Design Theory Notes

★Design Theory Notes★☆ 10/04/24, 11:57 AM
Design
2023-2024
1.1a - Anthropometric 3
1.1b - Psychological Factors 8
1.1c - Physiological Factors 13
2.1 - Resource and reserves 18
2.2 - Waste mitigation strategies 28
2.3 - Energy Utilization, Storage, and Distribution 31
2.4 - Clean Technologies 34
2.5 - Green Design 37
2.6 - Eco Design 42
3.1 - Conceptual Modeling 46
3.2 - Graphical Modeling 48
3.3 - Physical Modelling 52
3.4 - Computer-aided design (CAD) 57
3.5 - Rapid-prototyping 65
4.1 - Properties of Materials 69
4.3 - Scales of Production 80
4.4 - Manufacturing processes 83
4.5 - Production Systems 90
4.5a - Design for Manufacture 95
4.6 - Robots in Automation 99
5.1 - Invention 103
5.2 - Innovation 107
5.3 - Strategies for innovation 112
5.4 - Stakeholders in invention and innovation 114
5.5 - Product Life cycle 117
6.1 - Characteristics of a Classic Design 122
6.2 - Form and Function 124
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Topic 1 - Human Factors and Ergonomics

1.1a - Anthropometric
ssential Designers consider three human factors to ensure products meet ergonomic needs.
ature of Design is human centered and, therefore, designers need to ensure that the products they
esign design are the right size for the user and therefore comfortable to use.
Designers have access to data and drawings, which state measurements of human beings of
all ages and sizes.
Designers need to consider how users will interact with the product or service. Use and misuse
is an important consideration.
Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly between populations.
Particularly in the fashion industry, the variance in these data sets impacts the size range of
clothes for particular markets.
uidance ● Collect anthropometric data and consider its reliability and limitations
○ Understand the di"erence between dynamic and static measurements;
recognize design contexts where these types of data would be used
○ outline how Anthropometric data can di"er between populations
○ explain and compare the terms "range of sizes" and "Adjustability", and
identify relevant design contexts
○ understand and outline the disadvantage of designing for the "average" (50th
percentile).
● Interpret percentile tables for user populations
○ recognize the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles of a data set
● Recognize Design contexts where di"erent percentile ranges are used
○ outline the advantages and disadvantages of using data from just the 5th and
95th percentile
● Describe the di"erence between Anthropometric and Ergonomics
Concept and principles

Ergonomic Data and Measurements
Anthropometric data consists of measurements of the human body--height, weight, arm length, etc.
Datasets of anthropometric measurements can come in various forms, populations groups, quality, and
Datasets of anthropometric measurements can come in various forms, populations groups, quality, and
sample size. Therefore, the designer should use a data set that is best suited to their design goals.
Primary data
● data about the specific target audience that is gathered first hand by designer. This data can
also be considered survey data and tends to consist of a relatively small numbers of samples.
Secondary data
● comes from data sets that are produced by government agencies or research groups and have
a relatively large sample size.
Anthropometric data can consists of two types of measurements: Static and Dynamic
● Static Measurements: measurements of length between points on a body.
● Dynamic Measurements: measurements of reach, movement, or strength. These
measurement would be used to determine how a person moves in a space (i.e. reaching for a
lever from a seated position, turning a wheelchair around, etc.) or how much force is required
to complete an action (i.e. opening a lid, turning a wheel, etc.).
Reach
Measurements are often di"erentiated as either normal reach or maximal reach.
Normal reach
Indicates the distance a user could comfortably extend their arm.
Maximal reach
Indicates the maximum distance they could extend their arm.
The implication is that normal reach would indicate a distance where objects or controls are comfortable
and easy to reach with minimal physical stress, and where they can be accessed easily and repeatedly;
maximal reach, on the other hand, would be accessible, but would require some e"ort and not be ideal
for repetitive or frequent actions.
Percentiles and Percentile Ranges
When designing a product or service, designers need to determine which Percentiles their product will
serve. From this, they can determine specifications such as the physical size or fit, or how much force is
required to operate a button.
As each human has distinct physical and mobility characteristics, simply averaging the data collected will
not ensure accessibility or comfort for users. Through collecting primary and secondary data, designers
can determine which range of users they need to design for.
What is a percentile?
A percentile is used in statistics to show the value below which a certain percentage of a group falls. The
25th percentile is the value at which 25% of the population are at or below.
The 50th percentile is the point at which half the people in the group (The mean) would be 130cm tall or
less would be accommodated.
Likewise, if the designer had used just the 5th percentile as their reference, then only those 115cm or
shorter would be accommodated.
This is where designers must carefully consider who they are designing for and what measurements are
important.
The design context is important. Consider the 50 percentile (130cm). Even though it is the mean of the
user population, it does not include anyone who is above this average.
Application of Percentiles in Design

Consider these di"erent design contexts and how height would play an important role in the design
considerations:
● An opening for an elevator:
● The height of a shelf on a wall
● Height of a safety railing
● The location and height of an elevator button
Factors that influence anthropometric measurements
Factors such as Age, Gender, Ethnicity can influence these measurements. For these reasons, designers
must carefully consider the source of their data sets and whether they are applicable to the design
context.
Using anthropometric measurements
1. Decide who you are designing for: Identify the user population (adults, men, women,
children, etc.)
2. Decide which measurements are relevant: Identify the static and dynamic measurements
that will be necessary for you to consider in your design (height, reach, grip strength, etc.)
3. Decide what percentile you need to design for: Will you design for the average user (the
50th percentile), or for the extremes (the 5th or 95th percentiles)? Depending on your design and
user population, you need to select the relevant data to guide your design specifications.
1.1b - Psychological Factors

ature of Human beings vary psychologically in complex ways.

esign Any attempt by designers to classify people into groups merely results in a statement of broad
principles that may or may not be relevant to the individual.
Design permeates every aspect of human experience and data pertaining to what cannot be
seen such as touch, taste, and smell are often expressions of opinion rather than checkable
fact.
The analysis of the human information processing system requires a designer to critically
analyze a range of causes and e"ects to identify where a potential breakdown could occur and
the e"ect it may have.
uidance ● Manipulate data in relation to light, smell, sound, taste, temperature and texture as
qualitative or quantitative (ordinal/interval)
● Identify and apply methods of collecting psychological factor data
● Represent the human information processing system using flow diagrams
● Apply the human information processing system to a common task
● Evaluate e"ects and reasons for a breakdown in the human information processing
system
● Identify user responses to environmental factors
● Understand how environmental factors induce di"erent levels of alertness
● Understand the importance of optimizing environmental factors to maximize
workplace performance
● Assess the impact of perception in relation to the accuracy and reliability of
psychological factor data
Concepts and principles:

● Psychological factor data
● Human information processing systems
● E"ect of environmental factors
● Alertness
● Perception
Scales of measurement
Nominal Scale
Nominal scales are used for labeling a variable. Common examples are checkboxes for characteristics
such as gender, city, favorite food, etc… The items in the list have no real numerical value or relationship
to one another.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales list items in order of importance or significance. These types of scales usually measure a
feeling or perception along a continuum (unhappy to happy; unsatisfied to satisfied). However, there is no
numerical di"erence between one value and the next.
Interval Scale
Interval scales represent the order of values as well as showing the di"erence. A Celsius thermometer
displays the di"erence between each unit as the same. i.e.
It is important to remember that Interval scales do not have an absolute zero. In the case of the Celsius
thermometer the zero is arbitrarily set to the freezing point of water.
The difference between -5 degrees and -3 degrees is the same as the difference between 10
degrees and 12 degrees.
Ratio Scale
Ratio scales are the most comprehensive scales, and in some ways are the perfect combination of other
Scales: They show the exact di"erence between units (Interval scales); They show the order of units
(Ordinal scales); and they have absolute zero.
Why do designers need to know about the di"erent scales?

As a designer, you need to understand how you are collecting data. Knowing what kind of scale you are
using helps you evaluate the e"ectiveness of your data gathering methodology.
● What kind of data are you gathering? Quantitative or Quantitative?
● What type of scale are you using to gather this data? Ratio, ordinal, interval, or nominal?
● What tools are you using to gather the data? Surveys, measuring tools like rules or scales,
● What tools are you using to gather the data? Surveys, measuring tools like rules or scales,
observation, stop watches, interviews?
This becomes especially important when developing surveys or interview questions. Your surveys should
gather meaningful data.
Collecting Psychological Data

Researchers, and designers, can use a wide variety of methods for collecting data about users, their
behavior, and perceptions. Designers should consider what types of research strategies to use to gather
meaningful, and accurate data.
Interviews
involves asking people questions to learn more about their beliefs, experiences, needs, etc.
Surveys
consist of a set of questions that are asked to each participant.
Observation
involves watching the subject as they engage in a task, work in a space, or try to complete some
activity. Observations can take place in the laboratory, place or work, or in a natural environment.
Standardized tests
designed to measure a user's performance or ability and for the results to be compared to that of
other users in the group.
Human Information Processing System (HIPS)
Many factors can a"ect how well we process information:

● Age: the user may be too young and not have learnt the skills to accomplish the task; the use
may be too old and have forgotten how to do the task. e.g. The fine-motor skills of young
children may have not developed enough for them to turn a dial precisely
● Strength: the user may be too weak to do the task. e.g. They may not be strong enough to
● Strength: the user may be too weak to do the task. e.g. They may not be strong enough to
press a switch or pull a lever.
● Skills: the user may not have learnt the skills yet, or the skills may be to complex to learn
without a lot of practice. e.g. Riding a bicycle on a flat surface requires practice before it can be
done well. Riding a mountain bike downhill at speed requires even more practice.
● Health: the user may not be physically or mentally healthy enough to carry out the task. e.g.
They may be injured or have a condition which prevents them from doing the task easily.
Environmental Factors
Users respond to environmental factors and these can a"ect how they perform. Environmental factors
include sound, temperature, lighting, air quality, and smell. Environmental factors can have e"ects on
Comfort, Alertness, and Perception
Designers should understand that environmental factors can a"ect people in di"erent ways. A room
temperature that is comfortable to one person might be too hot or too cold for another.
Likewise, a person who is mobile in a given space is going to be warmer than a person who sits at a
desk (Think of teachers and students). Studies also indicate that women typically feel colder than men
do, and thus prefer a warmer temperature.
Alertness
Alertness refers to the ability to be focused and awake. Environmental factors will a"ect our level of
alertness in di"erent ways:
■ Temperature: Too hot and we get sleepy and less alert; Too cold and we become very alert
■ Sound: Too loud and it can be distracting or even damaging to our hearing. Repetitive or high-
pitched sounds can be annoying, distracting, or irritating.
■ Lighting: Too dark or too light can cause strain on the eyes, causing headaches. Types of
indoor lighting can also a"ect people. Fluorescent lighting is cooler and can cause eyestrain and
headaches, for example
■ Air quality: Dusty or stu"y air can make it di#cult to breathe.
■ Smell: Bad smells can be distracting and repulsive.
Perception
As mentioned above, people will perceive environmental factors in di"erent ways. While we may be able
to measure an environmental factor using quantitative data (the room temperature, for example), the
perception will vary from person to person.
1.1c - Physiological Factors

ature of Designers study physical characteristics to optimize the user’s safety, health, comfort and
performance.
esign
Understanding complex biomechanics and designing products to enable full functionality of

body parts can return independence and personal and social well-being to an individual.
uidance ● Types of physiological factor data available to designers and how they are collected
● How data related to comfort and fatigue informs design decisions
● The importance of biomechanics to the design of di"erent products considering
muscle strength, age, user interface and torque
Concepts and Principles
Physiological Factors
Physiological factors encompass the physical aspect of the body. Designers use a range of
physiological data to inform their design decisions. Some physiological factors that they may consider
are:
● Muscle strength in di"erent positions: How strong a muscle is in di"erent positions.
● Endurance in di"erent positions (how long a position can be maintained before discomfort
sets in)
● Visual acuity (how well the user can see under di"erent conditions)
● Tolerance to hot or cold temperatures
● Range of frequencies that can be heard by humans
● Hand/eye coordination
Comfort and Fatigue
When people use a product they can put strain and stress on their body. Sitting for long periods of time,
or being required to turn a handle put stresses on the body. Designers need to collect data to inform
their design decisions.
Comfort
Being free of physical pain
An important consideration for designers simply because it influences the way users interact with
products.
Perceptions of comfort vary from person to person. A good example of this is the di"erence in
preferences for sleeping mattresses. Some people will prefer a very firm or hard mattress, while others a
soft and cushioned one.
Considerations for designers
Adjustability
For designers, being aware of these di"erent preferences could influence how they incorporate
adjustability into their designs. Users could choose to adjust the product (i.e. the softness of the chair) or
select options that address their preferences (i.e. choosing a firm over a soft mattress).
Pleasure
Comfortable products are pleasurable to use. Focusing on the comfort will increase user acceptance of a
product. If something is not comfortable to touch, users will not want to interact with it.
Fatigue
a feeling of tiredness or weakness; happens over time.
Because fatigue happens over time, it is important for designers to consider the impact of prolonged use
of their designs on the human body. Fatigue can also lead to Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) which
the muscles, nerves, blood vessels, ligaments and tendons. Risk factors can include:
● lifting heavy items
● lifting heavy items

● bending
● reaching overhead
● pushing and pulling heavy loads
● working in awkward body postures
● performing the same or similar tasks repetitively
Fatigue can also a"ect decision-making and performance. In short, you are simply too tired to perform at
your best.
Considerations for designers
Performance: Designs should reduce fatigue as much as possible, and enable the user to perform at
an expected level for as long as possible.
Health and Safety: Fatigued users are more likely to injure themselves or other. In addition, injuries can
be permanent, or cause chronic (consistent) pain.
A poorly designed tool handle may encourage the user to hold it or use it in a manner that is unsafe or
harmful.
Biomechanics
★Design
Biomechanics Theory
is the study of theNotes★☆
mechanical movements of our body. It focuses on how our body
moves and how it is a"ected by di"erent forces.
For designers, understanding the range and ability of the human body can help us design
products that can comfortably, safely, and e#ciently meet the needs of users.
Designers should consider biomechanics for two reasons:
● Develop a inclusive design that takes into the physical abilities, strength, and movement of the
user; and,
● Avoid harming the user through increasing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD)
Force Repetition Posture Duration
mount of How frequently a task is The position the body is in, How long the
ression, pushing, repeated. Tasks that are whether standing, sitting, task is performed
ng, pulling, etc., that repeated at a high frequency or lying down. or repeated.
son can exert. It is can impact the body
ly related to muscle negatively.
ners should Designers should consider Designers should consider Designers should
der the amount of how frequently a task needs the posture the user takes consider duration
required to do an to be done, and in most when performing the task. along with
n (turn a knob, cases, reduce the frequency It is important to minimize frequency.
n a lid, pull a zipper, and intensity of the task as physical stress on the
Even small
eze a handle, etc.). much as possible. body, while also allowing
durations,
eze a handle, etc.). much as possible. body, while also allowing

durations,
the body to be supported
also important to For example, workers at a repeated many
appropriately.
ider the user group workstation may times, can
When designing a
ow much force the develop musculoskeletal damage human
computer workstation
al user can exert: disorders if they are required tissue.
chair, the designer would
g children and the to repeat a task over and over
need to consider the
y have lower again. The ergonomics of
seated posture of the user
le strength than workstations should reduce
that also allows them to
in their 20s, for this risk as much as possible.
type comfortably.
Topic 2 - Resource Management &

Sustainable Production
2.1 Resource and reserves
esources and Resources refers to the total amount of a material discovered and undiscovered,
serves economically recoverable and not economically recoverable.
Reserves are the total amount of a resource material discovered, located, identified,
measured and that can also be recovered economically with technologies that exist now.
In other words, only resources that have been already been found, with the amount
confirmed, and we can get to become part of the resource reserve.
I.e.;
In the world it is estimated that there is probably about 3 trillion barrels of oil still out there, but
we have only located, identified, and measured about one third of that. So the oil reserve is
1 trillion barrels.
enewability Renewability relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible, for
example wood from trees, and fresh drinking water
enewable Renewable resources are those that are consumed at a lesser rate than they are replaced
sources by natural processes, they replenish with time. renews itself at a rate that is faster, or equal to
the rate of consumption.
Examples are: oxygen, fresh water, solar energy, timber, and biomass. Renewable resources
may also include goods commodities such as wood, paper, and leather.
Some resources such as geothermal power, plantation timber and water require careful
management. Others such as wind, solar, and tidal energies are thought of as limitless.
on-Renewable Non-renewable resources are resources for which there is a limited supply. The supply comes
from the Earth itself and, as it typically takes millions of years to develop, is finite.
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew
(replenish) itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, for example, coal,
petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, minerals, and ores.
Categories of Non-Renewable Resources

Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main categories; fossil fuels
and nuclear fuels.
enewable energy Energy from resources that are naturally replenished within a human timescale
examples
- sunlight, plantation timber, wind, water, waves, and geothermal heat
on-renewable Energy from resources that are not naturally replenished within a human timescale Fossil
nergy fuels (coal, oil, gas) or Nuclear
enewable resources
nd Energy Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, variations in the earth's
surface, and rotation of the earth.
utline why there
ght be some Wind turbines convert the energy in wind to electricity by rotating propeller-like blades
sistance within a around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft, which turns an electric generator.
cal community Companies are required for turbine removal at the end of its life. The towers are usually
a neighbor salvaged and recycled. Lifespan is around 20 to 25 years.
talling a wind
rbine The biggest wind turbines generate enough electricity to supply about 600 homes. Wind
farms have tens and sometimes hundreds of these turbines lined up together in particularly
entify a reason windy spots, like along a ridge. Smaller turbines erected in a backyard can produce enough
hy wind energy electricity for a single home or small business.
ght not be relied
pon as the sole Wind is a clean source of renewable energy that produces no air or water pollution. And
urce of power since the wind is free, operational expenses are nearly zero once a turbine is erected. Mass
production and technology advances are making turbines cheaper, and many
governments offer tax incentives to spur wind-energy development.
Some people think wind turbines are ugly and complain about the noise the machines
make. The slowly rotating blades can also kill birds and bats, but not nearly as many as cars,
power lines, and high-rise buildings do. The wind is also variable: If it's not blowing, there's no
electricity generated.
Nevertheless, the wind energy industry is booming.
Advantages
- Always available
- converting it into electricity does not create greenhouse gases or air pollutants
Disadvantages
- Very high initial cost (bigger than fossil fuels)
- Not all places have constant wind - problems with constant supply
- Concerns it might kill wildlife such as birds
- Generates noise - so usually placed in rural areas
- Cost of transporting electricity from rural areas to where is needed
lar Power Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) devices, directly convert electromagnetic
radiation into electricity in the form of DC voltage. Solar electricity is used to feed various
electric loads from small calculators to large power plants. Lifespan of 25 to 30 years old.
Advantages
- Always available even on cloudy days can generate energy
- No pollution created
- Cost-effective for water heating
Disadvantages
- Not sure how much energy can be generated due to sunlight and exposure
- High initial cost
- Need a battery if you want to store it otherwise energy has to get into the main
power grid
ydropower Water that moves quickly in a river possesses a large amount of usable kinetic energy. fast
moving water can be sent through a pipe, inside the pipe, water causes blades in a turbine
scuss the social to spin. The turbine's mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to the
nd environmental electric generator.
pact of
enerating In the generator, the rotational energy is transformed into electricity. The water flow can be
ectricity using made artificially through dams that release it into the pipes when electricity is needed. The
dropower systems can be “run-of-river” without a reservoir, or can include reservoir storage capacity.
Advantages
- Renewable
- Fairly clean way of producing electricity
- Highly efficient
Disadvantages
- Affects the environment - some organisms and fish get killed in the process
- Water reservoirs occupy large areas of land
- Depends on rainfall
dal power Tidal power or tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Tides are caused by the interaction
of the gravitational forces and the movement of the sun, moon and earth.
This results in an up-and down movement of water along the coast. The seawater can be
trapped with a dam in a bay at high tide. During low tide, it can be released from the bay
to the ocean. As it falls, it can turn the turbine of an electric generator.
Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has potential for future electricity generation.
Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun.
Lifespan is 75 to 100 years old.
Advantages
- Renewable
- Doesn’t emit any gases
- Predictable as there is always tides
- More effective with low speeds
Disadvantages
- Not sure how it affects wilde marine life
- Expensive
- Need to be build close to land
- physical presence of a barrage may affect other activities occurring in the area
omass and Biomass refers to organic matter such as timber and crops grown specifically to be burnt to
ofuel generate heat and power. Biomass is used to produce biofuel.
utline the [sustainable; generally carbon neutral - carbon released offset by the carbon trapped in the
nvironmental organic matter by photosynthesis during growth]
pact of biofuels
Can be something as simple as a wooden log or more complex like alcohol. Plants are a
common source of biomaterials. Since they can be grown again, this energy source is fully
renewable. Another important source of biomass in the home is garbage.
The easiest way to use biomass as energy is to burn it. When it is burned, a part of the
internal chemical energy convers to heat. Biomass can also be burned in special plants
The easiest way to use biomass as energy is to burn it. When it is burned, a part of the
internal chemical energy convers to heat. Biomass can also be burned in special plants
called waste-to-energy plants. These plants use heat energy to create steam, which is then
used to either heat buildings or create electricity. Life span at least 30 years.
In addition, biomass can also be used to create methane gas, ethanol, and biodiesel.
Methane gas, the primary component of natural gas, comes from rotting waste, and this
gas can be harvested.
Advantages
- Renewable fuel
- Reduces waste
Disadvantages
- Uses large amount of water
- Produces air pollution
- Farmland use
eothermal Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. (Generated by the
nergy decay of radioactive materials, volcanic activity, and even absorbed solar energy).
GTE power plants generally use the hot water or steam from the ground to spin a turbine of
utline how
an electric generator, which produces electricity in the process. Lifespan of Geothermal
eothermal
plants are around 25 years.
nergy is used to
enerate A geothermal heat pump system can take advantage of the constant temperature of the
ectricity upper ten feet (three meters) of the Earths surface to heat a home in the winter. While
extracting heat from the building and transferring it back to the relatively cooler ground in
the summer. Geothermal water from deeper in the Earth can be used directly for heating
homes and offices, or for growing plants in greenhouses. Some U.S. cities pipe geothermal
hot water under roads and sidewalks to melt snow.
To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6 kilometers) deep

or more, are drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that drive
turbines linked to electricity generators.
There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash, and binary. Dry steam,
the oldest geothermal technology, takes steam out of fractures in the ground and uses it to
directly drive a turbine. Flash plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into cooler, low-
pressure water. The steam that results from this process is used to drive the turbine.
In binary plants, the hot water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling
point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to turn to vapor, which then drives a
turbine. Most geothermal power plants in the future will be binary plants.
There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without burning a
fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil.
Geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively
clean natural-gas-fueled power plant produces. Binary plants release essentially no
emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy, geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a
year. It's also relatively inexpensive; savings from direct use can be as much as 80 percent
over fossil fuels.
But it has some environmental problems. The main concern is the release of hydrogen
sulfide, a gas that smells like rotten egg at low concentrations. Another concern is the
disposal of some geothermal fluids, which may contain low levels of toxic materials.
Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, eventually
specific locations may cool down.
Advantages
- Renewable
- One of the cleanest form of energy available
- Lower maintenance costs
Disadvantages
- Large set up cost
- Surface instability
- Surface instability
- CO2 below the earth’s surface that is released
- Disputes over land rights, considerably noise, odor
Consider the fluctuating cost of oil, political instability, security of supply, climate change,
and other pollution in an explanation why there is increasing pressure to use renewable
energy sources.
Discuss the limitations of the use of renewable energy resources as alternatives for fossil fuels
in relation to high initial cost, unreliable supply and low energy density.
Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main

enewable categories; fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
esources
ssil Fuels Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter which has been trapped between layers of
sediments within the Earth for millions of years.
onsider the ● The organic matter, typically plants, have decomposed and compressed over time,
nvironmental leaving what are known as fossil fuel deposits.
pact of fossil ● These deposits, and the materials produced from them, tend to be highly
combustible, making them an ideal energy source.
● They are difficult to obtain as they are typically retrieved through drilling or mining.
Coal is the last of the major fossil fuels. Created by compressed organic matter, it is solid like
rock and is obtained via mining. Coal is most typically used in home heating and the
running of power plants.
A coal-fired power station or coal power plant is a thermal power station which burns
coal to generate electricity. Coal-fired power stations generate over a third of the world's
electricity but cause hundreds of thousands of early deaths each year, mainly from air
pollution.
Advantages
- Is abundant
- Cheaper than oil and gas
- Does not depend on the weather
- Investment is low
Disadvantages
- Combustion of coal worldwide emits over 10 Gt of carbon dioxide each year,
almost ⅕ of total emissions, so are the single largest source of the greenhouse gases
- Coal mining leads to land sliding, deforestation, climatic change
- In underground mining, miners life is under risk at most of the time
atural gases Natural gases gather below the Earth’s crust and, like crude oil, must be drilled for and
pumped out.
Methane and ethane are the most common types of gases obtained through this process.
These gases are most commonly used in home heating as well as gas ovens and grills.
A gas-fired power plant or gas-fired power station or natural gas power plant is a thermal
power station which burns natural gas to generate electricity. Natural gas power
stations generate a 1/4 of world electricity.
Advantages
- Easier to store
- Not as pollutant as other fossil fuels
- Reliable
- Cheaper than oil
- Plenty of reserves
-
-
Disadvantages
- Highly combustible
- Source of violence and terrorism - as exploration occurs in countries with the worst
records of dictatorship
- Emits CO2 contributing to greenhouse gases
l/Petroleum Crude oil is a non-renewable resource that builds up in liquid form between the layers of the
Earth’s crust.
● It is retrieved by drilling deep into the ground and pumping the liquid out. The
liquid is then refined and used to create many different products.
● Crude oil is a very versatile fuel and is used to produce things like plastics,
artificial food flavorings, heating oil, petrol, diesel, jet fuel, and propane.
Power plants that burn oil to produce electricity are called oil-fired plants. They are no
different in general principle and operation from their fossil-fueled cousins, the coal-fired
and natural gas-fired plants, and are even similar to geothermal and nuclear power plants
in some respects.
Advantages
- Oil can easily be transported by a network of pipelines
- Used in almost all industries
- High density energy - a small amount of oil can product a large amount of energy
Disadvantages
- Releases CO2 contributing to greenhouse emissions
- Can cause water pollution
- Oil Refining Produces Highly Toxic Substances
- Producing electricity from crude oil is expensive compared to other fossil fuels such
as coal or gas
- Finite resource
uclear Fuels The other form of non-renewable resource used to produce energy, nuclear fuels, is primarily
obtained through the mining and refining of uranium ore.
utline why
uclear is ● Uranium is a naturally occurring element found within the Earth's core.
onsidered a non- ● Most uranium deposits occur in small quantities which miners gather together, refine,
newable energy and purify.
pply ● Once gathered, the uranium is brought together and compounded into rods.
● The rods are then submersed into tanks of water.
utline why ● When it reaches critical mass, uranium begins to break down and release energy
uclear energy which heats the water it is immersed in. This is known as "fission."
ght be ● The heated water then creates pressure and it is this pressure which drives the turbines
onsidered a that generate the electricity we use everyday.
able option for
eeting energy The process used to produce nuclear energy is called fission. Nuclear fission occurs when the
eeds atom of a nucleus is split, releasing very large amounts of energy.
In nuclear power plants, atoms are continuously split, creating chain reactions that provide
utline why a high amounts of sustainable energy for a long period of time.
overnment Nuclear energy, much like other power sources, certainly doesn’t come without its
ommissioning a drawbacks.
uclear energy Disposal of radioactive waste, high up-front construction costs, and public safety are key
ant might factors that need to be evaluated.
onsider this form Advantages of Nuclear Power
power ● It does not significantly contribute to global warming because it releases relatively
oduction low amounts of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases.
nvironmentally ● High power output
endly ● Very inexpensive once up and running
● No air pollution
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
● Very expensive initial setup costs
● The waste is very dangerous and must be watched over for thousands of years.
● Devastating accidents can happen, both for human and nature, and increasing
power plants increases the probability of accidents happening.
power plants increases the probability of accidents happening.

● Possible destructive terrorist attacks increase.
● Potential to be weapons. Radioactive waste can be used for production of
nuclear weapons.
● Uranium is used to make nuclear energy, and it could only last for 30-60 more
years.
● It is almost impossible to build nuclear power plants in a short time; it takes up to 30
years.
dvantages / Advantages of Fossil Fuels

sadvantages of ● A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate huge amounts of
ssil Fuels electricity in just a single location.
● Fossil fuels are very easy to find.
● When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost effective. Coal is also in
utline why,
abundant supply.
espite being
● Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made through the use of pipes
nvironmentally
making it an easy task.
amaging,
● Power plants that utilize gas are very efficient.
ountries are still
● Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be constructed in almost any location.
eavily dependant
This is possible as long as large quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power plants.
n fossil fuels
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
● Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is because they give off carbon
dioxide when burned thereby causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory
factor to the global warming experienced by the earth today.
● Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to burning oil or gas.
Additionally, it gives off sulphur dioxide, a kind of gas that creates acid rain.
● Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction of wide areas of land.
Mining this fossil fuel is also difficult and may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is
considered one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
● Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In other words, they not
only need truckloads but trainloads of coal on a regular basis to continue operating and
generating electricity. This only means that coal-fired power plants should have reserves of
coal in a large area near the plant?s location.
● Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some problems especially with
transportation.
● Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental hazards such as oil spills
when oil tankers, for instance, experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil
contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when combusted.
eserves Reserves are proven resources that can be economically and technically extracted.
In some cases reserves may exist but it is not economically viable to extract them or the
technology does not exist yet.
Reserves can be divided into two groups: Proved Reserves and Probable Reserves
● Deepwater drilling for oil

● Extraction of gold
● Extraction of gold from seawater
● Lithium
● fracking
● Oilsands
eserves Resources refers to the total amount of a material discovered and undiscovered,
ompared to economically recoverable and not economically recoverable.
esources Reserves are the total amount of a resource material discovered, located, identified,
measured and that can also be recovered economically with technologies that exist now.
In other words, only resources that have been already been found, with the amount
confirmed, and we can get to become part of the resource reserve.
ie;
1 trillion barrels.
litical and Land-based reserves are located within national borders or spread out around the world.
conomic This distribution of resources has political and economical importance for nations.
portance of South Korea, for instance, is a large consumer of LPG yet it has no domestic reserves of this
serves gas. All LPG used in the country is imported from overseas.
Consideration of economic and political significance of resources and reserves might

include:
● Multinational oil and mining companies will be invited to develop a resources in a
country, and pay a fee to the country to do so. This development can increase
wealth and bring employment opportunities, but it can also increase wage gaps.
Much of wealth generated by extraction leaves the country.
● Rare Earth minerals are very valuable and essential components for many 21st
century technologies. However, their extraction can be hugely damaging to the
local populations.
● setup costs: Typically very high and require the support or participation of local or
national governments, or multinational companies
● supply: needs to be economically and technically feasible.
● social impact: The positive and negative impacts on the local communities of
developing the resource
● environmental impact
● Decommissioning: The plan for when the resource is depleted. How will the
infrastructure (factories, roads, etc.), communities, and natural environment be
protected or developed after the resource is no longer extracted.
e development The development of renewable and sustainable resources is one of the major challenges of
renewable and the 21st century for designers.
stainable
sources Implementing sustainable resource management practices in developing countries can be
challenging due to various factors. Some of these challenges are:
● Poverty: Large portions of the population in developing countries live below the
International Poverty Line, making it difficult to advance the societal aspect of
sustainability[1].
● Lack of awareness: Many people in developing countries may not be aware of

the importance of sustainable resource management practices and their impact on
the environment, society, and the economy[2].
● Limited resources: Developing countries may have limited resources, making it

difficult to invest in sustainable resource management practices[2].
● Lack of infrastructure: Developing countries may lack the necessary infrastructure

to support sustainable resource management practices, such as waste
management facilities and renewable energy sources[2].
● Political instability: Political instability can hinder the implementation of sustainable

resource management practices by creating an uncertain environment for
investment and policy-making[3].
● Poor management: Poor management of natural resources can lead to

biodiversity loss, land degradation, and other environmental problems, which can
make it difficult to implement sustainable resource management practices[4].
To overcome these challenges, it is essential to raise awareness about the importance of

sustainable resource management practices, invest in infrastructure, and develop policies
that support sustainable development. Additionally, it is crucial to involve local communities
that support sustainable development. Additionally, it is crucial to involve local communities

in the decision-making process to ensure that their needs and concerns are taken into
account[5].
mpact of design As a designer, understanding the type of the resources used in the manufacture, distribution,
hoices use, and end-of-life of your product is an important responsibility. We are working with a
limited quantity of resources and therefore have a responsibility to design in a sustainable
manner.
Multinational companies extract and use resources from around the world. The decisions we
make as a designer can positively and negatively impact resources and reserves.
Society consumes renewable and non-renewable resources in order to meet basic needs
such as food, health, shelter, and so on. As designers, we must seek out opportunities for
innovation that maximize the use of renewable resources and minimize the negative impact
of our designs on society and the natural environment.
2.2 Waste mitigation strategies

aste mitigation The abundance of resources and raw materials in the industrial age led to the development
ategies of a throwaway society.
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. They aim
at the prevention, monitoring and handling of waste.
e-use Reuse of the same product in same context (can also be a different context)
Examples include Water Bottles, Plastic Bags, Glass Bottles, Toothbrush, Clothes
epair Reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing product.

Examples: Washing machine belt, Shoe soles, inner tube on a bicycle tire
e-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.
ecycle Using the materials from obsolete products (waste) to create other products. Examples
include Glass, Paper, Aluminium
econdition Rebuilding a product so that it is in an “as new” condition. Examples include car engines,
tyres, bearings, etc
ematerialisation Seeks to reduce the energy and materials used in the production, use, and end-of-life of a
product,reducing environmental impact ("doing more with less.")
ematerialisation ● Design and manufacture of a smaller product e.g. miniaturization

artegies ● Design and manufacture of lighter products e.g. using alternative construction
● Replacement of material goods by non-material substitutes (for instance a letter
on paper replaced by an email)
● Reduction in the use of material systems or of systems requiring large
infrastructures (for instance using telecommunications instead of using a car to go to
work)
ghtweighting (also is the reduction of the quantity of materials to reduce overall weight which results in less
own as de- material and energy use. Designers may make use of FEA (Finite Element Analysis) and
eighting) Generative Design to identify materials, forms, or processes that can reduce weight but still
meet the same performance goals.
aste stream A waste stream is the complete flow of waste from domestic or industrial areas through to
final disposal.
final disposal.
The intervention of recycling may act to lessen the content of a waste stream as it moves
down the line.
ethodologies for As natural resources become more scarce due to consumption, strategies for waste
reduction and designing out waste will only become more important for designers.
duction and
esigning out LCA (Life-Cycle-Analysis) is a tool that designers can use to measure the impact of their
designs.
Other strategies include:

● Circular Economy
● Energy Recovery
● WEEE Recovery
● Raw material recovery
● Recycling
● Dematerialization
e Cycle Analysis Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with
all the stages of a products' life from cradle to grave. This includes raw material extraction
through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and
disposal or recycling.).
rcular Economy In a linear economy;

radle to cradle) ● Takes resources from nature, and generates waste in the process
● Make a produce a product using these resources, and generate waste in the
process
● Dispose of the product and generates more waste
In a circular economy waste becomes a resource for the next iteration. In this way, a
circular economy seeks to copy a healthy biological ecosystem.
The circular economy is an economic model where materials and resources in a system are
in constant use. Waste is viewed as a resources and is brought back into the system to
generate new products and services.
Within a circular economy, materials can be classified into two categories

● Biological materials: materials that are renewable and come from nature
(organic)
● Technical materials: materials that are manufactured and are finite in their
quantities.
Examples of innovation in this area are:

● the use of bioplastics that are made from renewable biomass
● Clothing subscription or rental services (see video clip)
● Products designed to be rented and reused rather than purchased and disposed
of
aw material This strategy involves the separating of raw components of a product in order to recover the
covery parts and materials. By doing so, parts and materials can be sorted correctly and thus
increase the quantity of materials available for recycling and reuse, and reduce waste.
(Waste Electronic devices contain a mixture of materials and components that can be hazardous
ectrical and and cause environmental damage when disposed of improperly. This wastes is also referred
ectronic to as e-waste.
quipment
rective) Poisoned workers, environmental damage, rising materials costs, and geopolitical tensions
ecovery are some of the outcomes. In addition, many electronic devices contain scarce or vaulable
resources (Gold, rare earth metals, etc.).
resources (Gold, rare earth metals, etc.).
WEEE addresses the complex issue of recycling waste electronics by improving the
collection, treatment, and recycling of these materials at their end of life.
aste-to-energy Waste-to-energy (WtE) is a form of energy recovery that generates electricity through the
treatment (usually combustion) of non-recyclable waste.
2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution

ergy utilization, Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment.
orage and A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products or
stribution service.
mbodied energy Embodied energy is the amount of energy consumed to extract, refine, process, transport
and fabricate a material or product (including buildings). It is often measured from cradle to
(factory) gate, cradle to site (of use), or cradle to grave (end of life). Likewise, embodied
carbon footprint is the amount of carbon (CO2 or CO2e emission) to produce a material
It is a valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or energy-

saving device.
Components of Embodied Energy

● Materials: Energy used to extract and produce materials used in the product or
building
● Transport: Energy used to transport the materials to the factory or the building site
● Assembly: Energy used to construct the building or create the product
● Recurring: Energy used to maintain parts of the building, or to use the product
● Recycling: Energy used to recycle the components or parts of the build at the
end-of-life.
Strategies for reducing embodied energy

