A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax 2nd

Edition Bill T. Arnold

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-guide-to-biblical-hebrew-syntax-2nd-edition-bill-t-ar
nold/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Guide to Biblical Coins David Hendin

https://textbookfull.com/product/guide-to-biblical-coins-david-
hendin/

C# 7 Quick Syntax Reference: A Pocket Guide to the

Language, APIs, and Library 2nd Edition Mikael Olsson

https://textbookfull.com/product/c-7-quick-syntax-reference-a-
pocket-guide-to-the-language-apis-and-library-2nd-edition-mikael-
olsson/

Hiking New Mexico s Gila Wilderness A Guide to the Area

s Greatest Hiking Adventures 2nd Edition Bill
Cunningham

https://textbookfull.com/product/hiking-new-mexico-s-gila-
wilderness-a-guide-to-the-area-s-greatest-hiking-adventures-2nd-
edition-bill-cunningham/

Android Programming The Big Nerd Ranch Guide 2nd

Edition Bill Phillips

https://textbookfull.com/product/android-programming-the-big-
nerd-ranch-guide-2nd-edition-bill-phillips/
Algorithms in a Nutshell A Practical Guide 2nd Edition
George T. Heineman

https://textbookfull.com/product/algorithms-in-a-nutshell-a-
practical-guide-2nd-edition-george-t-heineman/

A Pocket Guide To The US Constitution What Every

American Needs To Know Andrew B. Arnold

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-pocket-guide-to-the-us-
constitution-what-every-american-needs-to-know-andrew-b-arnold/

Pharmacoeconomics: From Theory to Practice 2nd Edition

Renee J. G. Arnold

https://textbookfull.com/product/pharmacoeconomics-from-theory-
to-practice-2nd-edition-renee-j-g-arnold/

Nuclear Facilities A Designer s Guide 1st Edition Bill

Collum

https://textbookfull.com/product/nuclear-facilities-a-designer-s-
guide-1st-edition-bill-collum/

The Farm Bill A Citizen s Guide Daniel Imhoff

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-farm-bill-a-citizen-s-guide-
daniel-imhoff/
i

A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax

Second Edition

A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax introduces and abridges the

syntactical features of the original language of the Hebrew Bible/Old
Testament. An intermediate-level reference grammar for Biblical
Hebrew, it assumes an understanding of elementary phonology and
morphology, and it defines and illustrates the fundamental syntac-
tical features of Biblical Hebrew that most intermediate-level read-
ers struggle to master. The volume divides Biblical Hebrew syntax
and morphology into four parts. The first three cover the indi-
vidual words (nouns, verbs, and particles) with the goal of helping
the reader move from morphological and syntactical observations
to meaning and significance. The fourth section moves beyond
phrase-level phenomena and considers the larger relationships of
clauses and sentences.
Since publication of the first edition, research on Biblical
Hebrew syntax has substantially evolved. This new edition incorpo-
rates these developments through detailed descriptions of gram-
matical phenomena, including occasional insights from discourse
linguistics. It retains the labels and terminology used in the first
edition to maintain continuity with the majority of entry-level and
more advanced grammars.

Bill T. Arnold is the Paul S. Amos Professor of Old Testament

Interpretation at Asbury Theological Seminary. He is the author of
Genesis (New Cambridge Bible Commentary, 2009) and Introduction to
the Old Testament (2014).

John H. Choi† (1975–2015) earned degrees from The University

of Chicago, Asbury Theological Seminary, and the PhD in Hebraic
and Cognate Studies from Hebrew Union College–Jewish Institute
of Religion. He authored Traditions at Odds: The Reception of the
Pentateuch in Biblical and Second Temple Period Literature (2010).
ii
iii

A Guide to Biblical
Hebrew Syntax

Second Edition
Bill T. Arnold
Asbury Theological Seminary

John H. Choi†
iv

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre,
New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107434967
DOI: 10.1017/9781139939591
First edition © Cambridge University Press 2003
Second edition © Bill T. Arnold 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Arnold, Bill T., author. | Choi, John H., author.
Title: A guide to biblical Hebrew syntax / Bill T Arnold, Asbury
Theological Seminary, John H Choi, Asbury Theological Seminary.
Description: Second edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018031519 | ISBN 9781107078017 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781107434967 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Hebrew language – Syntax. |
Bible. Old Testament – Language, style.
Classification: LCC PJ4701.A76 2018 | DDC 492.4/5–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018031519
ISBN 978-1-107-07801-7 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-107-43496-7 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
v

