Fourth Year. Quezon City: Book Media Press, Inc.
Magno, Marcelita C., et al. 2009. Science and Technology Textbook for Third Year.
Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Activity 4: Biotic and Abiotic Components
In this chapter, you have learned the differences between biotic and abiotic factors. Go
outside of your house and observe your environment. Lists the different biotic and abiotic
factors that you see. Complete the table below.
Biotic Abiotic
1. 11.
2. 12.
3. 13.
4. 14.
5. 15.
6. 16.
7. 17.
8. 18.
9. 19.
10. 20.
Activity 5: Review
Read and analyze the statement carefully. Select the correct answer and write the letter of
your chosen option in the space provided before each item.
1. It refers to a group of individuals

5. Organisms that feed on
of the same species living together in the
nutrients from dead and decaying matter
same area at a given time.
is called:
a. community
a. producers
b. population
b. macroconsumers
c. organism
c. decomposers
d. family
d. microconsumers
2. The various species populations
6. Which of the following is NOT
in a community interacting with each
an abiotic component of the
other and with the physical environment
environment?
is called a:
a. slope of the land
a. community
b. minerals in the soil
b. population
c. water
c. organism
d. none of above
d. family
7. The term ecology means the
3. The following are biotic
study of:
components of the environment,
a. living organism
EXCEPT:
b. non-living component of biosphere
a. plants
c. ecosystem
b. animals
d. habitat
c. earthworms
8. Which of the following
d. humidity
statements is FALSE?
4. The biotic component of the
a. All organisms capable of photosynthesis
environment that can produce their own
are called primary producers.
food in the presence of the light is
b. The sun is the ultimate source
called:
of energy on Earth.
a. chemoautotrophs
b. photoautotrophs
c. sun-loving
d. light fixers
c. Without plants converting light energy d. None of above.
into chemical energy, all other 10. Which of the following
organisms will die. statement is TRUE?
d. None of the above a. Abiotic factors can be classified as
9. Which of the following resources and conditions.
statements is FALSE? b. Resources are those environmental
a. It is possible for a physical factor in factors that are directly consumed by
the environment to be a resource and a the organism in their growth and
biological condition depending on the development.
organism concerned. c. Environmental conditions are factors
b. The components of an ecosystem differ that are not directly consumed but affect
according to geographical location. the growth and survival of the organism.
c. Ecology forms the core d. All of above
of environmental science.
Activity 6: Comprehension
Answer the following briefly and direct to the point.
1. What roles do the decomposers play in the ecosystem?
2. Why are all heterotrophs dependent on plants for energy needs?
3. A pile of garbage is decomposing in a nearby street. Discuss how the

decomposing garbage is considered a biological condition or a resource.
4. Discuss how an ecosystem is structured in terms of its biotic components.
2.3. Biogeochemical Cycles
Energy does not cycle through an ecosystem, but chemicals do. The inorganic nutrients cycle
through more than organisms, however, they also enter the atmosphere, the oceans and
even rocks. Since these chemical cycle through both the biological and geological world, we
call the overall cycle’s biogeochemical cycles. There are 4 important cycles:
1. Water
2. Carbon and oxygen
3. Nitrogen
4. Phosphorous
Definition of Terms
 Condensation: the conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid.

 Evaporation: the process of turning from liquid into vapor.
 Evapotranspiration: the process by which water is transferred from the land to
the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces such as plants
 Precipitation: any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that
falls under gravity. (rain, sleet, snow,)
 Run-off: the flow of water that occurs when excess stormwater, meltwater, or
other sources flows over the earth's surface.
 Reservoir: those parts of the cycle where the chemical is held in large quantities
for long periods of time.
 Respiration: a process in living organisms involving the production of energy,
typically with the intake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide from
the oxidation of complex organic substances.
 Combustion: the process of burning something.
 Leaching: happens when excess water, through rainfall or irrigation, takes water-
soluble nutrients out of the soil. Often, this excess nutrient-rich water flows into
rivers, streams, and lakes, or is absorbed into groundwater, which may affect local
community drinking water.
 Eutrophication: excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life
and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
 Weathering: wear away or change the appearance or texture of (something) by
long exposure to the air.
 Erosion: the process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water, or other
natural agents.
 Uplift: vertical elevation of the Earth's surface in response to natural causes.
A. The Water Cycle
Also known as hydrologic cycle, the water cycle is a phenomenon where water moves
through 3 phases (gas, liquid, solid) over the 4 spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere) and completes a full cycle.
Figure 2. The Water Cycle