● Use less material
● Make choices in design and process that minimize scrap material
● Select low-embodied-energy materials
● Select low-energy construction systems
● Use naturally available materials or organic renewables
Embodied energy can be offset by the introduction of recycling programs - but of course
there is embodied energy associated with these schemes too: the amount of energy
involved in transporting the material to the recycling centre and the amount of energy
involved in physically recycling the materials for example - these factors determine whether
recycling is economically and environmentally feasible.
stributing energy: The energy grid is a system for distributing energy. It includes energy generation (power
stations), powerlines over which electricity travels, and connections to homes, businesses
tional and and factories.
ernational grid
stems The modern grid allows for multiple producers (generators using nuclear, coal, wind, to
produce energy) to feed electricity into a system where it can be efficiently distributed to
consumers. Energy grids can exist within a country (domestic) but also between countries or
across regions.
It is important to understand that power consumption fluctuates throughout the day and the
year, requiring producers to carefully monitor production to ensure they meet demand.
National and international grids are not designed for small-scale energy producers to feed
electricity into--they are only efficient at a large scale. Small-scale produces, like a
homeowner with a solar array cannot feed any excess energy they generate back into the
homeowner with a solar array cannot feed any excess energy they generate back into the
grid.
A Smart Grid, however, uses information technology to provide a real-time picture of energy
production and consumption. Smart Grid technologies allow for small scale and sustainable
energy producers to provide power. Smart grids make use of sensors and software to
manage electricity distribution and consumption. A home dishwasher, for example, could
be set to operate in the evening when power costs are lower, thus saving money.
cal combined The generation of electrical energy using conventional means results in large amounts of
at and power excess heat that is typically lost into the atmosphere. In addition to these heat losses, further
energy is lost during the transmission and distribution of the electrical energy to customers.
To recoup some of this lost energy, systems known as cogeneration or CHP are becoming
more popular. Cogeneration is used to indicate that from one fuel source, two forms of
useful energy are formed.
CHP generates electricity whilst also capturing usable heat that is produced in this process.
This contrasts with conventional ways of generating electricity where vast amounts of heat is
simply wasted. In today’s coal and gas fired power stations, up to two thirds of the overall
energy consumed is lost in this way, often seen as a cloud of steam rising from cooling
towers.
CHP is highly efficient. By using waste heat, CHP plants can reach efficiency ratings in
excess of 80%. This compares with the efficiency of gas power stations, which in the UK
which range between 49% and 52%. Coal-fired plant fare less well with an efficiency of
around 38%.
Advantages/Benefits of CHP
- Reduced fuel costs

- Less C02 emissions
- Reduced energy costs to the consumers
- This type of system means a consumer does not have to purchase energy from a
local utility in addition to burning a fuel on-site to generate heat.
mall scale ystems Microgeneration refers to small scale systems that generate electricity and/or heat for
individual domestic use. They are implemented in situations where it is expensive or impossible to
ergy generation connect to the power-grid, it can also be motivated by environmental conscious
approaches that aspire to zero or low carbon footprint and cost reduction.
crogeneration
Recently, individual energy generation has started to play an increasing role in smart grids.
Homeowners install solar panels or wind turbines on their property and sell any excess
energy back into the grid. In this way, it is possible to recoup the cost of the system through
the sale of excess energy.
Benefits
● supplement to grid-power system
● lower environmental impact (see below)
● Typically use renewable energy such as solar or wind
● can be scaled to meet the needs of a single user
● possible to live "off-grid" (no connection to power distribution infrastructure)
Considerations
● high initial cost
● may require owner to carry out maintenance
● Off the grid systems require a battery backup to store energy for use when energy
generation is not available.
uantification and Almost every process involved in the life cycle of a product generates CO2. As designers,
tigation of we have a moral and environmental responsibility to design in a manner which mitigates or
arbon eliminates the environmental impact of our design. To mitigate we first need to measure
missions: (quantification) the scale of the issue. When you measure the amount of emissions of a
uantify; to producer, a user, or a nation, you are determining the carbon footprint of a product,
easure the manufacturer, user.
uantify; to producer, a user, or a nation, you are determining the carbon footprint of a product,
easure the manufacturer, user.
uantity of
mething LCA is one method for measuring the carbon emissions and the overall environmental
tigate; to reduce impact of a product.
"make less
orse" Carbon offsetting is the practice of compensating for the carbon that is produced.
Examples could include planting trees to compensate for the carbon produced in the
manufacture of a product. The practice is considered controversial by some (Guardian
article).
tteries Batteries allow devices and machines to be portable, converting chemical energy into
electrical energy.
pes of batteries
Batteries contain heavy metals, which when disposed of improperly can cause pollution,
soil, air, and water contamination, as well as health problems.
Designers should consider several things when selecting a Battery;

● Power demands for the design
● Physical size of the battery
● standard battery sizes
● Rechargeability
● environmental impact of disposal of the battery.
apacitors Capacitors store energy temporarily as an electrostatic charge between 2 plates that are
separated by a non conductive material such as glass.
The main advantage is of rapid charging and discharging, typically used to smooth voltage
supplies.
Newer capacitors – also known as super or ultra capacitors offer the potential of storing
much higher levels of energy. LIC (Lithium-ion capacitors) offer energy densities similar to
rechargeable batteries but with faster charge/recharge rates.
2.4 Clean Technologies

ean Technology Clean technology describes products and processes that reduce waste and use as little
non-renewable materials and energy as possible, with the goal of minimizing environmental
impact.
Manufacturing processes and products need to be improved in terms of efficiency and

embodied energy used. These changes (and solutions) can happen quickly (radical), or in
small stages (Incremental).
(Incremental) Processes and products improved and developed over time leading to new
versions and generations. Example - The hybrid car.
(Radical) completely new processes or products are devised by thinking about a solution in
a different way. Example - Wind Farms.
Concepts and strategies such as cradle-to-cradle, circular economy, life cycle analysis
(LCA), lightweighting, use of recycled materials, etc, play a role in clean technology to
meet the goal of sustainable, non-polluting production.
cremental Advantages:
lutions Less of a gamble on new tech, Able to use existing technologies; no need to develop new
solutions
Lower risk
Doesn't require complete replacement of systems.
Disadvantages:
Small changes need to be made frequently in order to comply with new or evolving
Small changes need to be made frequently in order to comply with new or evolving
regulations.
Major impact on environment takes longer
Might not outpace legislation.
dical solutions Advantages:

Can make great and sudden impacts.
Creation of new industries, High potential for market growth
Less competition.
Disadvantages:
Can require replacement of a whole system, Research and development (R&D) can be
costly and lengthy
Risky gamble on new tech
ivers for cleaning Manufacturers may choose to implement clean technology for a variety of reasons.
anufacturing ● respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by the local

community and media.
● promoting positive impacts of the company's products or services.
● ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving
natural resources:
● reducing pollution and use of energy
● reducing wastage of energy and resources: installing solar panels to power
manufacturing
Factors that influence how and why a company may implement clean technologies can
include:
● Social: Consumer groups, public pressure, and public perception could influence
a company to implement clean technologies.
● Economic: A company may identify financial benefits for using clean
technologies such as lower material and energy costs. Government incentives and
subsidies could make the switch more attractive. Conversely, taxes surcharges, and
penalties might make not switching costly.
● Political: Legislation or laws may require a company to make changes. If they
don't make the switch they are breaking they law or unable to trade or sell their
product.
gislation Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing on
the environment. In recent years raised awareness of environmental issues is increasing
onsider how pressure on governments to introduce or comply with legislation regarding environmental
gislation provides issues.
n impetus to
anufacturers to These requirements bind companies to legislation and if these requirements are not met
ean up then financial penalties can be imposed.
anufacturing
ocesses The goal of combating pollution and waste, knocking back the impending doom of climate
change can only happen if all countries are involved. It goes without saying that this is
easier than it sounds.
One method for cleaning up our act is the use of international targets for reducing pollution
and waste. The problem is it is difficult to get nations to agree to the targets. On many
occasions, agreeing targets proves difficult as many nations are at different stages in their
development. Countries in Europe for example, began their industrial revolution quite a
while agho, whereas countries such as India and China are in the middle of rapid industrial
development.
Is it ethical to prevent a developing country from producing high carbon emissions through
industrial development when developed countries have been the main generators of
carbon emissions, through their own industrial revolutions and economic development?
carbon emissions, through their own industrial revolutions and economic development?
So it could be said that different countries have different priorities depending on the stage
they are at. Developing countries may prioritise economic growth over the environment,
whereas countries later on in their industrial development may think differently. The role and
scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the varied
perspectives in different countries.
Why bother following legislation though? Well, failure to follow them could lead to things
such as increased tariffs or restrictions on trade. No-one wants that. For this reason,
manufacturers and governments often drag their feet on legislation, challenge it, or even
get creative with their carbon footprint records.
ernational Sometimes, agreements are made at an international level to create targets for reducing
rgets for pollution and waste.
ducing pollution
nd waste Often conflicts and disagreements arise between countries trying to decide caps or limits on
pollution or waste making agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries
may be more affected by such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits
of companies will suffer as a result.
Some recent agreements include Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol and the Carbon
Trading Scheme.
d-of-pipe Technology that is used to reduce pollutants and waste at the end of a process.
chnologies
The ideal approach to cleaner manufacturing is to reduce waste and pollution at every
stage. Another perhaps lazier approach is end of pipe.
This approach attempts to deal with waste at the very end stage of production, literally as
the waste shoots out of the pipe!
These solutions are better than nothing, but don't actually prevent waste and pollution from
being created. They work by preventing as much of it as possible from entering and
harming the environment.
Some examples of this approach include: Carbon Capture, Filtration systems, Composting
and Catalytic Converters on vehicles
EOP technologies do not eliminate the production of a harmful substance; rather, the goal is
to prevent or minimize the release of the substance into the natural environment.
While EOP technologies do minimize environmental impact, from a sustainability point of

view they may not be the best choice. Designers and manufacturers should focus on a
more wholistic approach to design which eliminates the need for the production of
hazardous or harmful substances in the first place.
In this regard, cradle-to-cradle approaches to design are more sustainable.
stem level System level solutions refer to solutions that address the whole system, not just the
utions components. These solutions are regulatory in manner (taxes, tax benefits, legislation, etc.)
that aim to reduce consumption of raw materials, decrease pollution and waste throughout
the manufacturing process, and increase the use of sustainable energy, materials and
practices.
System level solutions, like cradle-to-cradle design and circular economy solutions, are
complex and require participation from a range of stakeholders, some of who may have
opposing interests.
2.5 Green Design

een Design Focus is on the re-engineering of a design to reduce it's environmental impact
and increase its sustainability. Green design focuses on making changes that
are typically incremental in nature: switching to a recyclable material, reducing
energy in manufacturing or use, increasing durability of the product.
Green Design typically focuses on one or two environmental objectives, such as

switching to sustainable materials or reducing energy usage.
■ Short timescale
■ Incremental changes (small changes over time)
■ Low risk
nciples guiding Two principles that should guide designers in how they make green decisions:
esigners The prevention principle and the precaution principle
prevention The avoidance or minimization of waste production

principle
Designers should endeavor to avoid or minimize waste in all its forms with regards to the
production, use, and disposal of the product. Designers should make decisions in the design
process that strive to meet this principal
The anticipation of potential problems.

precautionary
principle Designers should anticipate problems related to the production, use and disposal of their
product and take measures to mitigate or eliminate them. In other words, designers should
think ahead, inquire, predict any negative environmental impacts of their designs—we
cannot be complacent.
bjectives for Generally fall into 3 categories;

een Design Materials
● increasing the efficient use of material by reducing quantity required
● selecting non-toxic material and environmentally friendly materials
● minimizing the number of different materials used in a product
● labelling materials so they can be easily identified for recycling and disposal
● labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.
Energy
● reducing the amount of energy required to manufacture or use a product
● switching to sustainable or renewable energy sources
Pollution and waste
● Reducing the negative impacts of manufacturing (see Clean Technology)
● considering the end-of-life of the product and designing to maximize sustainability
goals
● improving the durability of the product to ensure that it meets the objectives for the
planned life of the product
● ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in environmental
terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life taking full account of the
effects of the end disposal of the product
effects of the end disposal of the product
● increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources;

● reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by use of the product
● ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and
environmentally friendly use
● minimizing nuisances such as noise or smell
ategies for Aimed at reducing the impact of the product on the environment.
een Design Can include design for:
● longevity,
● disassembly,
● reduced waste,
● energy efficiency,
● dematerialization,
● systems integration,
● recyclability and repair,
● reduced embodied energy
The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified
by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
ategies for Green design change through strategies can be classified as either incremental (small
een Design changes or iterations to a design), or radical (drastic changes to the design) to make the
hanges change,
cremental or Incremental Changes

dical ● Material: switching to a non-toxic or more sustainable, recyclable, environmentally
friendly material for the product
● Manufacturing Process: Switching to more sustainable processes that use less
energy and generate less waste
● Energy: Increasing the energy efficiency of the product; switching to more
sustainable, renewable energy sources for manufacturing needs
● Engineering: Designing a product to be disassembled easily (design for
disassembly); Use of standardized parts across the product line to reduce the need for
many different parts to be manufactured.
Incremental changes are lower risk because changes are smaller and predictable. These
changes are often driven by legislation requirements or financial considerations.
Radical Changes
● Completely changing the manufacturing process
● The result is a completely new product or service that meets the needs of the user in
a unique way.
● Refer to "Drivers for Innovation" to understand why a company may make a
calculated risk.
A high level of risk and uncertainty is associated with radical innovation, especially at early
stages because of the novel nature of the design decisions. These changes are often driven
by a need to innovate in order to enter/create a new market or meet a new need.
by a need to innovate in order to enter/create a new market or meet a new need.
Designers may identify a particular strategy or strategies to focus their design. These may be
identified in the Design Constraints and Considerations of the Design Brief.
Designers may evaluate the product in order to identify possible opportunities to improve the
sustainability. These could include:
● The type, quantity, and processing of raw materials

● They type and amount of packaging used for the design
● Toxic chemicals and processes used in materials and processes
● Amount and type of energy used in manufacturing and use of the product
● The efficiency and sustainability of the manufacturing processes used to produce
the product
● The types and quantity of atmospheric, water, and solid waste produced in the
manufacture, distribution, use and end-of-life of the product
ivers for Green Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific
esign environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy
efficiency.
een design
Unfortunately, many companies value short term profit and value for shareholders over the
an be driven by impact of their activities on the environment. Some companies lobby governments so that
o main factors: they can be exempt from legislation, or to try and persuade them to ‘water down’ legislation.
onsumer
Legislation
essure and
Government environmental legislation can be imposed, requiring that companies meet
gislation.
requirements that tackle specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of
certain materials or energy efficiency. Examples of legislation include:
● Cars meet certain emissions requirements requiring the installation of catalytic
converters to reduce the emission of harmful gases (carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and hydrocarbons
● The banning of CFcs (chlorofluorocarbons which are found in styrofoam, air
conditioning coolants, and aerosol cans) because they are harmful to the
environment. Manufacturers have needed to find alternatives
● Green/High Performance Building Legislation, in particular the The American Clean
Energy and Security Act, promotes the development of green retrofits and awarding
of mortgages for energy efficient homes.
● Labelling of plastic types to improve recycling: Many governments now mandate
the labelling of the type of plastic used in a product in order to promote and improve
the recycling (Plastics must be sorted by type in order to be recycled effectively -
mixing of plastics in recycling result in inferior plastic types)
Green legislation often encourages incremental, rather than radical approaches to green
design.
Consumer Pressure
Sometimes consumer pressure can be just as effective as legislation. As the public has
Sometimes consumer pressure can be just as effective as legislation. As the public has
become more aware of environmental issues such as climate change, pollution, and plastic
waste, manufacturers listen carefully to consumer demands. Through social media, the bad
behaviour of companies can be exposed quickly, reach a wider audience and consumers
can decide as a large group to boycott a company. Social media has allowed the influence
of consumers to grow exponentially. This can hurt a company's profits greatly, persuading
them to clean up their act.
Consumers may speak with their wallets, by only purchasing products that meet their
expectations. Consequently, companies may implement green design solution in order to
meet market demands and maintain market share.
CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and Consumer Pressure

Cone Global Communications Strategy CSR Study found that:
91% of global consumers expect companies to do more than make a profit, but also operate
responsibly to address social and environmental issues
84% say they seek out responsible products whenever possible
90% would boycott a company if they learned of irresponsible or deceptive business
practices
Source
mescale to The timescale for implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years). Why not
plement green just say get it done tomorrow? Well it needs to be cost-effective for the manufacturers. This
esign timeline gives them a chance to make the changes at a reasonable pace, and that doesn't
disrupt business too much.
Often, legislation requires governments and manufacturers to comply over many years.
This can be beneficial to companies and manufacturers as they can adopt incremental
approaches to green design therefore minimising the cost, however some environmental
concerns, for example carbon dioxide reduction and climate change require immediate
action.
2.6 Eco Design

Eco Design Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave)
using lifecycle analysis.
Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts to
focus on all three broad environmental categories—materials, energy and pollution/waste.
This makes eco-design more complex and difficult to do.
Eco-design is an approach to design that aims to minimize the environmental impact of

products throughout their entire life cycle, from raw material extraction to disposal[1]. It
involves a systems approach that considers the entire life cycle of a product, from the
extraction of raw materials to the end of its useful life[1]. The goal of eco-design is to reduce
the environmental impact of products by minimizing their use of resources, reducing waste,
and minimizing their impact on the environment[1]. Eco-design can be applied to a wide
range of products, from buildings to consumer products.
e Cycle Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) is a tool used to assess the environmental impact of a design. It is
used to help designers and manufactures to understand the impact of their designs and
nalysis identify opportunities to innovate a product.
metimes
ferred to as Sometimes called cradle-to-grave analysis or life-cycle assessment, these analyses look at all
adle to Grave stages of a product's life:
ferred to as
adle to Grave stages of a product's life:
● extraction of raw materials