In memoriam
John H. Choi
1975–2015
vi
vi

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition page xiii

Preface to the First Edition xv
1 Int roducti o n 1
2 Nouns 6
2.1 Nominative 8
2.1.1 Subject 9
2.1.2 Predicate Nominative
(Copula-complement) 9
2.1.3 Vocative (Addressee) 10
2.1.4 Nominative Absolute (Dislocation) 10
2.2 Genitive 11
2.2.1 Possessive 13
2.2.2 Relationship 13
2.2.3 Subjective 14
2.2.4 Objective 14
2.2.5 Attributive 14
2.2.6 Specification 15
2.2.7 Cause 15
2.2.8 Purpose 16
2.2.9 Means 16
2.2.10 Material 16
2.2.11 Measure 17
2.2.12 Explicative 18
2.2.13 Superlative 18
2.3 Accusative 19
2.3.1 Object (Noun Complements) 20
2.3.2 Adverbial (Noun Adjuncts) 25
vii
vi

viii Contents

2.4 Apposition 29
2.4.1 Species 29
2.4.2 Attributive 30
2.4.3 Material 30
2.4.4 Measure 30
2.4.5 Explicative 31
2.5 Adjectives 32
2.5.1 Attributive 32
2.5.2 Predicate 33
2.5.3 Substantive 34
2.5.4 Comparative and Superlative 34
2.6 Determination 36
2.6.1 Referential (Anaphoric) 37
2.6.2 Vocative 38
2.6.3 Naming 38
2.6.4 Solitary 39
2.6.5 Generic 39
2.6.6 Demonstrative 40
2.6.7 Possessive 40
2.6.8 Associative 41
2.7 Numerals 41
2.7.1 Cardinal Numbers 42
2.7.2 Ordinal Numbers 44
3 V erb s 45
3.1 Stem 46
3.1.1 Qal (The G Stem) 47
3.1.2 Niphal (The N Stem) 48
3.1.3 Piel (The D Stem) 52
3.1.4 Pual (The Dp Stem) 56
3.1.5 Hithpael (The HtD Stem) 57
3.1.6 Hiphil (The H Stem) 59
3.1.7 Hophal (The Hp Stem) 63
3.1.8 Additional Derived Stems 64
3.2 Aspect 65
3.2.1 Perfect (Qatal Form /
Suffix Conjugation) 66
3.2.2 Imperfect (Yiqtol Form /
Prefix Conjugation) 69
ix

Contents ix

3.3 Modals 73
3.3.1 Jussive 73
3.3.2 Imperative 75
3.3.3 Cohortative 78
3.4 Nonfinites 79
3.4.1 Infinitive Construct 80
3.4.2 Infinitive Absolute 86
3.4.3 Participle 90
3.5 Other Verb Formations with Prefixed waw 95
3.5.1 Wayyiqtol (Past Narrative) 97
3.5.2 Wǝqatal (Irreal Perfect) 101
3.5.3 Waw in a Sequence of Volitives 105
3.5.4 Waw in Narrative Interruptions 106
4 Pa rt ic les 109
4.1 Prepositions 109
4.1.1 ‫ ַאַחר‬/ ‫ַאֲח ֵרי‬ 110
4.1.2 ‫ ֵאל‬/ ‫ֶאל־‬ 112
4.1.3 ‫ֵאֶצל‬ 115
4.1.4 ‫ ֵאת‬/ ‫ֶאת־‬ 115
4.1.5 ‫ְבּ‬ 116
4.1.6 ‫ֵבּין‬ 120
4.1.7 ‫ ַבַּעד‬/ ‫ְבַּעד־‬ 121
4.1.8 ‫ַיַען‬ 122
4.1.9 ‫ְכּ‬ 122
4.1.10 ‫ְל‬ 123
4.1.11 ‫ְלַמַען‬ 128
4.1.12 ‫ִלְפ ֵני‬ 128
4.1.13 ‫ִמן‬ 129
4.1.14 ‫ִמְפּ ֵני‬ 132
4.1.15 ‫ַעד‬ 132
4.1.16 ‫ ַעל‬/ ‫ֲעֵלי‬ 133
4.1.17 ‫ִעם‬ 136
4.1.18 ‫ַתַּחת‬ 137
4.2 Adverbs 139
4.2.1 ‫ אָז‬/ ‫ֲא ַזי‬ 139
4.2.2 ‫ַאְך‬ 141
4.2.3 ‫ַאל‬ 142
4.2.4 ‫ַאף‬ 142
x