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/images/hydro_5cycle.jpg
Step 1: Evaporation
The water cycle starts with evaporation. It is a process where water at the surface turns into
water vapor. Water absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns into vapors. Water bodies
like the oceans, seas, lakes and the river are the main source of evaporation. Through
evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to atmosphere. As water evaporates it reduces
the temperature of the bodies.
Step 2: Condensation
As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes the
water vapors changes into tiny particles of ice/water droplets because the temperature at
high altitudes is low. This process is called condensation. These particles come close
together and form clouds and fogs in the sky.
Step 3: Sublimation
Sublimation is a process where ice directly converts into water vapors without converting
into liquid water. This phenomenon accelerates when the temperature is low, or pressure is
high. Main sources of water from sublimation are the ice sheets of the North and South
Poles and the ice caps on the mountains.
Step 4: Precipitation
The clouds (condensed water vapors) then pour down as precipitation due to wind or
temperature change. This occurs because the water droplets combine to make bigger
droplets. Also, when the air cannot hold any more water, it precipitates.
Step 5: Transpiration
As water precipitates, some of it is absorbed by soil. This water enters the process of
transpiration. Liquid water is turned into water vapor by the plants. The roots of the plants
absorb the water and push it toward leaves where it is used by photosynthesis. The extra
water is moved out of leaves through stomata (very tiny openings on leaves) as water vapor.
Thus, water enters the biosphere and exits into gaseous phase.
Step 6: Runoff
Runoff is the process where water runs over the surface of the earth. When the snow melts
into water or when rain pours down from the sky, it leads to runoff. As water runs over the
ground it displaces the topsoil with it and moves the minerals along with the stream. This
runoff combines to form channels and then rivers and ends up into lakes, seas and oceans.
Step 7: Infiltration
Some of the water that precipitates do not run off into the rivers and is absorbed by the
plants or gets evaporated. It moves deep into the soil and is called infiltration. The water
seeps down and increases the level of ground water table. It is called pure water and
drinkable.
B. The Carbon Cycle
Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays a vital role in
balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like
a blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will result in serious
consequences such as climatic changes and global warming
Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From proteins and lipids to
even our DNA. Furthermore, all known life on earth is based on carbon. Hence, the carbon
cycle, along with the nitrogen cycle and oxygen cycle, plays a vital role in the existence of life
on earth.
Figure 3. The Carbon Cycle

http://cahsbiology.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/5/0/13500838/1393932306.jpg
Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

2. These plants are then consumed by animals, and carbon gets bioaccumulated into
their bodies.
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is released
back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually
become fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pumps more carbon
back into the atmosphere.
Effects of Human Activities

Recently, humans have made some big changes to the Earth’s carbon cycle. By
burning huge amounts of fossil fuels and cutting down roughly half of the Earth’s forests,
humans have decreased the Earth’s ability to take carbon out of the atmosphere, while
releasing large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere that had been stored in solid form as
plant matter and fossil fuels.
This means more carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere, which is particularly
dangerous since carbon dioxide is a “greenhouse gas” that plays a role in regulating the
Earth’s temperature and weather patterns. The scientific community has raised alarms that
by making significant changes to the Earth’s carbon cycle, we may end up changing our
climate or other important aspects of the ecosystem we rely upon to survive. As a result,
many scientists advocate decreasing the amount of carbon burned by humans by reducing
car use and electricity consumption, and advocate for investing in non-burning sources of
energy such as solar power and wind power.
C. The Nitrogen Cycle
We are generally under the impression that we only need oxygen to live. Well, you
could not be more wrong! There is a laundry list of elements that animals need for survival.
One such element is Nitrogen. But we cannot just get nitrogen from the air. It needs to be
converted to nitrates, via a process called nitrogen cycle. The air we breathe contains 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen and remaining are other trace gases. The nitrogen component of air is
inert. So this means plants and animals cannot use it directly. To be able to use nitrogen,
plants convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates, nitrites and ammonia compounds by a
process called the nitrogen cycle.
Organisms do not exist without amino acids, peptides and proteins, the organic
molecules that contain nitrogen. Producers (plants) form the nitrogen atoms into amino
acids, peptides and proteins and pass it in on the consumers. Nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle
is both produced biological and non-biological processes.
Non-biological process is the fixation of atmospheric N2 by the action of lightning, by

causing it to combine with oxygen producing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) that reacts with water
to produce nitric acid (HNO3). Rainfall brings down the nitric acid to oceans and soils adding
to the supply of available nitrates in the oceans and the soil. Nitrates in soil can be absorbed
by plants. However only 3-4% of fixed nitrogen is derived in this pathway.
Biological nitrogen fixation is achieved through the action of specialized bacteria
(Cyanobacteria and actinomycetes in soil and water, and Rhizobium bacteria in the root
systems of legumes) that convert N2 to ammonia (NH3). Bacteria of the genus Rhizobium fix
greater amounts of atmospheric nitrogen than do other organisms. Rhizobium forms a
mutualistic relationship with the legumes – the legumes receive nitrogen in the form they
can utilize, and the Rhizobium receives carbohydrates from the plant.
The following are other biological process involved in the nitrogen cycle:
1. Ammonification/ Decay
This is another process by which ammonia can be generated. Organic remains of plants and
animals are broken down in the soil by some bacteria to release ammonia into the soil.
These dead and waste matter is used by these microorganisms as food and they release
ammonia into the soil.
2. Nitrification
This occurs in two-steps. The first step is in which ammonia and ammonium (NH3/NH4+) is
converted to nitrates (NO3-). The bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus present in the soil
convert ammonia to nitrogen dioxide (NH3 to NO2-). Another bacterium, Nitrobacter
converts nitrogen dioxide to nitrates (NO2- to NO3-). These bacteria gain energy through
these conversions.
Figure 4. The Nitrogen Cycle
https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Nitrogen-cycle-11.png
3. Assimilation
Once the nitrogen has been fixed in the soil, plants can absorb nitrogen through their roots. .
It will be consumed by the animals and converted to proteins. This process of absorption is
known as assimilation.
4. De-nitrification
Is the reverse of nitrification that occurs in the deep layers of soil where the bacteria convert
nitrates to nitrogen (NO3- is converted into N2)and other gaseous compounds like nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). This occurs because in deep layers of soil, oxygen is not available, and the soil
bacteria use these nitrogen compounds instead of oxygen.
Effects of Human Activities