● processing of materials
● manufacture of the product
● distribution of the product
● use of the product by the user
● repair and maintenance of the product during its usable life
● recycling and disposal of the product at the end of its usable life
Through conducting an LCA, designers can:
● identify the relevant energy inputs (embodied energy) that go into the making, use,
and disposal of the product
● identify relevant material inputs that go into the manufacture and use of the
product (raw materials, consumable materials used in the use of the product -- coffee
filters used in a coffee machine, for example)
● identify release of chemicals and harmful substances released into the environment
(CO2 emissions, Greenhouse gases, etc.)
● evaluate the impact of their design on the environment
ife Cycle Make sure you are able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its life
tages: cycle through
Pre-production, Production, Distribution including packaging, Utilization and Disposal.
The complex nature of LCA means that it is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it
and a team with different specialism is required.
LCA is complex, time-consuming and expensive, so the majority of eco-designs are based
on less detailed qualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its life cycle. The
simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during a product’s
design development stages.
Cradle to Cradle to Cradle (C2C) design is an approach to design that seeks to consider and design for
Cradle the entire lifecycle of a product.
At its best, it is a design that allows for the expired product to "re-enter" as a new product.
Think "ecosystem" in that nothing is wasted, and that when products reach their end-of-life
they are reconstituted into new forms, much like in a natural ecosystem.
Cradle to Cradle Principles:

Material Health: Value materials as nutrients for safe, continuous cycling
Material Reutilization: Maintain continuous flows of biological and technical nutrients
Renewable Energy: Power all operations with 100% renewable energy
Water Stewardship: Regard water as a precious resource
Social Fairness: Celebrate all people and natural systems
Cradle to the Cradle to the Gate (Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from
Gate resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the
consumer).
UNEP Ecodesign In 1996 the United nations released an Eco-design manual also known as Design for
Manual Sustainability (D4S). The major concerns outlined in the UNEP Ecodesign Manual were to:
● increase recyclability
● reduce energy requirements
● maximise use of renewable resources

● reduce creation and use of toxic materials
● reduce material requirements of goods and services
● increase product durability and reduced planned obsolescence
Design for the CAD Software that allows designers to perform Life cycle analysis (LCA) on a product and
environment assess its environmental impact.
oftware
Software such as Fusion or Solidworks that:
● allows the designer to carry out LCA
● selects materials and manufacturing techniques that reduce environmental
effects.
● runs scenarios that can minimize materials
● optimise designs to get cost effective products that are environmentally
concerned
Product life The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the
cycle stages: product life cycle can be explored through LCA.
he role of the
designer, It is targeted at particular product categories—products with high environmental impacts in
manufacturer the global marketplace, for example, washing machines and refrigerators.
and user
However, in the re-innovation of the design of a product or its manufacture, specific aspects
may be changed after considering the design objectives for green products, such as
selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable sources. A product may be distributed
differently or its packaging may be redesigned.
Environmental Focuses on one particular stage of LCA at a time and breaking processes down into
mpact
assessment individual steps
matrix
More complicated than LCA
Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air

contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources, pollution and
effect on ecosystems
Converging Converting technologies is the amalgamation of existing technologies into new forms that
echnologies
create innovative products and systems that may offer greater convenience, efficiencies or
entirely new features and functions not currently in existence.
Technological convergence is combining two or more previously discrete technologies to

create a new product or a service. A typical example of converging technology is the smart
phone.
Advantages of convergence
The first and basic advantage is that one is able to get all the services from one device
instead of having to purchase and maintain several different devices. At times the
convergence comes with miniaturization which enhances portability.
Convergence of technologies is also cost saving because by putting several functions into
one device, it is possible to eliminate the need of buying several devices for their individual
functions. Finally, the combination of several devices leads to saving of material that would
have been used on the various constituent devices and thus saving greatly on the cost of
materials and processes.
Disadvantages of convergence
If one part of the system fails then all of the rest of the devices are disabled too and may be
unable to function. This is a very big disadvantage keeping in mind that discrete items fail on
their own without affecting others. The provision of e-mail and internet on smartphones does
not eliminate the personal computer and a replacement of such items through convergence
is thus a partial fallacy (Doorn, 2006).
Converged devices can be considered less reliable and functional compared to their
Converged devices can be considered less reliable and functional compared to their
component parts. For example watching a movie on a smartphone may not be as good as
watching it on a television.
As the number of functions and integrated devices on one convergent technology

increase,its original functionality and effectiveness can reduce. An example is the iPhone. Its
main function is to make phone calls, however; unlike a traditional mobile phone it has
various incorporated features that necessitate the elimination of the traditional numerical
pad, and in its place a touch pad is incorporated; some people find the touchpad
troublesome in use and subsequently the iPhone’s functionality is reduced.
Topic 3 - Modelling
3.1 - Conceptual Modeling
ssential A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the principles,
processes and basic functions of a design or system.
ature of Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the subject
esign they represent.
Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to what they should do,
how they should behave, what they look like and whether they will be understood by the users
in the manner intended.
The starting point for solving a problem springs from an idea developed in the mind.
A detailed exploration of the idea is vital to take it from the intangible to the tangible, along with
the ability to articulate the idea to others.
uidance ● Understand that conceptual models are used to communicate with oneself and
others
● Understand that conceptual models vary in relation to the context; You should select
the appropriate concept model(s) to match the context
● Understand how the designer visualizes concepts, design thinking and learning, and
use concept models to further inquiry into a design context
● Understand and list the advantages and disadvantages of using conceptual modelling
Concepts and principles
Conceptual models are descriptions or representations of an idea or system. They communicate what a
proposed design might look like or what it might do.
Conceptual models are also used to explore possibilities and options. In this way, they are also a type of
research.
Through doing this research, designers can confirm how well a design concept meets
specifications, gather user feedback, and improve the overall chances of success for the product.
Through doing this research, designers can confirm how well a design concept meets
specifications, gather user feedback, and improve the overall chances of success for the product.
Concept models can be used to "get ideas out of the head" and into a form that can be explored and
communicated to others.
Types of Models
Graphical models
2D drawings, diagrams, and sketches
Physical Models
Clay, cardboard, rapid prototype (eg. 3D printed), other physical materials
CAD models
Computer-aided design
Advantages and disadvantages of concept models
Advantages Disadvantages
● allow the client to provide input ● simple concept models may leave out or
● designers can explore possibilities without the limitation of producing miss important details
a working prototype (i.e. lower cost and time) ● may not represent the final product
● reduce development costs by reducing errors in the production ● materials in the model may not easily or
● examine proof of concept to confirm that parts will fit together, accurately represent the materials used in
components will move, etc. the final design
● communicate the function of the design ● scaled models may not communicate
● communicate the aesthetics of the design proportions
● test materials or production methods ● durability of the concept model may not
● gather feedback from users, clients, and design team allow it to be used repeatedly (or at all) in
● can be used in user trials user trials
3.2 - Graphical Modeling

ssential Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas
ature of Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is always the same—to
esign simplify the data and present it in such a way that understanding of what is being presented
aids further development or discussion.
Designers utilize graphical modelling as a tool to explore creative solutions and refine ideas from
the technically impossible to the technically possible, widening the constraints of what is
feasible.
The development of ideas through graphical models allows designers to explore and deepen
their understanding of a problem and context of use.
uidance ● How graphical models are used to communicate with oneself and others
● How the choice of graphical models varies in relation to the context
● Advantages and disadvantages of using di"erent graphical models
Sketching versus formal drawing techniques
Graphical models are 2D representations and communication of an idea. They are ways for a designer to
quickly explore a number of possibilities, and then communicate these to users, clients, or their design
quickly explore a number of possibilities, and then communicate these to users, clients, or their design
team.
Designers might use sketching at the beginning of a design inquiry to quickly explore ideas and
communicate the direction of their thinking.
As the design becomes more refined, they may switch to isometric and orthographic drawings to create
a higher fidelity model that could be used to communicate information about size, scale, etc. 3D
renderings in CAD might be used to communicate with the client or other members of the design team.
2D and 3D graphical models
Designers work with both 2D and 3D graphical models. 2D models represent detail, proportion,
measurements, and relationships.
These can be considered "flat views" of an object
Orthographic drawings show all the details and dimensions of an object, and are typically produced at a
high level of fidelity (detail).
3D graphical models show how design might look. Their purpose is to communicate a sense of
proportion, scale, and aesthetics. 3D graphical models can take several forms depending on their
function.
Both 2D and 3D graphical models typically include annotations in the drawing. Annotations are used to
● record thoughts about features of a design
● clarify function, material, or purpose of features
● identify possible areas for improvement
● It is expected that your sketches include annotations
Orthographic Drawings
Orthographic drawings show the "side" of an object.
Features
● show the "side" of a product
● no vanishing point or perspective
● accurate representation of form
Application
● used in planning drawings to communicate dimensions, form, and shape
● Communicate detailed and accurate information for manufacturing
Isometric Drawings
Isometric drawings show the shape and form of an object.
Features
● do not have vanishing points (compare with perspective drawings below)
● drawn on a 30/90/30 degree grid.
Application
● Used to communicate the overall form of a product
Part and assembly drawings

Exploded isometric drawings show how an object with more than one component might be assembled.
Parts are depicted in the order of how they are assembled.
Assembly drawings show how an object may be assembled.
They may be shown as an exploded isometric drawing.
Their primary purpose is to communicate the sequence of assembling a project.
Assembly drawings include the names and numbers of parts, as well as bill of materials (BOM).
Perspective Drawings
Perspective drawings are drawings showing an object as if viewed from a single point.
They attempt to represent space by using foreshortening, and vanishing points.
These types of drawings are often used in early planning stages to communicate what a design might
look like.
Most people are familiar with perspective drawings. They are a more accurate representation of
Most people are familiar with perspective drawings. They are a more accurate representation of
what the design
Comparison of di"erent graphical models

ching ● quick to create ● no details

● no specialized tools required ● may not accurately represent the final product
● easy to communicate with
others
ographic ● highly accurate ● requires specialized CAD skills and equipment

● can be used to produce a ● clients may not easily understand the
product drawings
● clear communication with ● time-consuming to create (compared to
manufacturer sketching)
● require careful planning
etric ● shows multiple views ● not accurate (missing details like dimensions;
● easily understood by client some sides not shown)
and manufacturer ● may not look like the finished product
pective ● realistic looking ● time-consuming to produce

● easily understood by client ● not accurate (missing details like dimensions;
some sides not shown)
● require developed skills to accurately
represent a product (i.e. a poorly drawn
perspective drawing looks "wrong")
mbly ● easily understood by client ● time-consuming to produce

and manufacturer ● requires specialized CAD skills and equipment
3.3 - Physical Modelling

ssential A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system.
ature of Designers use physical models to visualize information about the context that the model
esign represents.
It is very common for physical models of large objects to be scaled down, and smaller objects
scaled up for ease of visualization.
The primary goal of physical modelling is to test aspects of a product against user
requirements.
Thorough testing at the design development stage ensures that an appropriate product is
developed.
Physical modelling not only allows designers to explore and test their ideas, but to also present
them to others.
Engaging clients, focus groups and experts to interact with physical models of products allows
designers to gain valuable feedback that enables them to improve the design and product-user
interface.
uidance ● understand the various applications of physical models and how and why a designer
might use these models to gain a better understanding of the design context.
● be able to use instrumented models to measure the level of a product's performance
and facilitate ongoing formative evaluation and testing. This testing and evaluation
should be used to further develop and refine your design.
● Identify the advantages and disadvantages of physical models
Concepts and principles:
Designers use physical models to obtain information about various aspects of a design context. They are
particularly useful in understanding how an object will be physically manipulated or used by a user. They
can provide important information about:
Ergonomics and fit: The model can show how the design will fit to the user's body or held in
the user's hand.
Relationships between the internal structure and external structure: For example, how the
electronic components of device might influence the external structure of a design, and vice
versa. This could include the placement of ports, switches, buttons, grips, etc.
Aesthetic considerations: Form, scale, shape, texture, and color can all be explored through
creating a physical model.
Scale models
A scale model a model that is either a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. Scale models are
often used in architecture, where smaller models of a building are presented. This smaller model helps
the architect communicate to the client or team members the aesthetic, form, proportion, and functional
elements of a building.
Scale models are also used in some testing situations when it is financially or practically
impossible to test a full-scale model.
Scale models are advantageous for communicating the form, thinking, aesthetics or ideas behind a
design.
Aesthetic Models
An aesthetic model is a model developed to look and feel like the real product. They are used to
evaluating user appeal or in ergonomic testing.
These models do not actually work and are typically not intended to be handled greatly.
The primary function is to communicate and test the aesthetic elements of a design.
In addition to being used to communicate and evaluate how a design looks and appeals to a user,
aesthetic models might also be used to evaluate the properties of a material:
Weight and balance: using materials similar in weight and density to the final production
material, the model could be used to evaluate how heavy a design is, or how it balances. A good
example of this might be a hand tool, portable device, or sports equipment.
Texture and surface qualities: finishes, paint, or textures might be applied to the surface to
communicate how the surface looks, feels, or reflects light.
Mock-ups
A mock-up is a scale or full-size representation of a product used to gain feedback from users.
They have some functionality, meaning that they can also be used as a prototype.
Mockups are essentially used to test ideas, and are often used to show how something works or feels.
Mockups are essentially used to test ideas, and are often used to show how something works or feels.
Prototypes
A prototype is a sample or model built to test a concept or process, or to act as an object to be
replicated or learned from.
Prototypes can be developed at a range of fidelity and for di"erent contexts.
Prototypes can be used to test and refine specifications.
They can also be used to help learn more about the design or manufacturing context.
For instance, through building a prototype, the design might discover issues and challenges
related to manufacturing the product.
Fidelity of prototypes
The fidelity of the prototype is the degree to which the prototype is exactly like the final product.
Prototypes can be made at di"erent levels of fidelity, depending on the application and context.
Prototypes are often put in the hands of users so that designers can observe how they are used. In this
way, designers can gain feedback from the users, and learn more about the design context.
Low-fidelity models
A conceptual representation analogous to an idea.
They are not tangible or durable, but they do communicate basic information about form, shape,
function, etc.
Paper prototypes are a good example of low-fidelity prototypes
Mid-fidelity prototypes
Communicate more about an idea or concept.
They may communicate some but not all the functions of the design.
High-fidelity prototypes
Attempt to represent as close as possible the functionality of the final product.
They are typically durable enough to be testable and used by the user group to gather
usability data.
Instrumented models
Prototypes that are equipped with the ability to take measurements to provide accurate quantitative
feedback for analysis.
Essential, they are models that equipped with sensors or other types of measuring systems that can
record data.
This data is then used to evaluate the performance of the product, mechanism, or material, as
well as to understand better how the user might use the product
Advantages and Disadvantages of Physical Models
● Explore and test ideas: another form of ● Accuracy: Designers could mistakenly assume that the model
exploration of design ideas; Some ideas are more accurately represents the reality of the design context. For
easily explorable in physical form compared to example, a scale model might not accurate communicate
other modeling forms (e.g. a flat-pack container ergonomic information. However, careful analysis and inquiry can
that is folded out of a single sheet of material) avoid or lessen this.
● Easily understandable: a physical ● Time-consuming: creating models, and iteration of the
representation of an idea, concept or design. models, can be time-consuming
● Communication: Allow for clear ● Cost: The manufacturing of prototypes can add to the overall
communication with clients and team members cost of the manufacturing the design.
about the design. This is especially important ● Materials: Often, the material used in the model is not the
when communicating with a non-technical same as the material used in the final product. As such, accurate
audience data about the performance or aesthetic qualities of the product
● Tangible: it can be put in someone's hands or may not be gathered
tested ● Environmental cost: Materials and processes used may
tested ● Environmental cost: Materials and processes used may

● User testing: Can be easily used in user tials produce waste or use raw materials that impact the environment.
to generate data; Particularly useful when ● Skill: Requires a level of skill, depending on the application.
gathering ergonomic data The model maker would need to be familiar with the materials or
technology used to manufacture the model.
Comparison of Types of Physical Models

Advantages Uses
● Look like the final model ● Use to consider color combinations,

● Evaluate aesthetic appeal textures, form, etc.
● Get client feedback on aesthetic aspects of
a design
● scaled or full-size replica ● Used to gather client feedback

● communicate form and proportion
of a design
● Low-fidelity models can be made
relatively quickly
● Validate that a design can work as ● User testing of functionality

intended ● Develop and improve the functionality of a
design
mented ● Provide accurate quantifiable data ● Evaluate how a design performs under
about a design as it is being used or various conditions and forces
tested ● Test performance of materials (i.e. impact
● Can provide data in real-time testing, heat resistance, etc.)
● Understand how physical forces act
on a design
● Allow for very precise
measurements
● Can be larger than the actual ● Used to gather client feedback about a
design and thus communicate fine design
details ● If it is a small design like a watch, a large-
● Can be smaller than the actual scale model can help communicate details that
design and thus save materials, time, would otherwise not be easy to see
etc., as elements of the design are ● If it is a large design, like a car door, a small-
developed scale model can allow the designer to work out
details of mechanism without having to invest
time and money in producing a life-size model
3.4 - Computer-aided design (CAD)

ssential A computer-aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysis of a design or
system using computer software.
ature of As technologies improve and the software becomes more powerful, so do the opportunities for
esign designers to create new and exciting products, services and systems.
Greater freedom in customization and personalization of products has a significant impact on

the end user.
The ability to virtually prototype, visualize and share designs enhances the whole design cycle
from data analysis through to final designs.
The use of CAD to simulate the conditions in which a product will be used allows the designer
to gain valuable data at low cost.
For example, simulating the flow of air across a car exterior negates the need for a car and a
wind tunnel.
uidance ● Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using computer-aided modelling

● Understand how data models structure data through database models
● Understand that the design of information systems enables the exchange of data
● Understand how haptic technology, motion capture, VR and animation can be used
to simulate design scenarios and contexts
● Be able to compare FEA testing strategies with physical models testing
● Understand how FEA systems are used when designing and developing products

● Types of CAD software
● Surface and solid models
● Data modelling including statistical modelling
● Virtual prototyping
● Bottom-up and top-down modelling
● Digital humans: motion capture, haptic technology, virtual reality (VR), and animation
● Finite element analysis (FEA)
Guidance:
● Advantages and disadvantages of using computer-aided modelling
● How data models structure data through database models
● Design of information systems to enable the exchange data
● How haptic technology, motion capture, VR and animation can be used to simulate
design scenarios and contexts
● Comparison of FEA with testing physical models
● Use of FEA systems when designing and developing products
● Use of FEA systems when designing and developing products