x Contents

4.2.5 ‫ַגּם‬ 144

4.2.6 ‫ַה ְרֵבּה‬ 146
4.2.7 ‫יוָֹמם‬ 146
4.2.8 ‫כּה‬ ֺ 146
4.2.9 ‫ִכּי‬ 147
4.2.10 ‫ֵכּן‬ 147
4.2.11 ‫לא‬ֹ 149
4.2.12 ‫אד‬ ֺ ‫ְמ‬ 149
4.2.13 ‫עוֹד‬ 150
4.2.14 ‫ַעָתּה‬ 151
4.2.15 ‫ַרק‬ 151
4.2.16 ‫ָשׁם‬ 152
4.2.17 ‫ָתִּמיד‬ 153
4.3 Conjunctions 153
4.3.1 ‫אוֹ‬ 154
4.3.2 ‫ִאם‬ 154
4.3.3 ‫ְו‬ 156
4.3.4 ‫ִכּי‬ 160
4.3.5 ‫ֶפּן‬ 166
4.4 Particles of Existence/Nonexistence 166
4.4.1 ‫ַאִין‬ 166
4.4.2 ‫ֵישׁ‬ 167
4.5 The Particles ‫ ִה ֵנּה‬and ‫ְוִה ֵנּה‬ 167
4.5.1 ‫ִה ֵנּה‬ 168
4.5.2 ‫ְוִה ֵנּה‬ 169
4.6 The Relative Particles 171
4.6.1 ‫ֲאֶשׁר‬ 172
4.6.2 ‫ֶשׁ־‬, ‫ַשׁ־‬ 172
4.6.3 ‫ ֶזה‬, ‫ֺזה‬, ‫זֹוֹ‬, ‫זוּ‬ 173
5 C laus es an d Sen ten ces 174
5.1 Nominal and Verbal Clauses 176
5.1.1 Nominal Clause 177
5.1.2 Verbal Clause 180
5.2 Subordinate Clauses 184
5.2.1 Substantival Clause 185
5.2.2 Conditional Clause 186
5.2.3 Final Clause 187
5.2.4 Temporal Clause 189
5.2.5 Causal Clause 191
xi

Contents xi

5.2.6 Comparative Clause 192

5.2.7 Exceptive Clause 193
5.2.8 Restrictive Clause 194
5.2.9 Intensive Clause 194
5.2.10 Adversative Clause 194
5.2.11 Circumstantial Clause 195
5.2.12 Concessive Clause 196
5.2.13 Relative Clause 197
5.3 Additional Sentence Types 199
5.3.1 Interrogative Sentences 199
5.3.2 Oath Sentences 201
5.3.3 Wish Sentences 202
5.3.4 Existential Sentences 203
5.3.5 Negative Sentences 204
5.3.6 Elliptical Clauses and Sentences 204
Appendix A: Stem Chart 207
Appendix B: Expanded Stem Chart 208
Glossary 209
Select Bibliography 221
Subject Index 235
Scripture Index 239
xi
xi

Preface to the Second Edition

My coauthor and I were gratified by the reception of the

first edition of GBHS in 2003, and we were of course quite
pleased when the Press decided a second edition was in
order. This newly revised and expanded edition adds sev-
eral features, such as a new section on relative pronouns at
the end of Chapter 4, and generally updates the discussion
throughout. In particular, I have added discussion and foot-
notes to aid the student in moving as seamlessly as possible
between traditional grammatical categories and a relatively
new subdiscipline in biblical studies – that of discourse lin-
guistics. This has involved expanding the discussion at cer-
tain junctures, providing more explanation of the discourse
linguistic approach as compared to traditional explanations,
and of course, an updated bibliography. From the beginning,
John and I envisioned this little book as a bridge between
beginning grammars and advanced reference grammars, and
therefore as a tool to help intermediate students. The need
for such a bridge is even greater today than it was in 2003
because of continued advances in our understanding of the
specifics of Hebrew grammar. It is my hope that the changes
introduced in this second edition will make the bridge easier
to cross.
I have retained the same paragraph numbering throughout,
making it easy to locate a discussion whether one is referring
to the first or the second edition. For example, GBHS ¶3.1.3