We alter the nitrogen cycle by:
 Adding gases that contribute to acid rain
 Adding nitrous oxide to the atmosphere through farming practices which can warm
the atmosphere and deplete ozone
 Contaminating ground water from nitrate ions in inorganic fertilizers
 Releasing nitrogen into the troposphere through deforestation
D. The Phosphorous Cycle
Figure 5. The Phosphorus Cycle

https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Simple-phosphorus-cycle.jpg
The phosphorus cycle is a slow process and can be described as follows:
1. Weathering
Since the main source of phosphorus is found in rocks, the first step of the phosphorus cycle
involves the extraction of phosphorus from the rocks by weathering. Weather events, such
as rain and other sources of erosion, result in phosphorus being washed into the soil.
2. Absorption by Plants and Animals
Once in the soil, plants, fungi, and microorganisms can absorb phosphorus and grow. In
addition, phosphorus can also be washed into the local water systems. Plants can also
directly absorb phosphorus from the water and grow. In addition to plants, animals also
obtain phosphorus from drinking water and eating plants.
3. Return to the Environment via Decomposition

When plants and animals die, decomposition results in the return of phosphorus back to the
environment via the water or soil. Plants and animals in these environments can then use
this phosphorus, and step 2 of the cycle is repeated.
Human Impact on the Phosphorus Cycle

Humans have had a significant impact on the phosphorus cycle due to a variety of human
activities, such as the use of fertilizer, the distribution of food products, and artificial
eutrophication. Fertilizers containing phosphorus add to the phosphorus levels in the soil
and are particularly detrimental when such products are washed into local aquatic
ecosystems. When phosphorus is added to waters at a rate typically achieved by natural
processes, it is referred to as natural eutrophication. A natural supply of phosphorus over
time provides nutrients to the water and serves to increase the productivity of that
particular ecosystem.
However, when foods are shipped from farms to cities, the substantial levels of Phosphorus
that is drained into the water systems is called artificial or anthropogenic eutrophication.
When levels of phosphorus are too high, the overabundance of plant nutrients serves to
drive the excessive growth of algae. However, these algae die or form algae blooms, which
are toxic to the plants and animals in the ecosystem. Thus, human activities serve to harm
aquatic ecosystems, whenever excess amounts of phosphorus are leached into the water.
Activity 7: Review
1. In the nitrification process,

b. silver
ammonia and ammonium is
c. nitrogen
converted into what?
a. NO2- d. carbon
b. NH3 8. Excess phosphorus caused by
c. NH4+ fertilizers leaching into water systems is
d.NO3- dangerous because:
2. Animals can obtain a. It causes algae blooms which are
phosphorous, EXCEPT by: toxic to plants in water ecosystems
a. drinking water b. It causes algae blooms which are
b. eating plants toxic to animals in water ecosystems
c. living on top of the soil c. It causes algae blooms which are
d. none of above toxic to the animals which drink the
3. Human activity adds significant affected water
amounts of carbon dioxide to the d. All of the above
atmosphere by all the following, EXCEPT: 9. When plants and animals die,
a. burning of petroleum decomposition results in the return of
b. deforestation phosphorus back to the environment
c. bicycling via the water or soil.
d. mining fossil fuels a. true
4. Which of the following is NOT a b. false
critical function of Phosphorus: 10. This is the excessive richness of
a. Nucleotide formation nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
b. Cell membranes frequently due to runoff from the land,
c. Plant and animal growth which causes a dense growth of plant life
d. All of the above and death of animal life from lack of
5. During photosynthesis, carbon oxygen.
is: a. leaching
a. released from wood as CO2 when b. eutrophication
wood is burned c. weathering
b. released by organisms as CO2 d. erosion
c. broken down and released from 11. In nitrogen cycle, atmospheric
the remains of living organisms nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and
d. dissolved in water converted into ammonia. Ammonia is
6. Nitrates are converted into further converted into other forms of
Nitrogen by: nitrogen. At the end of the cycle it returns
a. Ammonifying Bacteria to the atmosphere by the process of:
b. Denitrifying bacteria a. Ammonification
c. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria b. Nitrification
d. All of the above c. Denitrification
d. Assimilation
processes is NOT involved in the
7. Which of the following water cycle?
elements is NOT involved in the cycling of a. nitrogen fixing
energy and matter on Earth? b. transpiration
a. phosphorous c. evaporation
d. none of above
13. The most abundant source of
phosphorus on the planet is:
a. Soil
b. Water
c. Rocks formed from the Earth’s crust
d. Algae blooms
14. A micronutrient essential to
the formation of proteins:
a. iron
b. nitrogen
c. cobalt
d. molybdenum
15. Which of these could
increase average global temperatures?
a. increased use of fossil fuels
b. decreased carbon dioxide emissions
c. increased ocean algal blooms
d. increased number of animal species
1. Discuss how phosphorous may contribute to the death of fishes.
2. What human activities may disturb the water cycle?
3. Propose a strategy to reduce CO2 in the atmosphere to help abate global warming.
4. Compare and contrast the nitrogen and phosphorous cycle. Refer to Figure 4 and 5.
2.4. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
 Energy from the sun enters and ecosystem when