Types of CAD software
CAD stands for Computer-Aided Design.
CAD software is used in various stages of the design process to create, modify, and
evaluate designs.
2D Software 3D Software Rendering Software
ware that produces a 2D image Software that creates a 3D model Software that creates a realistic,
design. These images are used that contains information about the but virtual representation of a
mmunicate about the design. dimensions, materials, etc. of the design. This is used to present the
Adobe Illustrator design. This information can be used design concept to clients and for
Adobe Photoshop to produce the design using CAM. advertising.
● Autodesk Fusion 360 ● Blender
● Autodesk Inventor ● Maya
● SketchUp ● 3D Studio Max
● SolidWorks
Use Cases
to create digital drawings that ● Creation of parametric models ● presentation of design to

can communicate concepts and that can be used by CAM clients
nformation to a client; equipment to produce the final ● preparation of advertising
Serve as a foundation for product; and promotion materials
efining a design; ● Present and explore concepts
Some 2D drawing file formats before going into production or
DFX, for example) can be used prototyping;
o by CAD equipment such as ● Calculate material properties
aser cutters and routers; of a design using Finite Element
Presentation of schematic Analysis (FEA).
drawings such as circuits, floor
plans, etc.
Surface Modeling and Solid Modeling

Surface modeling
Surface modeling
Surface modeling, sometimes called rendering, only communicates information about the surface of
the design. Rendering software uses data about the surface qualities, material, lighting, etc., to create a
virtual representation of the product. There is no information about the interior of the product, the parts,
or components.
These types of models are usually presented as 2D graphics files (JPEG, PNG, TIFF, etc.) or
animated videos. Blender, Maya, and 3D Studio Max are examples of surface modeling
programs.
Purpose: To communicate the aesthetic form and scale of an object.
Audience: Clients who want to understand how a design will look. Designers who want to quickly
communicate ideas form.
Solid modeling
Accurate digital models of the whole part or object. They contain information that can be used by CAM
hardware to produce the part or object. Solid model file formats include STL, commonly used for 3D
printing.
Purpose: To communicate in great detail the dimensions, materials, components, function, etc of a
design. To provide detail that can be used in the manufacture of the design using CAD/CAM
technologies
Audience: Designers and Manufacturers who need information about how to manufacture the design
using CAD/CAM technology.
Advantages and Disadvantages of CAD software

Changes, iterations and modifications to ideas can quickly be made; ● Software can be
Convenient communication between designer and clients, teams, and manufacturers expensive
Electronically stored and transferred files are safe, secure, and easily shared. ● Specialized training
Modeling can reduce costs and risks by identifying errors before full-scale manufacturing required can be time-
Reduced costs and waste as fewer physical prototypes need to be manufactured consuming and
Time and resources can be saved through e#cient work practices expensive
High accuracy of design and product
CAD Modeling Strategies: Top-Down, Bottom-up, or Hybrid

Bottom-Up Strategies Top-Down Strategies
Design begins with detailed criteria and specifications Design begins with criteria and parameters and is then
Individual parts are designed separately and then developed as a concept
assembled into the final design New features and parts are added as the design evolves
There is no relationship between parts - if a dimension is Related parts are connected - if one dimension is
changed, associated dimensions must be changed changed, associated dimensions on other parts will also
individually be adjusted.
Components can be reused across multiple assemblies The final design is a collection of inter-related parts that
are uniquely design.
ases Detailed and precise parameters and design The design begins as a concept, with some design
specifications are established before the actual designing specifications established.
takes place Design is expected to evolve through numerous
takes place Design is expected to evolve through numerous

Few or limited changes are anticipated iterations - numerous changes are expected
Large complex systems (buildings, spacecraft, vehicles) Product design of unique consumer products
Designing products that are made from standard parts
A combination of both approaches. Some of the parts are designed individually (bottom up) while others are
designed using the relational Top-down approach. Most modern CAD software allows a combination of both
approaches.
Data Models
These types of models typically consist of a database or data set that is used to present and or
understand the performance of a design. Data modeling is based on the requirements for the use
context or application.
Data models can be structured either as a flat, hierarchical or relational databases.
Using motion capture technology, accurate data can be gathered to understand the performance and
design context.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is the calculation of loads and stresses on a product using CAD software.
FEA uses a computer model of an object that is then analyzed to how it reacts when certain stresses
such as heat, force, or load are applied.
FEA is a powerful tool that allows a designer to virtually evaluate the suitability, durability, and strength of
design before producing a costly physical prototype.
Two common forms of FEA that a product designer might perform are:
● Fatigue: to analyze the durability of a product. To determine where cracks might propagate in
the design
● Heat: to analyze how heat is transferred through the product. To determine where hot spots
might be in a design and if these may degrade the design
Virtual Prototyping
Prototyping is the use of CAD to develop realistic, interactive models. These virtual models allow the
designer to simulate the design, communicate with clients and the design team, and explore the design.
Virtual prototyping is a powerful tool because it can:
● reduce development costs by identifying errors without the need to produce physical
prototypes
● improve quality of the final product as performance characteristics can be analyzed and
confirmed before production
● reduce development time as designs can quickly be created and modified based on feedback
from the client, engineers, etc.
Virtual prototyping can involve various aspects of CAD, from Solid or Surface models, FEM, to video fly-
throughs.
Digital Humans, Motion Capture, Haptic Technology, Virtual Reality (VR), and
Animation
Digital Humans
Digital simulations of the biomechanics of the human body. These kinds of models are used to predict
how humans will move and interact with a virtual prototype.
how humans will move and interact with a virtual prototype.

Safety and Comfort
● ensure there is enough space to perform a maintenance task (i.e. Is it possible to remove a part
by hand and replace it?)
● ensure that controls are accessible and adjustable (Can the dashboard controls of the car be
reached by a seated and belted passenger?)
● ensure that tasks do not require excessive force to perform by hand (Can a handle be turned
comfortably?)
E#ciency
● ensure equipment, controls, and machines are positioned to save time and avoid hazards
Motion Capture
Motion capture is the recording of actual human movement using video, magnetic, or
electromechanical devices.
Motion capture systems use some type of reflective, LED, magnetic, or acoustic marker that is
connected to the joints.
To produce a motion capture, the movements of a human are captured and then mapped to a digital
model. The capture records just the movements, not the physical appearance of the model. The
movements are much more natural looking, and much time (and cost) is saved.
In addition to the obvious use in animation and entertainment, motion capture can also be used to
analyze how di"erent users interact with a product, with the goal of improving safety and ergonomics.
Haptic Technologies
Haptic technologies use the sense of touch to provide feedback to the user.
Haptic technologies allow the user to interact more closely with the computer simulation and to respond
to feedback from the system.
Virtual Reality (VR)
Virtual reality technologies create a virtual environment where the user can interact with it realistically. VR
technologies rely on wearable technologies such as a helmet and goggles as well as haptic technologies
to provide feedback to the user.
In addition, valuable data can be gathered about how users interact and use a product.
Animation
Animation can be used to simulate a process. It can be used to confirm the placement of equipment and
determine safety, ergonomics, and e#ciency of a factory layout.
Animation can also be used to communicate form and function of a product.
3.5 - Rapid-prototyping
ssential Rapid prototyping is the production of a physical model of a design using three-dimensional
CAD data.
ature of The growth in computing power has had a major impact on modelling with computer-aided
esign manufacture.
Rapid software and hardware developments allow new opportunities and exciting new
technologies to create dynamic modelling of ever-greater complexity.
Models can be simulated by designers using software, tested and trialled virtually before
sending to a variety of peripheral machines for prototype manufacture in an ever-increasing
range of materials.
The ease of sending this digital data across continents for manufacture of prototypes has major
implications for data and design protection.
The increasing e"ectiveness of rapid prototyping techniques in terms of both cost and speed
enables designers to create complex physical models for testing
uidance ● Recognize the di"erent types of 3D printing techniques

● Understand the advantages and disadvantages of rapid prototyping techniques

Rapid Prototyping
Rapid Prototyping (RP) is the production of a prototype or model using 3D CAD files. Models are built
layer by layer, using either plastics, powders, polymers, or metals. Di"erent technologies are used
depending on the material.
Rapid Prototyping is used to produce one-o" or limited-run prototypes and models for a variety of
situations. The speed and e#ciency mean they can save costs and time associated with traditional
prototype development.
This technology is an additive process, whereby material is added or fused to create a solid form. In this
regard, RP technologies produce little to no waste compared to subtractive processes such as milling
and cutting.
Rapid Prototyping technology also plays an important role in the 4th Industrial Revolution in that it allows
mass customization and greater control by consumers.
Fused deposition modelling (FDM)

The most accessible type of 3D printing technology, FDM involves the laying down of thin layers of
material, usually a type of plastic. The filament is heated in a nozzle and then "drawn" on layer by layer.
Use Cases
● A"ordable materials and equipment

● Consumer grade technology is accessible and easy to maintain
● Printing functional prototypes
● Variety of materials can be printed
Limitations
● Relatively slow
Stereolithography (SLA)
In this process, an object is created by selectively curing a thin layer of liquid resin with a laser. A laser
heats selected areas of the resin, turning it into a solid. The process continues until the piece is
completed.
Use cases
● Build functional prototypes
● High resolution allows for tiny objects to be printed
● Requires little cleaning up
Limitations
● Relatively high cost of materials and printers
● Some resins are not ideal for functional prototypes
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
In this process, layers of plastic, metal, or paper are cut with a laser and then stacked on top of each
other. An adhesive is applied between each layer.
Large parts can be made, compared to plastic FDM technologies. The parts can also be refined, cut, or
milled afterward.
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
In this process, a CO2 laser fuses powder, layer by layer, to create a 3D form. Similar to SLA, a layer of
powder is laid down and sintered (burnt) with a laser. The build plate moves down and another layer of
powder is added. This new layer is sintered, and so on until the form is complete. Unsintered powder is
removed from the chamber to reveal a complete 3D form. The unsintered powder can be reused.
A range of materials can be used in SLS processes, from nylons and polymers, to ceramics and metal
alloys.
Use Cases
● little waste as unused powder can be reused
● low-run production possible
● printing of functional prototypes
● printing of metal alloys--no other systems are capable
Limitations
● high cost of materials and equipment
Topic 4 - Final Production

4.1 - Properties of Materials
ssential Materials are selected for manufacturing products based primarily on their properties.
ature of The rapid pace of scientific discovery and new technologies has had a major impact on
esign material science, giving designers many more materials from which to choose for their
products.
These new materials have given scope for “smart” new products or enhanced classic designs.
Choosing the right material is a complex and di#cult task with physical, aesthetic, mechanical
and appropriate properties to consider.
Environmental, moral and ethical issues surrounding choice of materials for use in any product,
service, or system also need to be considered.
Materials are often developed by materials engineers to have specific properties. The
development of new materials allows designers to create new products, which solve old
problems in new ways.
For example, the explosion of plastic materials following the second world war enabled
products to be made without using valuable metals.
uidance ● Understand and identify the Physical properties: mass, weight, volume, density,
electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness
● Understand and Identify Mechanical properties: tensile and compressive strength,
sti"ness, toughness, ductility, elasticity, plasticity, Young’s modulus, stress and strain
● Understand and Identify Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, appearance and
texture
● Properties of smart materials: piezoelectric, shape memory, photochromic, magneto-
rheostatic, electro-rheostatic and thermoelectric
● Design contexts where physical properties, mechanical properties and/or aesthetic
characteristics are important
● Design contexts where properties of smart materials are exploited
● Using stress/strain graphs and material selection charts to identify appropriate
materials
Designers need to understand the properties of materials to select the most appropriate material to meet
their design goals.
Very successful designs leverage this knowledge to innovate. Through understanding the properties of
materials and the related manufacturing processes, the design can be optimized to take advantage of
the material.
the material.
This is a complex process, with many factors to consider.
Physical Properties of Materials
Mass
*Weight and Mass are often confused and used interchangeably.
The amount of matter contained in a space. Mass is constant and is measured in kg.
The mass of an object is constant, regardless of where it is measured. A 2kg object on Earth will have
the same mass of 2kg on Mars.
Design Context:
● From the perspective of ergonomics and performance, weight can be a critical factor.
Bicycle frames, for instance, must balance weight with other factors such as sti"ness to
optimize ride performance. Thus balancing of two factors often leads to innovative and
technically complex design solutions.
Weight
*Weight and Mass are often confused and used interchangeably.
Weight is technically a force and is measured in Newtons (N). Weight will change depending on
the gravity. An object with a weight of 2N on Earth will have a weight of 0.7N on Mars.
Volume
Volume is the amount of 3-dimensional space a solid, gas, or liquid occupies.
Design Context:
● Volume can be explored from many di"erent perspectives: as a container of space. Some
designs' context may specify specific volume considerations that are related to performance needs. An
interior volume of a technical backpack, for example, would be a key performance factor, and something
that hikers may use to compare products. In addition, a market may have pre-established volumes that
consumers expect products to follow - think drink containers or food packaging
Density
Density is the relationship between mass and a unit of volume. It is measured in mass/volume such as
40kg/m2
Design Context:
● From the perspective of design, density is an important property where mass and volume are
important. This could include contexts such protective foams in bicycle helmets or foam mattresses.
Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity is a materials ability to conduct or resist electricity.
Design Context:
● This is an important material property when considering the design of an electrical
component or safety equipment to be used around electricity. The Designer must know what
the intended material will need to do: either insulate (have a high resistance, poorly conduct
electricity); or conduct (low resistance, easily conduct electricity)
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity measures how fast heat moves through a material.
For objects that are to be heated, or used around heat, thermal conductivity is important for designers to
consider.
Design Context:
● Wood handled cooking utensils are poor conductors of heat, and so are comfortable to use
● Wood handled cooking utensils are poor conductors of heat, and so are comfortable to use
while cooking--metal handled cooking utensils conduct heat quickly and can be a safety
hazard.
Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is the degree to which a material increases its dimensions when heated. Di"erent
materials may expand at di"erent rates. For designers, thermal expansion is important to consider when
joining two di"erent metals together such as when designing cooking ware or any items that receive heat
or flame.
Design Context:
● Pyrex glassware is made from borosilicate or soda-lime glass which have low thermal
expansion rates. These objects can be used in ovens and on open flames for cooking.
Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a material to scratching or penetration.
Design Context:
● Ceramic tiles are very tough surfaces that are resistant to scratching, and as such are used in
high-tra#c public spaces like subway stations.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tensile strength
The ability of a material to resist pulling forces.
Design Context:
Tensile strength is an important performance consideration for designs that need to resist pulling.
● Elevator cables, for instance, need to have a high tensile strength in order to function safely and
reliably.
● Cables in suspension bridges need to support the deck of the bridge.
Compressive strength
The ability of a material to resist pushing forces.
Design Context:
When selecting materials that will support heavy loads, the ability of the material to resist being squashed
is an important performance consideration.
● In construction, concrete foundations are used to support the structure of the building.
● Glass has a very high compressive strength and is used in modern buildings.
Sti"ness
The ability to resist deflection (bending) by a force. the object can maintain its shape when a force is
applied to it.
Design Context:
For objects where the shape needs to be maintained under high forces, sti"ness is an important
performance consideration.
● Airplane wings need to maintain their shape in order to e#ciently provide lift and control.
Toughness
The ability to deform (change shape) but resist cracking and not fracture under impact. If a material
breaks into numerous small pieces when impacted, it has a low degree of toughness.
breaks into numerous small pieces when impacted, it has a low degree of toughness.
Design Context:
Toughness is a performance consideration that is important where abrasion or cutting will take place.
● Car bumpers need to be able to absorb energy from an impact but not crack or break.
Ductility
The ability to be drawn or extruded into a wire-like form.
Design Context:
Ductility is usually a consideration in the manufacture of a material;
● Extruded aluminum has a high level of ductility, which allows it to be manufactured into the
shapes below:
Elasticity
The ability to a material to bend and then return to its original shape.
Design Context:
Elasticity is a performance consideration if the design must flex or bend when a force is applied, but
return to its original shape.
● A pole-vaulting poles need to flex when a force is applied to it in order to propel the athlete over
the bar.
Plasticity
The ability of a material to be formed into a new shape. When the material is bent or deformed beyond
its yield it does not return to its original shape.
Design Context:
Plasticity is an important consideration in the manufacture objects, particularly plastics and metals.
● Metal casting
● Plastic blow molding
Young's Modulus and Stress and Strain
Designers and engineers use Young's Modulus to select materials appropriate for the design context.
Essentially, Young's Modulus will indicate when a material will bend, then break.
Young's Modulus is a measure of the sti"ness of an elastic material. It is the ratio of stress to strain of a
material as force is applied along its length. Each material has its own unique modulus.
Stress and Strain are usually plotted on a graph, as below, and show the relationship between the
amount of force applied (Stress) to how much the materials changes in length.
Specifically,
● Stress is the tensile force applied to a given area.
● Strain is the percentage of change in length when a force is applied to the initial length
Understanding a Stress-Strain graph Comparison of di"erent stress-strain profiles
of the graph of telling a journey. As more force is As a student of design, it is necessary to understand what
d to material sample, it will undergo a series of the graph represents, and how it would influence the
es. It will move through di"erent zones, each choice of materials. As a designer, the goal is to find the
ng its performance characteristics, until it ideal material for the design context.
s a failure point (it breaks) ● Material A represents a material that can
: Region of Elasticity. If the material was withstand a great amount of force, but then fails
ed and then the force was released, it would suddenly. It is brittle, and would likely break into
to its original shape. many small pieces. Glass or ceramics would be
d Point. This is the point at which the material a good example. There is no elastic zone.
longer return to its original shape. It has now ● Material B represents a material that is
d the plastic region. strong, but not ductile. Steel wires are very
mate Tensile Strength (UTS). This is the point at strong, but break suddenly. There is a small
the material can maintain a maximum load. After elastic zone.
int, the material is moving towards its breaking ● Material C represents a material that is
re point. Necking occurs between point C and ductile, and could be extruded to create wires or
cables.
ure Point. This is the point at which the material ● Material D represents a very plastic material.
y breaks. It has almost no elastic zone, and a very large
plastic zone.
Reading a Material Selection Chart

Material selection charts compare two material properties. The materials are plotted on the chart and
displayed in groups.
Using the resources University of Cambridge Materials Engineering Department, you can explore
di"erent properties and materials to use in your design.
Aesthetic Properties of Materials