xiii
vxi

xiv Preface to the Second Edition

will be the location for “Piel (the D Stem)” in both editions

regardless of pagination.
I owe much to my student, Joseph Hwang, who assisted me
immeasurably in the task in several ways. Also, my colleague
Professor John A. Cook has been an important conversation
partner, always gracious at points where we do not agree,
and gently nudging, coercing, and correcting me on certain
points. Professor Lawson G. Stone made several contribu-
tions, always displaying his measured and erudite good sense.
I also gratefully acknowledge once again his permission to
use a variation of his chart of derived stems in Appendix B, as
in the 2003 edition. Dr. Dale Walker graciously made detailed
comments and suggestions on the first edition, Dr. David
Schreiner assisted with bibliographic details, and my student,
Brad Haggard, assisted with the indexes.
Sadly, my coauthor was stricken with cancer just after we
signed the contract for this second edition. After a valiant
fight, John was taken from us entirely too soon, and the sense
of loss remains a heavy burden for all who knew him well, but
especially for his beloved Sylvia and for Sophia and Ethan.
The task of revising GBHS has been all the more difficult
because of so many memories of happier days when John and
I worked together on the first edition nearly fifteen years
ago. Having completed the task, I have no higher honor than
to dedicate this volume to his memory; ‫זכרונו לברכה‬.
Bill T. Arnold
xv

Preface to the First Edition

This book is intended to introduce basic and critical issues

of Hebrew syntax to beginning and intermediate students. It
grows out of eighteen collective years of experience in teach-
ing Biblical Hebrew to seminarians. Each year, we teach or
supervise the instruction for approximately 180 students in
preparation for ordained ministry or other religious profes-
sions. Our experiences led us to conclude that a significant
gap exists between, on the one hand, the current scholarly
understanding of Hebrew syntax, based on significant pro-
gress in the discipline in recent decades, and on the other
hand, the understanding of Hebrew syntax among our stu-
dents. The problem seemed compounded by the lack of
an intermediate-level grammar, holding a position between
beginning grammars and advanced reference grammars.
In addition, the ever-growing demands on theological edu-
cation today have resulted in less time to master Biblical
Hebrew. Often the first thing omitted in a beginning Hebrew
course is an overview of syntactical features. Our purpose,
then, has been simply to bridge the gap, as best as we can,
between our students and the best of current research on
Biblical Hebrew syntax.
This book, then, is not intended to replace the standard
reference grammars, which we have consulted constantly
in the process, but to present to beginning and interme-
diate students a means of entry into the latest scholarship

xv
newgenprepdf

xvi

xvi Preface to the First Edition

on Biblical Hebrew. To this end, we have included extensive

references in the footnotes where appropriate. In particular,
we have been most influenced by the unity brought to bear
on the Hebrew verbal system by Bruce K. Waltke and Michael
O’Connor. We have also consulted frequently the grammars
by Joüon-Muraoka, Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley, and to some
degree those by van der Merwe-Naudé-Kroeze and Meyer.
Through interaction with these and other sources of schol-
arship, we feel that we have, at several points, introduced
innovations in our explanations of Biblical Hebrew syntax
in an attempt to refine the way we read and interpret the
Bible today.
We express appreciation to our colleagues Joseph
R. Dongell, David L. Thompson, Lawson G. Stone, and Brent
A. Strawn for helpful suggestions on several points, and espe-
cially Dr. Stone for permission to use his chart in Appendix B.
We also benefited greatly from the comments and suggestions
of the anonymous external reviewers hired by Cambridge
University Press. The editors of the Press have been exem-
plary in every way, and we note especially Andrew Beck, who
has been a source of encouragement from the beginning. In
addition, Phyllis Berk and Janis Bolster made many improve-
ments during the production process.
1

1 Introduction

A t the heart of biblical interpretation is the need to read

the Bible’s syntax, that is, to study the way words, phrases,
clauses, and sentences relate to one another to create mean-
ing. Biblical Hebrew (BH) is a language far removed from us
in time and culture. Beginning students often learn to dis-
cern the elementary Hebrew phonology and morphology to
“read” the biblical text. But we believe exegesis (or the draw-
ing out of a text’s meaning on its own terms) requires more
than phonology and verb parsing. Achieving a deep-level
reading requires an understanding of syntactical relation-
ships, a topic that beginning grammars simply cannot cover
in detail. Thus, our task has been to help the reader grasp the
building blocks of BH, that is, the syntactical specifics that
constitute meaning. These are the linguistic details through
which the most profound of all statements can be made, and
have been made – those of Israel’s faith and its covenant rela-
tionship with Yhwh.
We have defined and illustrated the fundamental mor-
phosyntactical features of BH. The volume divides Hebrew
syntax, and to a lesser extent morphology (“the way words are
patterned or inflected”), into four parts. The first three cover
individual words (nouns, verbs, and particles) with the goal of
helping the reader move from morphological and syntactical
observations to meaning and significance. The fourth sec-
tion moves beyond phrase-level phenomena and considers