producers used the energy to make organic matter through
photosynthesis.
 Glucose is the primary energy source (carbohydrate)
produced by photosynthesis.
 Consumers take in this energy when they eat producers or
other consumers.
 Plants absorb less than 1% of the sunlight that reaches them!
 However, photosynthetic organisms make 170 billion metric
tons of food each year!
 The energy captured by producers is used to make cells in
both producers and consumers.
2 Laws of Thermodynamics
1. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed;
it can only be changed from one to another. Energy from an ecosystem comes from
the sun and is absorbed by plants where it is converted and stored as chemical
energy.
2. The second law of thermodynamics states that whenever energy is transformed,
there is loss of energy through the release of heat.
Trophic levels
Figure 6. Trophic Levels

https://sites.google.com/site/chsprayingmantis/_/rsrc/1472783533493/chain-of-command/trophic-
levels/trophic%20level.jpg
 Trophic levels are the different feeding levels of organisms in an ecosystem.

Producers are the first trophic level and consumers make up several more. These
relationships can be seen in an ecological pyramid.
 Biomass: the total amount of organic matter present in a trophic level. The biomass
in each trophic level is the amount of energy- in the form of food- available to the
next trophic level.
The Ten Percent Law
 Most of the energy that enters through organisms in a trophic level does not
become biomass. Only energy used to make biomass remains available to the next
level.
 When all of the energy losses are added together, only about 10% of the energy
entering one trophic level forms biomass in the next trophic level. This is known as
the 10 percent law.
 The 10 percent law is the main reason that most food chains have five or less links.
Because 90 percent of the food chain’s energy is lost at each level, the amount of
available energy decreases quickly.
Ecological Pyramids
Figure 7. Energy Transfers

https://karimedalla.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/55_10netproductpyramid-l.jpg
 Relative amounts of energy are represented in an ecological pyramid: a diagram that

shows the relative amounts of energy in different trophic levels in an ecosystem.
 An ecological pyramid can show energy, biomass, or the number of organisms in a

food web.
Food Chains
A food chain is a series of organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an
ecosystem using only one species at each level (a simple chain).
Figure 8. Food Chain

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/2pbvypeHzYfNpou1B0dRoXGPhw0YTE9uFohCABxY3woWMLkTSaQOYoTWMXgfqYA8j-
ho8BRL2A=w640-h400-e365
 The arrows represent the flow of energy from one organism to the next.
 The arrow points toward the organism doing the eating.
Food Webs
Ecosystems are not as simple as show n and not often explained by a single food chain.
Figure 9. Food Webs

https://garlicmustardjo2013.weebly.com/uploads/1/9/2/2/19222483/2521601.jpg?548
 Food webs more accurately show the network of food chains representing the
feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem.
 Most organisms feed on more than one type of organism at different trophic levels.
How do Food Webs show complexity?
 The diversity and stability of an ecosystem is represented by more complex webs

that have many species and many interactions (lots of arrows) because they are
more stable, more resistant to disturbance by natural disaster or human
interference.
Biological Magnification
 The concentration of a pollutant in organisms increases at higher trophic levels in

the food web because these chemicals build-up in the fatty tissues of these
organism and do not dissolve or flush-out of the organism.
DDT & Mercury examples:
 DDT is a pesticide used to kill insects like malaria-carrying mosquitoes. However, this
chemical will magnify in concentration in larger organisms like birds and mammals
and harm their reproductive abilities.
 Bald eagle populations declined rapidly to the point of extinction as an endangered
species as mother birds were not able to incubate or hatch their eggs because the
eggs shells were too thin and would crush and break when sat upon to keep warm in
the nest.
The day it rained CATS
Figure 10. Effect of DDT Use in Borneo

https://corporatesocialresponsibility4.weebly.com/uploads/2/8/3/1/28315915.jpg
A bizarre case of ecological damage from DDT occurred in Borneo after the World Health
Organization sprayed huge amounts of the pesticide. The area's geckos, or lizards, feasted
on the houseflies that had been killed by DDT. The geckos, in turn, were devoured by local
cats. Unhappily, the cats perished in such large numbers from DDT poisoning that the rats
they once kept in check began overrunning whole villages. Alarmed by the threat of plague,
WHO officials were forced to replenish Borneo's supply of cats by parachute.
Activity 9: Review