Aesthetic properties are those that are related to beauty and pleasure derived from a material.
Designers need to consider the aesthetic properties of the material they choose, and how these are
perceived by di"erent users. Remember, reactions to certain aesthetic properties are personal and
change from person to person.
Form and shape
The shape and form of the material can influence how users interact and engage with it. We have
di"erent reactions to organic and geometric shapes.
The material can also determine the form or shape of a product. For example, plywood sheets used in
furniture often give furniture a geometric form; while plastic, because of its plasticity, can allow an object
to have organic forms.
Sound
The sound a material makes when it is touched or manipulated can also be part of the user experience.
The noisy sound of a bag of chips opening is part of the eating experience -- it heightens expectations
Car designers engineer the sounds of the car doors to create unique signatures for a particular car
model or brand.
Smell
Smell has compelling connections with memory. The smell of a material is largely a concern for food,
however product designers should consider it.
The leather in Cadillac cars has a distinctive scent called Nuance. This scent was engineered by the
company to provide a "new car smell" and to improve the driving experience.
Properties of Smart Materials
Smart materials are reactive materials. They change their properties when exposed to stimuli such as
electrical charges, moisture, or temperature. Their use be designers can open up new and innovative
possibilities for product designs.
Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity
The ability to release an electric charge when deformed. When an electric current is passed through a
piezoelectric material its volume will increase or it will vibrate.
Design Context:
Piezoelectric materials are often used in sensors and to generate electricity.
● Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure the force of impact in airbag sensors. When the
force exceeds a pre-determined value, the sensor sends a signal to activate the airbag.
Shape memory
Shape memory alloys (SMAs)have a pseudo-elastic property that allows them body to return to its
original shape after deforming. Their shape changing property can be stimulated by either a change in
temperature or the application of an electric current. When the load is released, the body returns to its
original shape.
Design Context:
● The frames of some eyeglasses use SMAs to create a flexible frame
● Medical devices such as Nitinol stents use SMAs to repair damaged blood vessels. to allow
a thin device to be inserted into a vein. As the device heats up because of the body heat, it
changes shape and keeps the blood vessel open.
Photochromacity
The ability to change color when exposed to light.
Design Context:
The most common application is in glasses to change the color or tint of the glass when exposed to UV
light.
● Many brands of sports glasses o"er photochromatic lenses that adjust their tint depending
on the brightness of the surroundings. In bright light like a sunny day the lenses darken; in
overcast or dark conditions the lenses are lighten and become more transparent. the benefit
for the user is that glasses will automatically adjust to changing light conditions.
Magneto-rheostatic
Fluids that undergo a change in their viscosity (thickness) when a magnetic force is applied. The change
can change from a thick fluid to a solid almost instantaneously.
Design Context:
Maneto-rheostatic fluids are often used to dampen or absorb shock.
● Shock absorbers in cars
● Body armor can be flexible to allow for movement, but harden when an object hits it.
Electro-rheostatic
Fluids that undergo a change in their viscosity when an electrical force is applied. The change can be
almost instantaneous. The change can change from a thick fluid to a solid almost instantaneously.
Design Context:
● Due to the ability to be manufactured at small scale, electro-heostatic materials can be used
to create minimal valves.
Thermoelectric
Two di"erent conductors, that when joined together generate electricity when heat is applied. The
Two di"erent conductors, that when joined together generate electricity when heat is applied. The
materials of the conductors determine the amount of electricity generated. The most common material is
Bismuth tellurium (Bi2Te3)
Design Context:
The two-main applications of thermoelectrical devices is power generation and refrigeration.
● Space probes may use thermoelectric materials to power radio transmitters.
● Some electric and hybrid cars have thermoelectric generators mounted in parts of the car
where heat is generated to recapture the heat energy to use to recharge the battery.
4.3 - Scales of Production
ssential The scale of production depends on the number of products required.
ature of Decisions on scale of production are influenced by the volume or quantities required, types of
esign materials used to make the products and the type of product being manufactured.
There are also considerations of sta#ng, resources and finance.
The growing phenomenon of mass customization brings consumers into the design process,
allowing them to make choices that make a product unique, to make it their own.
Companies have developed “design stations” in their retail stores where consumers can create
virtual 3D models, “try them out” using digital technology and place their order.
uidance ● understand the di"erences between one-o", batch production and continuous flow
● Mass customization
● Selecting an appropriate scale of production
● Advantages and disadvantages of di"erent scales of production
Economies of scale
Designers and companies will select a manufacturing scale depending on the size of the market.
Economy of scale refers to the increased cost savings associated with higher production runs.
But larger, more complex and e#cient manufacturing processes require a greater initial investment in
equipment and labor needed to produce larger quantities.
One-O" Production
One-o" production is what its name represents. Only one or very few items are produced.
This type of production is usually made to very specific needs and specifications by a client.
Typically, this type of production requires a set of highly specialized skills and tools, and time, which is
often reflected in a higher cost. It is common for a one-o" design to be designed and manufactured by
the same person.
In developing countries, one-o" production is an important role in the local economy as it utilizes local
materials, craftspeople, and resources to create products for the local community.
In high-end crafts such as jewelry or metal working, consumers expect the item to be a one-o", and as
such are willing to pay a higher price.
● highly customizable to meet a specific ● High production costs because cost of tools and
consumer or client's needs machines are included in total cost
● Allows for development of high-fidelity ● Time-consuming as production processes are often
prototypes that can then be used to labor-intensive and require highly specialized skills
develop items for batch production or ● Cannot take advantage of economies of scale.
mass production. ● High cost may limit accessibility to people in need
Batch production
Batch production refers to a set number of the item be manufactured. Batch production process are
typically broken down into discrete steps, with each subsequent step dependent on the previous one.
Each step would involve a combination of specialized machines, processes, and workers.
Because the processes need to be integrated, batch production is often dependent on a team of
designers, engineers, and specialists to collaborate.
● lower unit costs ● Goods need to be

stored, adding to cost
● Allows for some customization of parts, but not at the scale of one-o"
production
● Adjustable and responsive to market demand and seasonal production
● Lower capital outlay as same production line can be used for several
products
Mass Production
Mass production is production at a huge scale.
Typically, these are products that are needed in massive quantities that require little redesign.
A major consideration with this type of production method is labor costs —mass-produced items are
typically produced in regions with low labor costs.
Because mass-produced items may be made far away from their intended market, the transportation
and distribution of the products can add to the final costs as well as contribute to the carbon footprint
(See LCA and Carbon Footprint)
● Very low unit costs ● Little to no customization is possible because of the high initial investment
due to high rate of and specialized equipment.
production ● Distribution and transportation play a larger role in production planning and
● Low labor costs assessment of carbon impact.
Continuous Flow
Continuous Flow Manufacturing is similar to mass production in that involves the large-scale production
of goods. However, its key di"erence is that it is a highly automated process that leverages automated
and robotic production technologies to keep production going 24 hours a day/7 days a week.
The automation reduces the labor costs and maximizes the production e#ciency.
● Lowest per-unit costs ● in-flexible production line because of high

● High mechanized and automated processes specialized equipment and workflow; the cost of
● Lower materials costs as raw materials are changing or re-tooling is very high
purchased in very high quantities. ● Very high initial investment costs
Mass Customization
Mass customization aims to deliver a customized product using mass production methods.
Such systems typically allow the consumer to select aspects of the design, such as color, texture, and
certain elements.
The customized product is then produced using Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) systems.
Modern computer-aided manufacturing systems allow both small companies and big brands to combine
the low unit costs of mass production with the flexibility of individual customization and enable you to get
unique products for inexpensive prices.
Mass Customization Directory
● Highly customized to users' needs and wants ● Short product life cycle
● Integrates consumers into the value chain ● Dependent on integrated systems
● Highly responsive to changing consumer (Web, marketing, production, CIM, and distribution)
preferences and demand in order to be successful
● Short product development cycle
4.4 - Manufacturing processes

Additive Manufacturing
Paper-based rapid prototyping (PRP)

In this process, layers of paper are cut and then glued together to create a three-dimensional
shape.
● This process is cost-e"ective and useful in producing presentation models for prototyping.
● Another advantage is that it is more environmentally friendly than other plastics-based rapid
prototyping methods.
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

LOM is similar to PRP, in that it uses thin layers of polymer which are cut and layered together.
● This process is used to create scale and presentation models which can be used to gather
user/client feedback on form.
Stereolithography (SLA)
In this process, an object is created by selectively curing a thin layer of liquid resin with a laser.
● A laser heats selected areas of the resin, turning it into a solid.
● The process continues until the piece is completed.
Fused Deposit Manufacturing (FDM) - 3D Printing

The most accessible type of 3D printing technology, FDM, involves the laying down of thin layers
of material, usually a type of plastic.
● The filament is heated in a nozzle and then "drawn" on layer by layer.
Shaping Techniques
Molding - A mold is a hollow form into which a material like plastic, glass, or metal is injected or
placed. Molds allow for the accurate production of a product. Designers need to consider the material
and scale of production and match it to the type of molding process.
Injection Molding
Parts are produced by injecting a liquid material into a mold. As the material is heated and then cooled, it
takes on the form of the mold. There is very little waste with this process
Plastic is the most common material used in this process, but glass and metals can also be used.
Use Cases:
● Used for solid forms, with simple or complex shapes.
● Most common type of plastic production method.
● Check out Precious Plastics design for a DIY injection molding machine.
● Check out Precious Plastics design for a DIY injection molding machine.
highly accurate ● Requires expensive equipment

fast production ● restrictions on part dimensions and forms
Blow Molding
Blow molding is the process of inflating a hot hollow plastic inside a mold. The heated material takes the
form of the mold. Glass can also be used in this process
Use Cases:
● Commonly used to make hollow forms such as drink bottles and containers.
Compression Molding
In compression molding, a heated sheet of thermoses plastic is placed into a mold. The then applies
pressure to shape the plastic.
Use Cases:
● Flatware
● Tableware
● Electric plugs
lower production costs compared to other methods ● limited to relatively simple forms
ideal for high production runs
suitable for products requiring thick walls
Rotational Molding
In rotational molding a heated hollow mold is rotated as thermo plastic is poured in. The liquid plastic
takes the form of the mold as it moves around the interior.
Use Cases:
● Commonly used to make large hollow forms such floats and toys where the inside surface is
not relevant
molds are lower cost to produce ● material costs can be higher compared to
ideal for large forms, compared to other processes. other processes.
ideal for rigid and flexible shapes
low waste
Thermoforming
Thermoforming involves the heating of a sheet of thermoplastic to the point that it becomes pliable and
soft. It is then placed into a mold to be formed into a shape.
Thermoforming commonly uses vacuum forming to create the product.
Use Cases:
● disposable cups and containers
● clamshell packaging and blister packaging
● body parts for cars, machines, or products
high production speed ● limitation on size and shapes

relatively cost-e"ective
low tooling costs
Laminating
Laminating involves the laying down of thin layers of material joined with an adhesive.
Use Cases:
● wood furniture
● glass windows
● plastic
cost-e"ective ● time-consuming to laminate (if creating the

high strength to weight ratio laminate rather than purchasing it pre-laminated)
range of veneers can be applied to laminate ● bending of laminated wood requires special
equipment and techniques
Casting
Casting involves the pouring of molten metal into a mold. The shape that is produced is called a casting.
Use Cases:
● advanced casting methods can create very detailed and intricate parts such as model cars
● machine parts and heavy-duty equipment
● complex shapes can be ● labor-intensive

uced ● energy intensive
● range of scale possible (from ● may require finishing after casting (additional processes)
o huge)
Subtractive Manufacturing Techniques

Cutting
Cutting involves the removal of material to create a product. This can involve saws, scissors, blades, or
CNC machines.
Machining
Is a process whereby a cutting tool moves across and around the surface of a material. The machines
can be CNC controlled or operated by a user.
Turning
Turning rotates a material along a horizontal axis while a cutting tool is moved along the surface to
remove material.
It commonly used to create cylindrical forms, and open round forms (like wooden bowls)
Milling
Milling involves the movement of a rotating bit over the surface of a material, moving on a vertical axis.
The material is fixed to a work surface, and the rotating bit is moved up and down and around the
material.
Drilling
Drilling involves a spinning bit moving up and down the z-axis to create a hole in material.
Abrading
Abrading is the process of using an abrasive to grind or rub away material.
Abrading is the process of using an abrasive to grind or rub away material.

Abrasives are compounds that are used to grind, sand or polish a material. They can be used to remove
material for shaping or to create a smooth surface. Abrasive can be attached to a hard surface or
suspended in a liquid. Abrasives need to be harder than the material they are being used on in order for
them to be e"ective.
Abrasive grades
The coarseness of an abrasive will a"ect how much material it removes as well as the smoothness of the
surface. A coarse abrasive will remove material quickly and leave a rough surface. A fine abrasive will
remove material very slowly and leave a smooth surface.
The process of smoothing typically begins with coarse abrasives and moves toward finer abrasives.
The coarseness of abrasives is sometimes referred to as grit or grade. The higher the grit, the
finer the abrasive.
Grinder
Grinders use an abrasive compound embedded in a spinning disc.
The material is held against the spinning disc and ground away.
Sander
This process is used for shaping a form and removing marks from manufacturing.
Sanders use abrasives attached to a moving surface. The material is held against the surface and
ground away.
Polishing
This process is used for shaping a form and removing marks from manufacturing.
Polishing involves the use of compounds to achieve a very smooth surface with particular aesthetic
qualities (shiny, reflective, etc.)
Joining Techniques
Fasteners
Joining techniques are categorized as temporary or permanent.
Permanent Joining Techniques
Adhesive (glue)
Adhesives, or glue, are a chemical substance then when dried creates a bond between two
surfaces. Adhesives need to be carefully matched to the materials and use situations.
Modern adhesives are extremely strong and are designed to be used in very technical situations (high
heat, cold, or extreme conditions)
Welding and Brazing

Welding and brazing are methods for joining metal to metal. However, their processes and applications
are di"erent.
Welding
● high heat to join two similar metals together.
○ The bond is strong.
○ The high heat results in greater energy used and can deform the metal.
○ Great skill and specialized equipment is required.
Brazing
● lower heat and a filler metal to join two parts
● lower heat and a filler metal to join two parts

○ As such, it is possible to join two di"erent metals together.
○ The lower heat used in brazing means less energy is used, and the two metals
are less likely to be deformed.
Permanent Fasteners
Permanent fasteners are nails or rivets that bind two or more pieces together.
low cost ● cannot be removed without damage

easy to apply ● not ideal for Design for Disassembly contexts
create a strong mechanical bond
Temporary Joining Techniques

Fasteners
These include fasteners that can be used and removed. There is a range of temporary fasteners, each
designed for specific materials and use cases.
These types of fasteners are often used to join two or more dissimilar materials together, or in cases
where pieces need to be joined and later separated
● Velcro shoelaces
● knockdown flat-pack furniture
4.5 - Production Systems

ssential The development of increasingly sophisticated production systems is transforming the way
products are made.
ature of As a business grows in size and produces more units of output, then it will aim to experience
falling average costs of production—economies of scale.
esign
The business is becoming more e#cient in its use of inputs to produce a given level of output.
Designers should incorporate internal and external economies of scale when considering
di"erent production methods and systems for manufacture.
The design of a production system requires a complete understanding of a product, its function
and the quality of finish.
Each system can be unique and specific to the product it is creating, often requiring the
designers to adapt their design to be manufactured using certain methods.
designers to adapt their design to be manufactured using certain methods.
uidance As DP Design Technology student you should:

● Craft production
● Mechanized production
● Automated production
● Assembly line production
● Mass production, customization
● Computer numerical control (CNC)
● Production system selection criteria
● Design for manufacture (DFM): design for materials, design for process, design for
assembly, design for disassembly, and adaptations
Guidance:
● Advantages and disadvantages of di"erent production systems
● Impact of di"erent production systems on the workforce and environment
● Production system selection criteria include time, labor, skills and training, health and
safety, cost, type of product, maintenance, impact on the environment and quality
management
● Design contexts where di"erent production systems are used
Each production system has unique components, advantages, and limitations. For designers,
understanding these factors can allow them to optimize the design to reduce costs.
Through careful analysis of the materials, scale of production, and types of production methods, the
manufacture of the product can be optimized.
Craft Production
Craft production is a small-scale production process centered on manual skills. Custom designed
furniture, pottery, and jewelry are common examples.
Craft production was the dominant form of production in pre-industrialized societies.
Today in the developed world, craft production is typically associated with high-quality, unique goods
manufactured by a crafts' person; Accordingly, consumers are more willing to pay a higher price for the
product due to the perceived value.
Environmental Impact
● May not be designed for disassembly
● Typically, use higher quality materials, and in lower quantities. Higher prices can justify more
expensive material choices and processes.
Workforce Impact
● Training and apprenticing may take much time.
● Crafts persons often have to manage all aspects (marketing, production, design, accounting) of
a business.
● Highly skilled and specialized product ● low economy of scale

● Highly customizable to specific needs of client ● time-consuming and labor-intensive
● Higher status associated with craft good due to ● high labor costs
● Higher status associated with craft good due to ● high labor costs
their unique nature
Mechanized Production
Mechanized production is a volume production process involving machines controlled by humans. The
machines assist the workers in increasing their productivity, quality, and safety. These could include
conveyor belts to speed up production speed, cranes to move heavy materials, or jigs to assist with the
production of parts.
● increased pollution produced
● increased energy need
Workforce Impact
● higher wages as workers need to be trained
● repetitive work
● lower job satisfaction
● healthy and safety in factories can be an issue.
● repetitive tasks carried out by machines ● increased cost for training and machinery
● increased productivity ● reduction in consumer choice as
● increased quality of product human error reduced mechanization limits customization
Automated Production
Automated production is a volume production process involving machines controlled by computers.
Automated systems use CAD, CAM, and CNC to link computers to manufacturing equipment
● Less waste is produced as the production system can be optimized
Workforce Impact
● Lower labor costs as fewer workers are needed to oversee production and control
● Workers need to be highly trained and skilled to operate machinery
● Improved health and safety as few workers are operating machines
● Higher quality ● High cost of equipment

● Closer fidelity between CAD drawings and final product ● only economically feasibly for high
● Higher productivity as machines can work 24/7 production runs (economy of scale)
Assembly Line Production

Assembly line production is a volume production process where products and components are moved
continuously along a conveyor. As the product goes from one work station to another, components are
added until the final product is assembled.
● Increased pollution due to higher levels of production
● Increased pollution due to higher levels of production

Workforce Impact
● Repetitive tasks can increase injury and decrease job satisfaction
● Economy of scale ● Limited opportunity for customization

● High production volume ● Can be expensive to retool for new products
of similar products is ● Dependent on reliable supply of parts and materials and timely
possible distribution to be economically viable.
Mass Production
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines,
permitting very high rates of production per worker.
Mass Customization Production
Mass customization is a sophisticated CIM system that manufactures products to individual customer
orders. The benefits of economy of scale are gained whether the order is for a single item or thousands.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Computer numerical control (CNC) refers to the computer control of machines for the purpose of
manufacturing complex parts in metals and other materials. Machines are controlled by a programme
commonly called a “G code”. Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process. The codes
control X, Y and Z movement and feed speeds.
CNC and CAD (Computer-Aided Design) work together. The CAD file contains information about
product, dimensions, etc.. This is interpreted by the CNC machine to produce the final product.
3D printers, CNC Routers, and Laser Cutters are examples of CNC machines.
● Materials use can be optimized, reducing waste
● Increased energy need
Workforce Impact
● Repetitive tasks can increase injury and decrease job satisfaction
● Highly accurate and e#cient production ● High cost for equipment and training
● Customizable to specific needs and materials
4.5a - Design for Manufacture
Design for Manufacture (DfM)is focused on optimizing the manufacture of the design to meet certain
criteria.
This optimization takes the form of reducing waste, costs, labor, and production time, as well as
reducing product development time.
By understanding and identify these criteria earlier on in the design process, the cost of making changes
during production can be eliminated or reduced.
Design for Materials

Designing in relation to the materials used to manufacture the design.
A designer might consider:
● The availability of certain materials locally. Locally available materials might be cheaper, have a
lower carbon footprint, or more directly benefit local suppliers.
● The environmental impact of using sustainable materials.
● The physical and mechanical properties of a material might be integral to the performance of
the product. As such, the form or manufacture of the product would be dictated by the material's
properties.
Design for Process

Designing to enable the product to be manufactured using a specific manufacturing process, for
example, injection molding.
● The types of production systems and equipment available.