1
2

2 Introduction

the larger relationships of clauses and sentences. Each syn-

tactical category begins with at least one paragraph, giving
definition to that grammatical category. This is followed by a
list of the most common exegetical usages of that particular
grammatical phenomenon. We have provided at least one
example (and in most cases more than one) for each syn-
tactical function. Each example is followed by a translation,
in which the syntactical feature in question is italicized and
underlined where possible. The translations are often related
to the NRSV, although we have frequently taken the liberty
of altering the translations at points to illustrate the partic-
ular syntactical feature under discussion, at times sacrificing
English style to illustrate the Hebrew syntax. This is followed
by the biblical reference. All examples are taken directly from
the Hebrew Bible; on occasion, certain prefixed or conjoined
particles, which have no bearing on the syntactical principle
being illustrated, have been omitted for the sake of clarity in
the English translation.
Two caveats are needed at the outset. First, the very use
of such lists can be misleading. Itemizing or classifying the
various nuances of a given grammatical phenomenon may
oversimplify the uses of that feature in an effort to explain
its function in the language. This may lead the student to
assume, incorrectly, that the task of reading a text is done
simply by labeling or pidgeon-holing a sentence’s various
parts into categories. This is called the “naming fallacy,” in
which a reader applies a label or category to the grammatical
feature in question, and thereby assumes to have explained it,
or “read” the text. The naming fallacy has also been referred
to dismissively as “taxonomic” by those who believe com-
piling and using such classifications is illegitimate because it
fails to give adequate description of the linguistic realities of
the language. There is a degree of truth in this criticism of
using categories of nuanced meaning for each grammatical
phenomenon. However, the express purpose of this volume
is to make accessible to the intermediate student the most
common and easily understood ways in which each such
3

Introduction 3

grammatical feature is used. There is no attempt made here

to provide robust and thorough linguistic explanation for
the underlying realities of the language. The footnotes and
bibliography will be enough to guide the interested reader
into other literature where that is done, even to those treat-
ments that are in disagreement or tension with the few expla-
nations offered here.
And of course, languages do not work simply, nor always
according to predetermined, prescribed classifications. Any
given morphosyntactical feature of a language carries mean-
ing as determined by the context of its usage. As readers, we
observe the various nuances and meanings created in differ-
ent contexts and in different combinations with other words,
and we must admit that the same feature can have multiple
significances depending on its context. Grammars attempt
to separate those multiple significances into categorized lists,
making it as easy as possible for readers to discern the var-
ious ways in which a feature functions. Yet there is inherent
danger in the assumption that such lists somehow govern the
way a language works. The reverse is true, of course, so that
grammars simply observe how a language is working, and
then map recurring patterns in an effort to inform how a
particular feature is functioning in a given context. Students
must avoid the naming fallacy by remembering the artificial
way in which grammatical lists categorize a feature’s most
common usages. Reading an ancient language like BH is
therefore an acquired skill, requiring a certain artistic sensi-
tivity. The student first learns to identify the feature (part of
speech or parsing of a verb), which is either right or wrong.
Then comes the more difficult part of interpretation, which
requires this more nuanced “reading” of the word’s function
in the sentence.
Second, the categories for classification presented here are
by no means exhaustive, which would have required a book
many times this size. We have made frequent reference to
the leading reference grammars for additional information.
We have also omitted discussions of elementary phonology
4