8. Chains representing the feeding
sequences shows the proper flow
relationships among organisms in an
of energy through an ecosystem?
ecosystem.
a. solar energy-consumer-decomposer
a. ecological pyramid
b. solar energy-producer-decomposer
b. food web
c. solar energy-producer-consumer
c. food chain
d. solar energy-decomposer-scavenger
d. biomass pyramid
2. How does the transfer of
energy throughout an ecosystem begin?
statements is TRUE of the first law of
a. Humans create population.
thermodynamics?
b. Producers eat consumers.
a. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
c. Plants capture solar energy through
b. Energy from an ecosystem comes from
photosynthesis.
the sun and is absorbed by plants where
d. All of above.
it is converted and stored as chemical
3. Which of the following shows
energy.
the sequence of organisms feeding on
c. Energy be changed from one
each other?
to another.
d. All of above.
b. food web
10. All of the following statements
c. food chain
are true, EXCEPT:
d. biomass pyramid
a. Plants absorb less than 0.1% of
4. Given the food chain: corn-rat-
the sunlight that reaches them.
snake-hawk-tiger, which of the
b. Photosynthetic organisms make
following statement is TRUE?
170 billion metric tons of food each
a. Rat is the primary consumer.
year.
b. The hawk is a tertiary consumer.
c. Energy captured by producers is used
c. Corn is the primary producer.
to make cells in both producers and
d. Tiger is a scavenger.
5. Total amount of organic matter consumers.
d. None of the above
present in a trophic level.
b. food web
c. food chain
d. biomass pyramid
6. Scavengers and Decomposers
are at which trophic level?
a. Primary consumers
b. Secondary consumers
c. Tertiary consumers
d. All of above
7. An ecological pyramid can show
which of the following?
a. energy
b. biomass
c. number of organisms
d. all of above
Using the organisms given inside the box, do the following:

Gabi plant, atis, rice plant, bug, grasshopper, chicken, mouse, cow, cat, man, frog
1. Make 4 food chains.
2. Connect the food chains you created in number 1 to form a food web.
3. Identify the herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, primary consumers, secondary consumers

and tertiary consumers.
2.5. Classification of Ecosystems
Ecosystems can generally be classified into two classes such as natural and artificial.
1. Artificial ecosystems are natural regions affected by man’s interferences. They are
artificial lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities.
2. Natural ecosystems are basically classified into two major types. They are aquatic
ecosystem and terrestrial ecosystem.
A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the
environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct
biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate.
Figure 11. Natural Ecosystem
I. Aquatic Ecosystem: An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as an

aquatic ecosystem. Aquatic biomes are shaped by 4 factors, and these are:
1. The ability of the sun’s rays to penetrate the water.

2. The nature of the bottom substrate.
3. The water temperature.
4. The amount of dissolved materials.
Aquatic ecosystem can be broadly classified into:
A. Marine Ecosystem
1. Open Marine Ecosystem
 This category includes types of sea life that float or swim, such as algae,
plankton, jellyfish and whales.
 Many creatures living in the open ocean inhabit the upper layer of the ocean where
the sun’s rays penetrate.
 This is known as the euphotic zone and extends to a depth of about 150 meters
(500 feet).
2. Ocean Floor Ecosystem

 Marine life not only exists in the open ocean waters, but on its floor as well.
 Species that live in this ecosystem include
certain types of fish, crustaceans, clams, oysters,
worms, urchins, seaweed, and smaller
organisms.
 In the shallow water, sunlight can penetrate to
the bottom. However, at greater depths, sunlight
cannot penetrate, and organisms inhabiting this
deep water rely on the sinking of organic matter
above for survival.
 Many such organisms are small and generate
their own light to find or attract food sources.
3. Coral Reef Ecosystem

 Coral reefs are a special subtype of seafloor ecosystem.
 Found only in warm tropical waters and at
relatively shallow depths, coral reefs are
among the most productive ecosystems on the
planet.
 About one-quarter of marine species depend on
coral reefs for food, shelter, or both. While coral
reefs are famous for attracting brightly colored
exotic fish, a plethora of other species; snails,
sponges and seahorses inhabit coral reefs.
 The reefs themselves are produced by
simple animals that build external skeletons
around themselves.
4. Estuary Ecosystem
 The term “estuary” typically describes the shallow, sheltered area of a river mouth
where freshwater intermingles with saltwater as it
enters the sea, although the term can also refer to
other areas with flowing brackish waters, such as
lagoons or glades.
 The degree of salinity varies with the tides and
the volume of outflow from the river.
 The organisms inhabiting estuaries are specially
adapted to these distinct conditions; hence, the
diversity of species tends to be lower than in
the open ocean.
 Estuaries also serve an important function
as nurseries for many types of fish and
shrimp.
5. Mangrove Ecosystem
 Some tropical and subtropical coastal areas are home to special types
of saltwater swamps known as mangroves.
 Mangroves may be considered part of shoreline ecosystems or
estuary ecosystems.
 Mangrove swamps are characterized by trees that tolerate a saline
environment, whose roots systems extend above the water line to
obtain oxygen, presenting a mazelike web.
 Mangroves host a wide diversity of life, including sponges, shrimp,
crabs, jellyfish, fish, birds and even crocodiles.
B. Freshwater Ecosystem
Difference of marine water from freshwater:
 The amount of salt present is much less.