● The types of materials that a particular production equipment would require.
● The types of fasteners and joints that would be used.
● Ways the design can be optimized to reduce manufacturing time and errors
Design for Assembly
Designing taking account of assembly at various levels, for example, component to component,
components into sub-assemblies and sub-assemblies into complete products.
DfA is primarily focused on reducing the cost of assembly. These costs would include costs related to
parts and labor.
● Ways to simplify the design so that it requires fewer parts and processes
● Ways to simplify the design so that it requires fewer parts and processes
● How to make parts easier to grasp and assemble to assemble quickly and accurately
● Selecting fasteners that don't require special tools
● Limiting the number of unique parts and fasteners
Design for Disassembly
Designing a product so that when it becomes obsolete it can easily and economically be taken apart, the
components reused or repaired, and the materials repurposed or recycled.
● How parts are assembled and disassembled

● Designing modules that can be replaced easily when repair is needed
● Including information on the product about the materials to aid recycling
● How the parts can be refurbished, reused, and resold
Adapting designs for Design for Manufacturing (DfM)
● Reduce the total number of parts: Adapting a design so that it uses a fewer number of parts will
reduce costs in a number of areas:
○ reduced inventory
○ handling
○ Reduced development and engineering time
● Develop a modular design: Modular designs allow for easier repair and replacement, as well as
fewer overall parts.
○ testing and quality control can be simplified
○ repair, servicing, and replacement is simpler
● Use of standard components: Standardized components reduce the complexity of the design and
save engineering and development
○ lower inventory costs
○ no need to develop, engineer, and prototype the part.
● Design parts to be multi-functional: Developing parts that can serve multiple functions will simplify
the design and reduce the number of parts and associated production costs.
○ Design parts to have multiple functions where practical. For example, a motor housing that also
serves as a base for the product
● Design parts for multi-use: Designing parts that can be used across a range of products will reduce
product development costs and simplify inventory, repair, and replacement.
● Design for ease of fabrication: Designing products that can be assembled in minimal steps, using
minimal machines or tools, and in a logical order
○ Designing to be assembled from bottom up
● Avoid separate fasteners: Separate fasteners add to the production time, machine needs, and
inventory costs
○ Replace screws and nuts and bolts with snap-fit or adhesives where practical
● Minimize assembly directions: Simplified and logical assembly procedures will reduce human error
and increase productivity.
● Minimize handling: Reducing the number and length of time a product or part needs to be handled,
transported, or moved can reduce production time and costs
4.6 - Robots in Automation

ssential The development of increasingly sophisticated robotic manufacturing systems is transforming
the way products are made
ature of Designers should consider the benefits of increased e#ciency and consistency when using
robots in production and be able to explore the latest advances in technology to ensure the
esign optimum manufacturing process is used.
However, a good designer will also understand their responsibility to consider the moral and
ethical issues surrounding increased use of automation, and the historical impact of lost jobs.
The introduction of robots to an assembly line has had a major impact on the labor force, often
making skilled workers redundant in favor of a technician who can maintain and equip many
robots.

● Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope and load capacity
● Single-task robots
● Multitask robots
● Teams of robots
● Machine to machine (M2M)
Guidance:
● Advantages and disadvantages of using robotic systems in production
● Consider first, second, and third generation robots
Robot Generations
Robots are classified into three generations.
1st Generation Robots
Simple robots that do one task. They are programmed to do one thing, and cannot respond to changes
in their environment. They do not have any sensors.
2nd Generation Robots
Make use of sensors to respond to their environment. Using sensors such as light, distance,
temperature, pressure, radar, etc., they can sense their environment. Complex code uses these sensors
to guide the robots to operate autonomously
Robots used to teach coding and robotics are common examples of 2nd generation robots. Robots
developed by Boston Dynamics can navigate spaces using a range of sensors.
3rd Generation Robots
Make use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to process the world around them and to accomplish tasks. These
are the types of "intelligent" robots we see in movies and pop culture.
They can learn and operate without human supervision.
Robots for healthcare and companion are emerging examples of 3rd generation robots. Other examples
include hive robot systems, where numerous robots, under the control of a central system, cooperate to
accomplish a task.
In this case, the individual robots lack any form of AI, but the controller uses AI to control the group.
Primary Characteristics of Robots
Work Envelope and Load Capacity

The work envelope of a robot is the 3D space a robot can operate within, considering clearance and
reach.
The work envelope is defined by two factors:
● length of arm(s) determines the reach
● Range and number of axes. Each axis adds to a range of motion for the arm. Compare:
○ 3D printers have 3 axes (X, Y, and Z).
○ a 4 or 5 axis CNC router has multiple axes allowing it to reach behind, up, and around
forms.
Types of Robots
Single Task Robots
Single task robots are designed to do one task.
Typically, this is replacing skilled labor, such as painting, welding, or simple picking and placing on an
assembly line.
Their inputs and outputs are fixed, meaning they cannot change their actions without being
reprogrammed.
In the example above, the robot welds the frame. It has been programmed to move to a pre-determined
position and weld a joint. Notice the use of a jig to consistently position the frame in the same position.
Multi Task Robots

Multitask robots can carry out more than one task at a time.
They have flexible inputs and outputs, making use of sensors (light, sound, distance, etc) to respond to
their environment.
Examples include complex picking, placing and sorting, and many hobby or educational robots such as
VEX, LEGO mindstorsm, and Makeblock mBots. The key element here is that multitask robots use
sensors and code to respond to stimuli in the environment.
Robot Teams
Production lines make use of teams of robots to perform tasks.
Type: Multiple 1st Generation Robots working together.
However, recent innovations in AI and production systems are changing the make-up of these types of
teams.
Machine to Machine (M2M)
Machine to Machine refers to networking of robots together to share information and instructions.
Common applications involve remote monitoring of worksites and product restocking.
Topic 5 -Invention and Innovation

5.1 - Invention
ssential The protection of a novel idea of how to solve a problem is a major factor in commercial design
ature of Invention by lone inventors or in collaboration creative teams is at the forefront of design.
esign Designers must not only be creative and innovative but also understand the concepts that will
make a new product viable.
A designer must use imagination and be firmly grounded in factual and procedural knowledge
while remembering the needs and limitations of the end user.
Inventions are often the result of an individual or group’s curiosity about whether something can
be done or a problem can be solved.
On occasion, inventions are the result of an individual’s curiosity about something other than
the product that they finally develop.
These inventions include microwave ovens, ink-jet printers and Post-it® notes.
uidance As a student of design you should understand that

● Drivers for invention include personal motivation to express creativity/for personal
interest, scientific or technical curiosity, constructive discontent, desire to make money,
desire to help others.
● The advantages and disadvantages of being a lone inventor
● Benefits of IP include di"erentiating a business from competitors, selling or licensing
to provide revenue streams, o"ering customers something new and di"erent,
marketing/branding, its value as an asset.
● IP symbols and their application to products and services
Definitions
Invention: the process of discovering a principle which allows a technical advance in a particular field
that results in a novel/new product.
Innovation: making an invention useful and successfully entering it into the marketplace.
Drivers for invention

Express Creativity or for Personal Interest
Inventors might have a creative or personal interest that motivates them to create a new design.
Theo Jansen was motivated by the idea of creating self-sustaining wind-powered creatures that lived on
a beach to develop complex mechanical and movement systems.
The aesthetic and artistic considerations of the kinesthetic sculptures are dependent on developing
innovative mechanisms.
innovative mechanisms.
Constructive Discontent
A dissatisfaction with the current state of things or status quo might motivate an inventor to find
a better solution.
Dyson was dissatisfied with traditional wheelbarrows. The narrow wheels would sink into mud and soft
ground making them di#cult to push.
His dissatisfying experience using a traditional barrow motivated him to explore a di"erent and more
e#cient solution.
Scientific or technical curiosity
An invention may come about as a part of scientific or technical curiosity; Asking, "Is this
possible?"
The laser was originally developed for research into molecular structures, but it has now become an
essential element of several technologies: bar code scanners, CD ROMs, range-finders, and surgery.
Desire to make money
Innovative designs and ideas are essential objectives for successful businesses.
Financially successful designs generate a financial return with can in turn be invested in further research
and development, creating new inventions and innovations.
Gillet safety razors are a well-known example of invention driven by a desire to make money. Realizing
that a disposable razor blade would result in repeat purchases, Gillette developed a system in 1903
whereby the blade was removable from the holder.
Over a century later, Gillette continues to innovate around the concept of a removable blade.
Desire to help others
Improving the world is an essential aspect of design.
A desire to help others is also fundamental to empathy and Design Thinking.
The lone inventor
The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to
the invention of a novel product.
They often become isolated because he or she is engrossed with ideas that may be resisted by others.
Intellectual Property
Intellectual property (IP) is the legally recognized right to creations of the mind.
Common types of intellectual property include:
● copyright
● trademark
● patents
● trade dress
● trade secrets
IP provides businesses with an important legal tool to protect and di"erentiate their products and
services from their competitors.
Business benefit from IP by:
● di"erentiating themselves from competitors
● allowing the sale or licensing of technology which can generate revenue
● allowing the sale or licensing of technology which can generate revenue

● defining marketing and branding
● establishing a brand that has value as an asset
Strategies for protecting IP:
Under IP law, several legal tools are available for companies to protect their IP rights.
● patents: An agreement from a government office to give someone the right to make or sell
a new invention for a certain number of years. Owners of a patent can prevent others from
using, making, or selling a product that uses the idea - or they can charge a fee to do so and
earn revenue.
● trademark: A trademark is a symbol, word, or words legally registered or established by
use as representing a company or product.
● design protection/trade dress: A simple and cost-effective way to protect an innovative
shape, appearance or ornamentation
● copyright: A legal right that grants the creator of an original work exclusive ownership for
its use and distribution. Usually for a limited time and within geographical boundaries,
copyright allows the creator to receive compensation for their intellectual effort.
● service mark: A trademark used to identify a service rather than a product.
Shelved technologies
Occasionally, a technology may be invented and developed, but not brought to market. It is then
shelved, kept as an asset, but not sold or licensed.
There are several reasons for this:
● Cost: current costs for manufacture may be too high, and thus the product is not brought
to market
● Technological: the concept may be well-developed but key technical innovations are still
lacking.
● Social: Consumers may not be ready for the product as they perceive it unnecessary,
strange, aesthetically unappealing, or unsafe.
5.2 - Innovation
ssential There are many di"erent types of innovation.
ature of Designers will be successful in the marketplace when they solve long-standing problems,
improve on existing solutions or find a “product gap”. The constant evaluation and
esign redevelopment of products is key, with unbiased analysis of consumers and commercial
opportunities.
In order for an invention to become an innovation, the idea of the product needs to be
e"ectively communicated. The communication can take many forms and be between many
stakeholders.
uidance ● Invention and innovation

● Categories of innovation: sustaining innovation, disruptive innovation, process
innovation
● Innovation strategies for design: architectural innovation, modular innovation,
configuration innovation
configuration innovation
● Innovation strategies for markets: di"usion and suppression
Guidance:
● Reasons why few inventions become innovations
● Examples of products within the categories of innovation
● Examples where innovation strategies have been used for products

An innovation is the practical application of an invention that improves
Categories of Innovation
Sustaining Innovation
Sustain innovation is the continuous development of a product throughout its lifecycle.
The clearest example of this process exists in the cellphone market. The original iPhone, now over a
decade old, is in a continuous state of innovation.
Most breakthrough products will not last very long without a continuous process of sustaining innovation
to give new life into new iterations and versions.
Companies may sustain innovation in several ways:

● Adding new functions or abilities and/or improving existing functionality: Consider how the
quality of cameras and batteries in phones have developed in each iteration. This informative
article compares the features of the original iPhone with the iPhone X.
● Cost reduction: As production increases companies can take advantage of economies of scale
and pass on the savings to consumers. Also, innovations in materials and production processes
may result in cost savings.
● Product expansion: As the product begins to grow in the market, companies may o"er di"erent
versions, sizes, or colors to meet a broader range of user's needs and tastes. Apple has
experimented with this approach by o"ering "s" models of some versions of its phones. These
models come in di"erent colors and di"erent feature sets.
Disruptive Innovation
Disruptive Innovation is a product that challenges existing companies to either ignore or embrace
the change.
At their most powerful, disruptive innovations force existing companies to complete change their
products or risk being obsolete. Some examples include:
Digital music players
○ The iPod revolutionized the way people purchased and listened to music. Existing
portable music systems (CDs and cassette tapes) we obsolete within a decade. With the
advent of iMusic and iTunes, people purchased digital versions of music and listen to it in
a di"erent - some would argue that iTunes killed the album, as most people list to just
songs.
Web-based video / Video on Demand
○ Netflix, Hulu, and other Video On Demand (VOD) services change the way consumers
watch video. We can now watch what we want, when we want. We can watch entire
seasons in one sitting, if we want to. Traditional cable providers have had to change their
pricing models, the types of shows they o"er, and to even begin o"ering VOD options.
Ride-sharing
○ Uber, Lyft, and other services have put the power of ride sharing in both the riders and
driver's hands. This radical change has challenged existing traditional taxi services, not to
mention laws and regulations that have governed them. Read more about ride sharing
here.
3D Printing
○ As 3D printing continues to play an essential role in the 4th Industrial Revolution, they
way things are made is changing. See Topic 3.5: Rapid Prototyping for more
Process Innovation
Process innovation is an improvement in how a product is manufactured and distributed, leading
to reduced costs or increased benefits for consumers.
Innovation Strategies for Designers
Architectural and Modular Innovation
Designers may approach innovation from two di"erent directions: Architectural or Modular.
Key to understanding these two concepts is the type and degree of innovation.
Let's look at two examples:
1. Architectural innovation focuses on how the parts of a design are arranged and interact with
each other.
2. Modular innovation focuses on changing a single part of the design, while other parts remain
unchanged.
Innovation Strategies for Markets

Di"usion
Di"usion is the rate at which a new product is accepted by a market. It describes how the
product moves from being used by a small group of users to becoming widely used.
Once the product has been adopted by the market place, one of two things can happen: The product
continues to dominate through sustained, incremental improvements; or its dominance is replaced by a
new radical product.
ATM cards are good example of technology as they have become the de facto method for for accessing
and using ATM machines and making purchases. Interestingly, these are now being challenged by digital
payment services such as Apply Pay, Square, Google Pay and other systems, which use online, mobile,
and wireless technologies to make payments.
Suppression
Suppression is the active slowing or prevention of a new product entering the market.
This is usually done by incumbent companies to protect their interests. Disagreements of patents on the
new product may slow or prevent its entry and adoption into the marketplace.
Competing companies may use their large resources and power to make it challenging for a new
company to introduce an innovative product. Competitors could lower their prices or use other
marketing strategies that would make it di#cult for the new company to gain market share. Government
legislation could also be used by governments to protect national industries or companies.
Challenges to Inventions Becoming Innovations
Marketability
Innovative products face many challenges to successfully entering a marketplace.
Understanding these challenges can inform the direction of the design and design and marketing
strategies that may need to be taken by the company.
Financial Backing
There may be low market demand for an innovation, or the target market has not been identified
and exploited.
Marketing
A company may lack the financial resources to bring an innovation to market.
In addition, within the company, financial resources may not be provided to adequately develop and
market the innovation
Marketing strategies, including the shipping, advertising, storage and distribution, and sales may not be
e"ective. Consumers may not understand the unique selling points of the product (poor advertising and
promotion), or be able to purchase the product easily (poor distribution, shipping)
Need
There may not be a perceived need for the product, and as such no market for it.
Price
The retail price may not match consumers' perceived value of the product
Resistance to Change
Consumers may be reluctant to adopt a new and innovative product, particularly if the innovation
is radical.
Risk
Consumers may perceive the time or cost they have to invest in the new product as not worth it.
The perceived value and the company's ability to stand behind that value needs to be established in
order for the level of risk to be reduced.
5.3 - Strategies for innovation

ssential Designers have a range of strategies for innovation.
ature of Companies encourage advancements in technology and services, usually by investing in

research and development (R&D) activities. Even though the R&D may be carried out by a
esign range of di"erent experts from varied fields of research, the development process is often
based on common principles and strategies to identify the direction of development. This
methodology structures the R&D of new technologies and services.
Innovation should always occur in context and an in-depth understanding of the culture as well
as the behaviors, needs and wants of the consumer is required.
as the behaviors, needs and wants of the consumer is required.