4 Introduction

and morphology, including difficult forms or spellings that

may be unique or exceptional in some way, all of which are
covered sufficiently by numerous beginning grammars. In
our footnotes we have frequently included references to the
elementary grammars to encourage the reader to consult a
familiar source to review an elementary detail of phonology
or morphology, which may have been forgotten. For example,
our discussion of “determination” (Section 2.6) reminds the
reader that one of the ways a noun may be marked as definite
is with the prefixed definite article. Because all beginning
grammars explain the morphological details of the definite
article, with examples of the various forms it takes depending
on the noun it marks, we have not repeated that information
here. Instead, we direct the reader to review the beginning
grammars where needed.1 We have also omitted entirely, or
in some cases briefly summarized, certain theoretical and
complex grammatical issues that regularly make the standard
reference grammars unintelligible to the intermediate stu-
dent. We have, however, included many discussion footnotes
dealing with these issues to provide additional background
information that we believe will be of particular interest
to advanced students and scholars. In this way, we have
attempted to create a user-friendly volume of modest size.
For the most part, the features defined and illustrated
here pertain to the language used in the extended narra-
tives of the Pentateuch and the Historical Books, along with
prose sections of the Prophets and Writings. This language is
sometimes known as Classical BH.2 At times, we make further
observations on Late Biblical Hebrew (LBH), by which we

1 For more on morphology, beginning students may consult “How Hebrew

Words Are Formed” in Landes 2001, 7–39; Garrett and DeRouchie 2009,
366–70; and Silzer and Finley 2004, 91–97. More advanced readers
should turn to Blau 2010, 156–286, and specific to the nouns, Fox 2003.
2 “BH” will be used throughout for “Biblical Hebrew.” All other abbrevia-
tions may be found in Billie Jean Collins, Bob Buller, and John Kutsko,
eds., The SBL Handbook of Style: For Biblical Studies and Related Disciplines,
2nd ed. (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2014), 216–60.
5

Introduction 5

mean the language of most of the biblical books written after

the exile (1–2 Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Daniel,
selected Psalms, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and portions of
others).3 Although LBH has features that are often unique,
it also shares many features with BH. Thus, in some cases,
we have used examples from both BH and LBH to illustrate
the continuity of certain grammatical features of the Hebrew
language.

3 This list is only partial because it depends to a large degree on interpre-

tive issues about which scholars are not agreed. For these categories – BH
and LBH – we are relying on a widely accepted tripartite subdivision of
BH into archaic, standard, and late phases of the language, which are
based on the historical periods or stages of its usage; see Kutscher 1982,
12; Sáenz-Badillos 1993, 50–75 and 112–29. The first of these three,
the “archaic” phase, consists of the oldest epigraphic pieces of ancient
Hebrew, together with some of the poetic sections of the Bible. We refer
to this first phase of the language only in background discussion of the
history of the language. Our categories of BH and LBH are generally
related to the standard and late phases of the language, respectively. For
more on these distinctions, see Schniedewind 2013; Naudé 2010; Rooker
1990; Polzin 1976, 1–2; and the essays in Miller-Naudé and Zevit 2012.
Others divide the language further into four subdivisions: archaic, stan-
dard, transitional, and late; see Lam and Pardee 2016; Gianto 2016;
Hornkohl 2016; Morgenstern 2016.
6

2 Nouns

L anguages are like people – they relate to each other in

families or groups. The language of the Old Testament,
BH, belongs to a large group known as the Semitic languages.
By comparing evidence from early Semitic languages, schol-
ars have concluded that prebiblical Hebrew, and most likely
all the Semitic languages of the second millennium b.c.e.,
had a declension system for the nouns (i.e., inflections),
using cases parallel to those of Indo-European languages.1
Thus, endings were used to mark a subject case (parallel
to our subjective or nominative case, ending in singular -u,
plural -ū, and dual -ā), an adjectival case, which was used also
with all the prepositions (parallel to our genitive or posses-
sive, and ending in -i, -ı ̄, and -ay), and an object case that
also had many adverbial uses (accusative, ending in -a, - ı ̄,
and –ay). However, the case endings were almost completely
lost in all first-millennium Northwest Semitic languages, and
they were certainly lost throughout all attested Hebrew.2

1 Akkadian retains the cases in most dialects, as does Classical Arabic.

Among the Northwest Semitic languages, Amorite, Ugaritic, and the
Canaanite glosses in the Tell Amarna texts – all from the second millen-
nium b.c.e. – retain the case endings. On the preservation of cases in
Amarna letters written by Canaanite scribes, see the important discussion
of Rainey (1996, 1:161–70), although note his preference for “depen-
dent” case over “genitive.”
2 Blau 2010, 266–70; Garr 1985, 61–63; Sáenz-Badillos 1993, 23; Moscati
1980, 94–96; Bergsträsser 1983, 16–17; Harris 1939, 59–60; Joüon and