 The temperature of water can change greatly.
 The water is in the process of moving downhill.
 Oxygen can often be in short supply.
 The organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.
Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds. Lakes are large bodies of
freshwater surrounded by land. There are 2 categories of freshwater system:
1. Standing water (Lakes and Ponds)

 Many phtoplankton and zooplankton.
 Oligotrophic lakes: deep, cold, nutrient-poor lakes that
are low in productivity.
 Eutrophic lakes: shallow, warm nutrient rich lakes.
2. Running Water (swamps, marshes)
 Swamps contain trees that are able to live in places
that are either permanently flooded for a major part of
the year.
 Marshes are dominated with grasses and reeds.
II. Terrestrial Ecosystem: ecosystems that exist on land. Water may be present in a
terrestrial ecosystem, but these ecosystems are primarily situated on land. These
ecosystems are of different types such as forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, tundra, and
grassland and ecosystems.
 Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower

availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor.
 Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems

because the atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in
temperature and light in terrestrial ecosystems reflect a completely different flora
and fauna.
A. Forest Ecosystems
 Forest ecosystems are classified according to their climate type as tropical,

temperate or boreal.
 In the tropics, rainforest ecosystems contain more diverse flora and fauna than
ecosystems in any other region on earth. In these warm, moisture-laden
environments, trees grow tall and foliage is lush and dense, with species inhabiting
the forest floor all the way up to the canopy.
 In temperate zones, forest ecosystems may be deciduous, coniferous or oftentimes

a mixture of both, in which some trees shed their leaves each fall, while others
remain evergreen year-round.
 In the far north, just south of the Arctic, boreal forests – also known as taiga –
feature abundant coniferous trees.
C. Tundra Ecosystems
 As with deserts, a harsh environment characterizes ecosystems in the tundra. In the

snow-covered, windswept, treeless tundra, the soil may be frozen year-round, a
condition known as permafrost.
 During the brief spring and summer, snows melt, producing shallow ponds which
attract migrating waterfowl.
 Lichens and small flowers may become visible during this time of year.
D. Grassland Ecosystems
 Different types of grassland ecosystems can be found in prairies, savannas and

steppes.
 Grassland ecosystems are typically found in tropical or temperate regions, although

they can exist in colder areas as well, as is the case with the well-known Siberian
steppe.
 Grasslands share the common climactic characteristic of semi-aridity. Trees are

sparse or nonexistent, but flowers may be interspersed with the grasses. Grasslands
provide an ideal environment for grazing animals.
Activity 11: Review
a. Open marine ecosystem

g. Terrestrial ecosystem
b. Ocean floor ecosystem
h. Rainforest ecosystem
c. Coral reef ecosystem
i. Deciduous forest
d. Estuary ecosystem
k. Desert ecosystem
e. Mangrove ecosystem
l. Tundra ecosystem
f. Freshwater ecosystem
m. Grassland ecosystem
1. This ecosystem includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds.

2. This ecosystem is home to special types of saltwater swamps.
3. Vegetation in this ecosystem is sparse or nonexistent, and any animal species, such
as insects, reptiles and birds, must be highly adapted to the dry conditions.
4 In this snow-covered, windswept ecosystem, the soil may be frozen year-round.
5. In this forest ecosystem, the trees shed their leaves each fall, while others remain
evergreen year-round.
6. The degree of salinity varies with the tides and the volume of outflow from
the river.
7. Many organisms in this ecosystem are small and generate their own light to find or
attract food sources.
8. This ecosystem contains more diverse flora and fauna than ecosystems in any
other region on earth.
9. This ecosystem is famous for attracting brightly colored exotic fish, and a plethora
of other species such as snails, sponges and seahorses.
10. This ecosystem are produced by simple animals that build external
skeletons around themselves.
11. This ecosystem are characterized by trees that tolerate a saline environment,
whose roots systems extend above the water line to obtain oxygen, presenting a
mazelike web.
12. This ecosystem can be found in prairies, savannas and steppes.
13. This ecosystem can be described as a shallow, sheltered area of a river
mouth where freshwater intermingles with saltwater as it enters the sea.
14. This ecosystem has low precipitation, generally less than 25 centimeters, or
10 inches, per year.
15. Species that live in this ecosystem include certain types of fish, crustaceans,
clams, oysters, worms, urchins, seaweed, and smaller organisms.
16. Which ecosystem is known as the euphotic zone and extends to a depth of about
150 meters (500 feet)?
17. This type of ecosystem are those that exists on land.
18. This ecosystem provides an ideal environment for grazing animals.
19. At this ecosystem’s greater depths, sunlight cannot penetrate, and organisms
inhabiting this deep water rely on the sinking of organic matter above for survival.
20. This ecosystem is very important for people as they provide them water
for drinking, energy and transportation.
1. Compare and contrast the differences between the marine ecosystems.
2. Compare and contrast the differences between the terrestrial ecosystems.
3. Which terrestrial ecosystem do you think humans are more likely to survive in. Explain
your answer.
4. Compare and contrast the nitrogen and phosphorous cycle.
2.6. Interaction among Organisms
1. Learned Behaviors
Learned behaviors come from experience and are not present in an animal at its birth.
Through trial and error, memories of past experiences and observations of others, animals
learn to perform certain tasks.
For example: While the desire to find nectar is innate in a honeybee, they learn to associate
given colors with the food they're seeking. In experiments reported by North Carolina State
University, sugar water was put in a yellow dish, while regular water was put in a blue dish.
2. Innate Behaviors
 Instinct is a powerful force in the animal world.
 It dictates the behaviors necessary for survival, especially in species that don't get
much guidance from their parents.
 These behaviors are programmed into an animal at a genetic level. An innate