● recognize and describe design strategies that were used in di"erent contexts
Act of insight
An act of insight is an idea that suddenly comes to a person.
One well-known example is the invention of the post-it note by Arthur Fry, an engineer at 3M.
Adaptation
Adaption describes how a solution in one field is used to provide a solution to a new problem in a
di"erent field.
Dyson noticed that the design of large industrial extraction units could be adapted and scaled down to
the size of a portable vacuum cleaner. The distinctive shape tech
Technology transfer
Technology transfer describes how a technology developed in one context is applied in di"erent
and new contexts.
The best example of this is the laser (Topic 5.1). The same technology has been used in a wide variety of
applications: welding, CD ROMs, cutting, surgery, and bar code readers.
Analogy
Analogy is the use of an idea from one area to develop an innovation in a new area.
The Wright Brothers looked at how birds twisted their wings to stabilize their flight, and designed the
wings of their aircraft to also twist in order to maintain balance.
Biomimicry is a formalized application of this approach, where designers investigate how nature solved a
particular design problem, and use the that knowledge to develop a solution for the design context.
Chance
Sometimes unexpected discoveries can lead to new ideas.
For the inventor, it is important to notice and realize the potential for this "unexpected" discovery and
consider how it might be applied to an existing problem.
History has many examples of chance discoveries, including:
■ Microwave oven: originally working on a radar device
■ Air conditioner: originally trying to make a dehumidifier for a newspaper printing factory
Technology push
Sometimes, a technical development will be the driving force of the innovation, despite there not
being an identified need for a solution.
This is sometimes called "a solution looking for a problem" in the sense that need is non-existent.
The original Sony Walkman is a good example of this.
Neither a market nor a need existed for a portable cassette player. Yet, the introduction of the Walkman
not only created a market that didn't exist, but became a critical revenue generator for Sony.
Market pull
Market pull refers to consumer demand for an innovation or solution.
It can also refer to a need to respond to competitors innovations in an e"ort to maintain market share.
Market research plays an important role in determining how a company will respond to consumer needs,
Market research plays an important role in determining how a company will respond to consumer needs,
and what form their solution will take.
A good example of this is the increase in screen size of mobile phones over time--largely driven by
consumer demand for larger screens to watch video and surf the internet.
5.4 - Stakeholders in invention and innovation

ssential There are three key roles in invention and innovation, which can be shared by one or more
people.
ature of Collaborative generation of knowledge and high-e#ciency information flow allow for diversity,
increased resilience, reliability and stability within an organization. Through participatory
esign research, stakeholders can make full use of the resulting innovation and invention, by
transferring findings relevant to the sector in which they are positioned. A designer’s increased
awareness through shared industry knowledge enhances profitability and policy.
On occasion, the inventor needs to act as both entrepreneur and product champion. The
adoption of these additional roles requires a significant amount of learning to take an idea from
the mind, realize it and then di"use it successfully into the marketplace.
uidance As a DP Design Technology student, you should:

● Describe the roles of the product champion and entrepreneur in the innovation of
products and systems
● List reasons why inventors often take the role of product champion and/or
entrepreneur
● List the advantages and disadvantages of multidisciplinary teams

Lone Inventor
The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to
the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because they are engrossed with
ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
Lone inventors are characterized as having ideas that entirely new and di"erent. They can struggle,
though, for the following reasons:
● new ideas may be resisted by other employees or superiors.
● they may not fully understand the importance of the marketing and sales needs for their
product
● usually work in isolation and thus may not have su#cient backing or support for their design.
● may lack the financial support necessary to develop or invest in manufacturing, distribution,
and marketing
Product Champion
The product champion is an influential individual, usually working within an organization, who
develops enthusiasm for a particular idea or invention and “champions” it within the organization.
Product champions know the customers and have a deep understanding of how the product
successfully meets their needs.
They tend to work well with a variety of people, and demonstrate a willingness to learn. In a team, a
They tend to work well with a variety of people, and demonstrate a willingness to learn. In a team, a
product champion's chief role it to persuade others of the importance a product.
These people might be financiers who might invest in new equipment, politicians who could help with
regulatory and practical issues, or other individuals or groups outside of the product development team
who are necessary for the successful implementation of a product.
In the case of Thomas Edison, he needed to convince various levels of government to allow for the
larges-scale construction of power and lighting systems. Edison also needed to persuade investors to
provide financial backing to build these systems, as well as factory owners of the benefits of electrical
lighting in their factors.
Entrepreneur
The entrepreneur is an influential individual who can take an invention to market, often by
financing the development, production and di"usion of a product into the marketplace.
Entrepreneurs typically have strong business acumen and interpersonal relationships that they can use to
bring a product to market.
Multidisciplinary Approach to innovation
In some cases, the inventor is also the product champion and the entrepreneur. To occupy these
multiple roles, though, requires specific skills.
However, in most cases, it is unlikely that a lone inventor has expertise in multiple areas
Most modern products are very complex and use a variety of materials, processes, and technologies.
For this reason, designs are often developed by multidisciplinary teams.
Smartphones are a good example.
The product requires knowledge of advanced materials, cutting-edge manufacturing processes, user-
centered design research strategies, user interface design, battery technology, camera optics, etc.
Design and production of such a complex product is only possible with a multidisciplinary team.
● draw from multiple areas of expertise to address ● an individual may be reluctant to share ideas
di"erent aspects of the design for fear of losing ownership
● wide range of knowledge can be applied to the ● miscommunication can happen, especially
design with large teams working in di"erent locations
● combination of di"erent perspectives can create ● individuals may not like working in a team
innovative solutions
5.5 - Product Life cycle

ssential There are several key stages in the product life cycle.
ature of Designers need to consider the whole product cycle of potential products, services and
systems throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products may have an impact not only on
esign the direct consumer but also on society at large and the environment.
An understanding of the product life cycle allows the designer to design a product with
obsolescence in mind. Doing this at the design stage can potentially eliminate the e"ect of a
obsolescence in mind. Doing this at the design stage can potentially eliminate the e"ect of a
product on the environment when it is no longer in use.
uidance As a student of design technology, you should be able to:

● Identify and analyze examples of products at di"erent stages of the product life cycle,
including those new to the market and classic designs
● Describe the length of the product life cycle, and describe how e"ect of technical
development and consumer trends can influence the product life cycle.
● List and describe the Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing
new versions and generations of a product

Product Life Cycle
The product life cycle is a tool for mapping out the four stages of a product’s commercial life:
Launch, Growth, Maturity, and Decline.
By understanding the life cycle of a product, designers and companies can make strategic decisions
about the product, such as when to introduce a new version, or what types of technical innovations
might be included.
I. Introduction/Launch
● Only the innovators will be aware of it.
● Sales are low
● No or little competition, therefore the developer enjoys a monopoly
● Because sales and awareness of the product are low, an extensive marketing e"ort may be
needed to move the product to the next stage in the life cycle.
II. Growth
● Early adopters begin to use the product
● Sales and profit begin to grow.
● Company still enjoys monopoly early in the growth
● Competitors introduce competing products later in the growth stage, reducing profits.
● Possible for ine#cient companies to still profit as they can depend on sales and early
monopoly.
III. Maturity
● Many competitors competing for customers
● product di"erentiation strategies are used to attract customers
● Crowded or saturate marketplace, with many models.
● Only e#cient companies can carry a product through this stage.
● Few new companies enter the market, as the profit margins are lower
● With the growth of personal computers in the 1980s, many companies were in the market.
Soon, though, only the largest, most e#cient, or most innovative companies were able to carry
their products to maturity.
IV. Decline
● Sales and profits drop sharply
● The public abandons the product
● Number of models is reduced
● Number of models is reduced

● An advanced technology may replace the product. For example, CDs replaced demand for
cassette tapes.
In the decline stage, it is important to consider possible next steps to revitalize a product.
The product could be relaunched.
Modifications could be made to improve the product, functions, e#ciency, or technology.
A new market could be identified for the product and e"orts focused on developing the product to enter
it.
Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion), functional, technological
Obsolescence refers to a product being no longer used.
A product reaches this stage in several ways:
Planned Obsolescence
A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a continuing market or to
ensure that safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into later versions of the
product.
Planned obsolescence artificially limits the useful life of a product. Designers have a moral responsibility
to consider and reduce the environmental impact of their designs.
The artificial limiting of lightbulbs to 1000 hours ensured a steady demand for replacements, despite
much longer-lasting lights being available. See the documentary trailer
A product might have its life artificially limited to ensure that it continues to perform at the expected
performance level.
Ink jet printer manufacturers often point to this reason to justify planned obsolescence.
In order for the paper prints to consistent quality, the manufacturers limit the number of pages that they
can actually print.
Critics of this strategy point out that this is not an environmentally sustainable as there is still usable
material in the ink cartridge. In 2017, the French government sanction (punished) the big printer
manufacturers for this practice.
Technological obsolescence
When a new technology supersedes an existing technology, the existing technology quickly falls
out of use and is no longer incorporated into new products.
Consumers instead opt for the newer, more e#cient technology in their products.
An example here is the replacement of the VCR technology with DVDs.
As DVD technology developed, and the cost of DVD players came down, consumers elected to moved
towards exclusively using DVDs.
As it happening most recently, DVD technology has now being replaced by online on-demand
streaming of video content.In this we can see that technological obsolescence is the most powerful and
in some cases the most common form of obsolescence.
Functional obsolescence
Over time, products wear out and break down. If parts are no longer available, the product can
no longer work in the way it originally did.
Also, if a service vital to its functioning is no longer available, it can become obsolete.
For example, a computer can become functionally obsolete if you can no longer run the latest operating
For example, a computer can become functionally obsolete if you can no longer run the latest operating
system, or its architecture can no longer support new memory modules.
A machine can become functionally obsolete if a critical part for it cannot be replaced because the
manufacturing no longer makes it.
There are some companies that actually specialize in the production all replacement parts for certain
machines; However, their replacement parts come at a higher cost than the original part.
This is due to the low production run of creating the specialized parts, or the high skills or specialized
machinery required to produce the part.
Style (fashion) obsolescence
Fashions and trends change over time, which can result in a product no longer being desirable.
However, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the cyclic nature of fashion, products can
become desirable again.
Predictability of the product life cycle
It is possible to predict the length of the product life cycle.
For example, most digital devices produced today have quite short product cycles.
It's common for most device manufacturers to introduce a new product every year.
This is largely a result of technological advances proceeding at a predictable rate.
However, consumer trends in fashion are quite unpredictable.

This means that the product lifecycle can be shortened or lengthen unexpectedly.
Product versioning/generations
Companies can maintain a pioneering strategy in consistent revenue phone by introducing new
versions for generations of a product to market.
A good example of this is smartphone manufacturers who regularly and consistently deliver new
upgraded and updated versions of their product market.
Product versioning refers to the creation of variations of a product, di"erent models, that are sold at
di"erent prices.
This allows consumers to choose a product based on either its degree of function or its cost.
The advantages of this strategy is that consumers can choose a model that suits them best.
It also maximizes the profits for the company as they can target a larger market band.
Topic 6 - Classic Design

6.1 - Characteristics of a Classic Design
Image
Aesthetically appealing designs are instantly recognizable and provoke an emotional response in the
viewer. They have an external form that
A deep knowledge and understanding of materials and production processes allow designers to create
A deep knowledge and understanding of materials and production processes allow designers to create
thoughtful, durable, and functional designs that have aesthetic appeal.
Well-design designs create an emotional response in the viewer/user. These responses influence the
user's perception of the function and e"ectiveness of the design. There are three types of emotional
response (7.5 Beyond Usability):
● Visceral: Responses to the aesthetics of a design; First impressions.
● Behavioral: Responses to how the design performs, its function, usability, learnability,
e"ectiveness
● reflective: Responses to how the product relates to the user's beliefs, memories, self-image;
The product's story.
Status and Culture
Classic designs can increase in value over time, and communicate the social status of a person.
As some designs are rare or expensive, owning and using one can increase the perceived status
of a person.
● A classic car collector, for example, must have the time and money to support and
develop their car collection.
● An owner of an Eames chair communicates their status as a thoughtful connoisseur of
furniture.
Classic designs can reflect cultural influences. They could come from a specific era or movement, or
reflect a sub-culture.
Regardless of their origin, they create strong feelings of nostalgia and create a sense of belonging
with other members and connoisseurs of the movement.
● Ownership of a classic design
● increases one status as a member of a subculture (e.g. pop culture, youth movement,
connoisseur, etc.)
● requires time and/or money to maintain (e.g a classic car is expensive to maintain and requires
time)
● the product is part of pop culture - it appears in TV, films, etc., and
● The value of the classic design can increase
Obsolescence
A particularly defining aspect of classic designs is that they transcend obsolescence.
They continue to be desired objects long after the initial mass production and market
dissemination has happened--they are timeless.
Due to their inherent aesthetic qualities, function, and build quality, classic designs take on a new
function, that of an icon.
They represent more than intrinsic value of the product. Consequently, their value increases.
Mass Production
The mass production of a design is an important contributing factor for it to be considered a classic
design.
The mass production and distribution of a design ensures that it reaches the highest number of
users and achieves the most considerable amount of visibility in society.
Mass production involves investment in systems and processes to produce many designs; however, this
economy of scale means that the individual product can be produced for lowest possible cost.
Mass production may also involve the optimization of materials, processes, and forms to be produced
a"ordably and e#ciently.
Classic designs have benefited from designers who understand the processes and materials
involved in manufacture and can leverage this knowledge and understanding creating high-
quality, timeless, classic designs.
Both the Bialetti Moka Co"ee Pot and the Volkswagen Beetle are strong examples of classic designs
that were engineered to be mass-produced to take advantage of economies of scale.
Ubiquitous / Omnipresent
A design that is ubiquitous or omnipresence is constantly present. It has become a part of our daily life,
to the point where we have started to attach emotions or feelings to the product.
Ubiquitous designs
Ubiquitous designs
Persist in the marketplace despite there being newer or even better alternatives. Their iconic status
makes them the preferred choice.
Post-it notes and Bic pens are good examples of products that have become ubiquitous in our lives.
6.2 - Form and Function

Form
The shape of a product and the aesthetic qualities that the shape has. Also considered as the three-
dimensional space that a product takes up.
Function
The purpose a product has been designed for. Products can be considered classic designs based on
how well they fulfil the task that they have been designed for.
Retro-styling
Retro-styling
A design that uses the form and decoration from a particular period of time and/or style.
● Retro styling Uses the form and decoration of classic designs from a particular period of time
and/or style.
● Builds on the classic form but can often involve the use of new technology, manufacturing
techniques, materials
● Designers need to, however, be respectful of the original designer's’ intent, to respect and
understand the original form and underlying structure before making changes.
● Retro-design often mimics a product or experience to evoke feelings of nostalgia.
Conflict and compromise
Designers may face choices over what to prioritize in their design. Design teams consist of marketers,
engineers, ergonomists, and designers, each with their own perspective of what is important in a design.
● A marketer, for example, might prioritize the form of a design over the function because they
view aesthetics as an important selling feature of the design.

● An ergonomist might view the e#cient, comfortable, and e"ective function of the design as of
paramount importance.
● An engineer might advocate for a design that is easy to disassemble for repair or disposal.
Practical function versus psychological function
Practical function
refers to the performance of the product such as weight, size, etc. -- the way the product
performs.
● It represents a rational approach which places function as the primary design
goal.
● Measuring practical function is objective and quantifiable.
Psychological function
refers to the emotional attachments and psychological needs that a product meets for the
user.
user.
● It represents a more subjective approach to design and is measured qualified.
User Interaction and Form
Assembling the object
Designing a product to be successfully assembled by the user requires certain features that would be
absent from a preassembled product.
Using the object
User's interaction with the product is often the primary goal.
The operating systems of mobile phones are a good example of the use of the object taking
priority over the physical form.
● Users place great importance on being able to navigate and access functions on their
digital device.
Repairing or maintaining the object
Some products require regular cleaning, maintenance or repair. For the user to do to this, the design
may need to facilitate easy access and replacement of parts.
Designers can make small decisions in the manufacture, assembly, and even distribution of the
product to allow the user to undertake repairs and maintenance. Some examples are:
● labelling items with part numbers and providing a system whereby user can easily order
parts.
● Downloadable STL files for 3D Printer parts allow users to print replacement and
upgrade parts
● Designing to allow easy access for repair, replacement, and maintenance
● There are many cases of designs that do not allow easy repair and replacement of
parts.

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★Design Theory Notes★☆ 10/04/24, 11:57 AM

Topic 1 - Human Factors and Ergonomics

Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly between populations.

Concept and principles

Application of Percentiles in Design

1.1b - Psychological Factors

ature of Human beings vary psychologically in complex ways.

Concepts and principles:

Why do designers need to know about the di"erent scales?

Collecting Psychological Data

Human Information Processing System (HIPS)

Many factors can a"ect how well we process information:

1.1c - Physiological Factors

Understanding complex biomechanics and designing products to enable full functionality of

● lifting heavy items

Force Repetition Posture Duration

eze a handle, etc.). much as possible. body, while also allowing

Topic 2 - Resource Management &

Categories of Non-Renewable Resources

Nevertheless, the wind energy industry is booming.

To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6 kilometers) deep

Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main

power plants increases the probability of accidents happening.

dvantages / Advantages of Fossil Fuels

● Deepwater drilling for oil

Consideration of economic and political significance of resources and reserves might

● Lack of awareness: Many people in developing countries may not be aware of

● Limited resources: Developing countries may have limited resources, making it

● Lack of infrastructure: Developing countries may lack the necessary infrastructure

● Political instability: Political instability can hinder the implementation of sustainable

● Poor management: Poor management of natural resources can lead to

To overcome these challenges, it is essential to raise awareness about the importance of

that support sustainable development. Additionally, it is crucial to involve local communities

2.2 Waste mitigation strategies

epair Reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing product.

e-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.

ematerialisation ● Design and manufacture of a smaller product e.g. miniaturization

Other strategies include:

rcular Economy In a linear economy;

Within a circular economy, materials can be classified into two categories

Examples of innovation in this area are:

resources (Gold, rare earth metals, etc.).

2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution

It is a valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or energy-

Components of Embodied Energy

Strategies for reducing embodied energy

- Reduced fuel costs

Designers should consider several things when selecting a Battery;

2.4 Clean Technologies

Manufacturing processes and products need to be improved in terms of efficiency and

dical solutions Advantages:

anufacturing ● respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by the local

While EOP technologies do minimize environmental impact, from a sustainability point of

In this regard, cradle-to-cradle approaches to design are more sustainable.

2.5 Green Design

Green Design typically focuses on one or two environmental objectives, such as

prevention The avoidance or minimization of waste production

The anticipation of potential problems.

bjectives for Generally fall into 3 categories;

effects of the end disposal of the product

● increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources;

cremental or Incremental Changes

by a need to innovate in order to enter/create a new market or meet a new need.