6
7

Nouns 7

BH compensates for the lack of case endings through

a variety of means, primarily word order (as in modern
English) and syntactical relationships, as well as through
the use of prepositions. The uses we most often associate
with the nominative case are discerned by word order and
the lack of other markers. The genitive is identified by the
construct relationship (Section 2.2), and the accusative pri-
marily by the definite direct object marker ‫ֵאת‬/‫ ֶאת־‬and other
syntactical relationships (Section 2.3). Keep in mind the dis-
tinction between form and function when thinking about BH
noun usage. Because of the loss of case endings “all these
originally morphological categories are now largely syntactic
ones.”3 In other words, the categories used here to describe
noun usage were once marked by morphology, or the actual
formation and spelling of the nouns, but are now unmarked
and discerned mostly by syntax, or the arrangement of the
nouns with other parts of speech in phrases or clauses. Once
the noun endings were lost, the language found other ways
to connote these functions.
We use the terms nominative, genitive, and accusative to
describe the functions of BH noun uses, not the forms of the
nouns. Although we are able to trace the history of the three
case functions in ancient Hebrew by comparing other Semitic
languages, some authorities believe we should abandon these

Muraoka 2006, 255–56; Bauer and Leander 1991, 522–23. Earlier gram-
marians believed the unaccented Hebrew ending ‫־ ׇ ה‬, used on certain
nouns denoting direction, was a vestige of the old accusative case ending
(so ‫ַא ְרׇצה‬, the so-called directive ‫־ ׇ ה‬, or he locale). However, Ugaritic has
a separate adverbial suffix –h in addition to an accusative case ending –a,
proving beyond doubt that the he locale in Hebrew is not a remnant of the
accusative (Waltke and O’Connor 1990, 185; Seow 1995, 152–53; and for
the older – now outdated view – cf. Kautzsch 1910, 249), or perhaps that
it was composed of both the accusative –a and the adverbial ending –h
(Blau 2010, 269). The closest BH comes to having cases is in the declen-
sion of the personal pronoun (cf. van der Merwe, Naudé, and Kroeze
1999, 191).
3 Joüon and Muraoka 2006, 410.
8

8 Nouns

grammatical labels altogether (especially “nominative”)

when describing BH syntax.4 Our objective is to identify and
describe the functions of the noun. Because the nouns in BH
function syntactically in the same distinct “cases” as its parent
language, it is still helpful to distinguish three case functions
in BH using the terminology nominative, genitive, and accusa-
tive.5 We will introduce other designations for these functions
where appropriate to assist the advanced student.

2.1 Nominative
Because a noun’s case function is not marked morpholog-
ically, the nominative can be detected only by the noun’s
or pronoun’s word order, by its agreement in gender and
number with a verb (although with many exceptions), or by
the sense of the context. Generally, the nominative may be
categorized as follows.6

4 So, e.g., Jan Kroeze accepts the use of “subject” as a designation for
Section 2.1.1, but proposes the following alternative designations for the
others: “copula-complement” for predicate nominative (2.1.2), “addressee”
for vocative (2.1.3), and “dislocative” for nominative absolute (2.1.4); Kroeze
2001, 47. Others will speak of “case relations” to describe the subjective,
objective, and attributive semantic categories occurring in BH; Cook and
Holmstedt 2013, 134–35. However, it is possible that referring to the
case system – nominative, genitive, accusative – clarifies features of noun
usage “more effectively than a rigid functional analysis alone” (Levinson
2008, 98). If the reader remembers that we are describing the syntactical
functions of these nouns rather than their grammatical morphemes,
we believe the traditional terminology is more helpful, and will enable
the reader to compare the uses of the noun in BH to other languages.
Cognate languages from antiquity preserving the morphological form, as
well as function include Classical Arabic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic; Joüon
and Muraoka 2006, 410.
5 It should be remembered that pronouns may serve in all these functions
as well.
6 Van der Merwe, Naudé, and Kroeze 1999, 247–49; Kautzsch 1910,
451–55; Waltke and O’Connor 1990, 128–30; Lambdin 1971a, 55;
Chisholm 1998, 61; Williams and Beckman 2007, 11–12.
9