behavior is inheritable, passing from generation to generation through genes.
For example: Sea turtle hatchlings provide one of the best examples of innate behavior.
They hatch never having seen their parents, so there is no opportunity for acquiring learned
behavior. Yet, sea turtle hatchlings instinctively dig their way out of the buried hatchery.
Even though this digging can take days, the hatchlings time themselves so that they emerge
at night, when they are safest as they struggle toward the sea.
Interaction among Organisms
Interaction in Ecosystem has evolved due to adaptation and evolution that organisms had
undergone as a species or population to survive and live.
2 types of interaction:
1. Mimicry: Is the physical resemblance of two or more species resulting from inherent
advantages of similar appearance.
 the imitative species is called the “mimic”

 the species it resembles is called the “model”
 there are 3 fundamental types of mimicry (Batesian, Mullerian and Aggressive
mimicry)
 The operation of mimicry system depends on both learned and innate responses of
the other species that interact with models and mimics.
a. Batesian Mimicry
 A form of biological resemblance in which a noxious, or

dangerous, organism (the model), equipped with a
warning system such as conspicuous coloration, is
mimicked by a harmless organism (the mimic).
 The mimic gains protection because predators mistake it
for the model and leave it alone.
b. Mullerian Mimicry
 Is a natural phenomenon in which 2 or more poisonous species, that may or may not
be closely related and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic
each other’s warning signals.
c. Aggressive Mimicry
 A mimicry in which a noxious or dangerous species resembles a benign one, or the

predator mimics its prey to capture it.
2. Coevolution: occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution
through the process of natural selection.
A. Competition: occurs when two different species or organisms living in the same
environment (habitat) utilize the same limited resources, such as food, water, space, light,
oxygen, and minerals.
 Intraspecific competition: When these organisms belong to the same species.

 Interspecific competition: When it occurs between individuals of different species.
Competitive Exclusion Principle - G.F. Gause (1934)
If two different species compete for the same food source or reproductive sites, one species
may be eliminated. This establishes one species per niche in a community.
 Habitat: the actual place an organism lives.
 Niche: both living and non-living parts of an ecosystem that determines an
organism’s role in the ecosystem.
 If two species share the same niche, they will have various interactions.
Niche (Job): the organism's role in the community, particularly its role in relation to food with
other species.
 Woodpeckers make holes in this cactus to live.
 When the woodpeckers are finished with this housing, the elf owl and the screech
owl move in.
 The elf owl eats insects and the screech owl occupies the same habitat, but have
different niches.
B. Symbiotic Relationships
 Is a close and often long-term interaction between different biological species
 This relationship could be obligate (both symbionts entirely depend on each other) or
facultative (can survive with or without the other symbiont)
1. Mutualism: is a biological interaction between 2 species wherein both species

benefit from each other.
2. Amensalism: an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism
without any cost or benefits received by itself.
3. Commensalism: When one species benefit, and the other is neither harmed or
helped.
4. Parasitism: One partner benefit from the relationship, and the other partner is
harmed. There are two different types of parasites.
 Ectoparasite: lives on the outside of the host.
 Endoparasites: lives inside the host’s body.
c. Predation: It is an antagonistic relationship that exists between a predator and a prey.
a. Predation=the capture, killing and consumption of an animal, usually by another

animal.
b. Herbivory=the consumption of plant tissue by an animal.
Predation and Herbivory=are life and death matters for both parties in the interaction, this
results in intense selective pressures
Physiological Ecology
 How organisms survive in their environments.
 Emphasis on extreme conditions, such as very cold or very hot environments or

aquatic environments with unusually high salt concentrations.
 Examples of the questions it may explore are: How do some animals flourish in the
driest deserts, where temperatures are often high and freestanding water is never
available?
Adaptations to cold:
 The arctic fox strategy against the cold is insulation provided by a thick layer of fur.
 Aquatic animals rely predominantly on blubber for insulation as fur loses much of its
insulation value upon immersion in water.
 Marmots take a much more drastic approach: They hibernate through the cold
months, letting their body temperature fall to a few degrees above ambient
temperature.
 Freeze-intolerant animals, including many antarctic fish, avoid freezing by
having antifreeze compounds in their plasma to lower the freezing and supercooling
point of their tissues.
Adaptations to heat and dryness:
 Animals with a body covered by fur have limited ability to sweat and rely heavily on
panting to increase evaporation of water across the moist surface of the tongue and
mouth.
 Birds have no sweat glands and therefore all birds pant.
 Long loops of Henle of the kidney are another adaptation to arid environments.
These long tubes are capable of super-concentrating urine and enabling desert
dwellers such as the kangaroo rat to conserve water.
 Big noses also help in the heat. A camel's elongated nose is an adaptation to
minimize water loss across the respiratory surface of the nasal passages and even to
keep the brain cool.
 Most small animals therefore remain in burrows during the day and come out at
night when the temperature is lower (meerkat).
Adaptations to marine environments:
 Bony fish osmoregulate (control salt regulations) in this high-salt environment by

drinking seawater and eliminating salt through pumps in the gills.
 Marine birds drink seawater and eliminate salt through glands located in their eye
orbit.
 Sharks have the curious arrangement of salt glands in the rectum.
 The ocean floor provides the strange environment of high ambient pressure and
little or no light. One adaptation to lack of light has been the loss of eyes and
pigmentation in some deep-sea fish. Other organisms have adapted to low light
levels by possessing bioluminescent systems, either by having luminous organs or
carrying bioluminescent bacteria.
Activity 13: Review
1. This type of behavior come from 6. When a squirrel is using the tree
experience and are not present in an as a home and the tree doesn’t benefit
animal at its birth. from the squirrel. What type of symbiotic
a. good behavior relationship is this?
b. innate behavior a. mutualism
c. learned behavior b. commensalism
d. bad behavior c. parasitism
2. When two or more species d. amensalism
evolve in response to each other. 7. When a dangerous species
a. competition resembles a benign one, or the
b. intraspecific competition predator mimics its prey to capture it.
c. interspecific competition a. Batesian mimicry
d. co-evolution b. Mullerian mimicry
3. When the same species living in c. Aggressive mimicry
the same habitat compete for for the d. All of above
same limited resources. 8. Biological interaction between
a. competition two species wherein both the species
b. intraspecific competition benefit from each other.
c. interspecific competition a. mutualism
d. co-evolution b. commensalism
4. The actual place where an c. parasitism
organism lives. d. amensalism
a. habitat 9. When sea turtle hatchlings
b. niche instinctively dig their way out of the
c. community buried hatchery and time it so that they
d. ecosystem emerge at night, when they are safest
5. A form of biological as they struggle toward the sea.
resemblance in which the model, a. good behavior
equipped with a warning system such as b. innate behavior
conspicuous coloration, is mimicked by c. learned behavior
a harmless organism. d. bad behavior
a. Batesian mimicry
b. Mullerian mimicry 10. When two or more poisonous
c. Aggressive mimicry species, that may or may not be closely
d. All of above related have come to mimic each other’s
warning signals.
a. Batesian mimicry
b. Mullerian mimicry
c. Aggressive mimicry
d. All of above
1. What is the difference between a niche and a habitat?
2. What is the Competitive Exclusion Principle. Give an example.
3. Give 3 examples of mutualism.
4. How do some animals flourish in the driest deserts, where temperatures are often high
and freestanding water is never available?

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Chapter 2

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Identify the different biological components.

2.1. Ecology defined

2.2. Structure of Ecosystem

Figure 1. Concept Map of Ecosystem

1. Producers: Autotrophic organisms that

1. Soil: A critical physical factor and a chemical storehouse.

1. It refers to a group of individuals

Answer the following briefly and direct to the point.

1. What roles do the decomposers play in the ecosystem?

2. Why are all heterotrophs dependent on plants for energy needs?

3. A pile of garbage is decomposing in a nearby street. Discuss how the

4. Discuss how an ecosystem is structured in terms of its biotic components.

 Condensation: the conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid.

Figure 2. The Water Cycle

Figure 3. The Carbon Cycle

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

Effects of Human Activities

Non-biological process is the fixation of atmospheric N2 by the action of lightning, by

Effects of Human Activities

Figure 5. The Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is a slow process and can be described as follows:

3. Return to the Environment via Decomposition

Human Impact on the Phosphorus Cycle

1. In the nitrification process,

Answer the following briefly and direct to the point.

1. Discuss how phosphorous may contribute to the death of fishes.

2. What human activities may disturb the water cycle?

 Energy from the sun enters and ecosystem when

Figure 6. Trophic Levels

 Trophic levels are the different feeding levels of organisms in an ecosystem.

The Ten Percent Law

Figure 7. Energy Transfers

 Relative amounts of energy are represented in an ecological pyramid: a diagram that

 An ecological pyramid can show energy, biomass, or the number of organisms in a

Figure 8. Food Chain

 The arrow points toward the organism doing the eating.

Figure 9. Food Webs

How do Food Webs show complexity?

 The diversity and stability of an ecosystem is represented by more complex webs

 The concentration of a pollutant in organisms increases at higher trophic levels in

DDT & Mercury examples:

The day it rained CATS

Figure 10. Effect of DDT Use in Borneo

1. Which of the following

Using the organisms given inside the box, do the following:

1. Make 4 food chains.

3. Identify the herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, primary consumers, secondary consumers

Figure 11. Natural Ecosystem

I. Aquatic Ecosystem: An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as an

1. The ability of the sun’s rays to penetrate the water.

1. Open Marine Ecosystem

2. Ocean Floor Ecosystem

3. Coral Reef Ecosystem

Difference of marine water from freshwater:

 The amount of salt present is much less.

1. Standing water (Lakes and Ponds)