2.1 Nominative 9

2.1.1 Subject
The noun or pronoun serves as the subject of an
action: ‫ׇבּ ׇרא ֱאֹלִהים‬, “God created” (Gen 1:1), ‫ ַוֺיּאֶמר ֱאֹלִהים‬,
“And God said” (Gen 1:3). In the same way, when used with
stative verbs the noun or pronoun may serve as the subject
of a state: ‫ׇחׇמס ׇמְלׇאה ׇהׇא ֶרץ‬, “the earth is filled with violence”
(Gen 6:13).
Rarely (and surprisingly), the definite direct object
(DDO) marker ‫ֵאת‬/‫ ֶאת־‬commonly used to mark the accu-
sative function of the noun (see Section 2.3), will occur on
a subject noun. This use of the particle ‫ֵאת‬/‫ֶאת־‬, by some
counts occurring twenty-seven times in the Bible, has led to
speculation that BH shared with other Semitic languages
an ergative, in which the subject of an intransitive verb
may share the same marking as the object of a transitive
verb.7 However, the idea that BH had an ergative use of
the noun is in doubt, and some of those occurrences with
‫ֵאת‬/‫ ֶאת־‬have other explanations.8 The intermediate stu-
dent should merely note the possibility when observing
the exceptional use of the DDO with subject nouns.

2.1.2 Predicate Nominative (Copula-complement)

The noun or pronoun is equated with the subject by a “to
be” verb (stated or implied): ‫ ְיה ׇוה ֶמֶלְך‬, “Yhwh is king” (Ps
10:16). In this example, the subject noun (2.1.1) is Yhwh,
and the predicate nominative is “king.” In some grammars,
this will be known as a copula-complement.

7 Barton offers the following potential examples: Gen 4:18, 17:5, 21:5,
27:42; Num 3:46, 5:10, 35:6, 35:7; Deut 11:2, 15:3; Josh 22:17; Judg
20:44, 20:46; 1 Sam 17:34, 26:16; 2 Sam 11:25; 2 Kgs 6:5, 10:15; 2 Chr
31:17; Neh 9:19, 9:34; Jer 36:22; Ezek 10:22, 17:21, 35:10, 44:3; Dan
9:13; Barton 2012, 33. Compare Waltke and O’Connor 1990, 182–83.
8 Blau 2010, 24–25 and 266–67; at times called determinative accusative,
Williams and Beckman 2007, 24.
10

10 Nouns

The predicate nominative is often a clause of identification,

in which case the word order is likely subject-predicate: ‫ֲא ִני‬
‫ ְיה ׇוה‬, “I am Yhwh” (Exod 6:2), ‫ַאׇתּה ׇהִאישׁ‬, “You are the man”
(2 Sam 12:7).9 However, the word order is flexible, as this
clause of description illustrates, also with subject-predicate
order: ‫ִמְשְׁפֵּטי־ ְיה ׇוה ֱאֶמת‬, “the ordinances of Yhwh are true”
(Ps 19:9 [Eng 19:10]). The predicate nominative is one of
several ways nominal clauses are constructed (see Section
5.1.1, a).

2.1.3 Vocative (Addressee)

The noun designates a specific addressee and normally has
the definite article (see Section 2.6.2): ‫ִה ֵנּה ַהֲח ִנית ַהֶמֶּלְך‬, “here
is the spear, O king” (1 Sam 26:22 Ketib). The addressee is
always defined conceptually and therefore definite, but in
practice the definite article is often omitted.10
The vocative noun stands separate from the clause’s
syntax and is often juxtaposed to a second-person pro-
noun (or pronominal suffix) reflecting the direct speech:
‫ֵחי־ ַנְפְשָׁך ַהֶמֶּלְך‬, “as your soul lives, O King” (1 Sam 17:55),
‫ ְדַּבר־ֵסֶתר ִלי ֵאֶליָך ַהֶמֶּלְך‬, “I have a secret message for you,
O King” (Judg 3:19). The second person may be expressed
by the imperative: ‫הוִֹשׁיֵענוּ ֱאֹלֵהי ִיְשֵׁענוּ‬, “Save us, O God of our
salvation” (1 Chr 16:35), ‫הוִֹשׁיׇעה ְיה ׇוה‬, “Save now, O Yhwh”
(Ps 12:2 [Eng 12:1]).

2.1.4 Nominative Absolute (Dislocation)

The noun is isolated or dislocated from the following sen-
tence (sometimes by an intervening subordinate clause or

9 Andersen 1970, 31–34.

10 Joüon and Muraoka 2006, 476. With so many examples of vocative nouns
without the definite article, some prefer to say that “common nouns used
as vocatives may be either indefinite or definite”; Miller 2010. However
we choose to describe it, vocative is most often identified by the context.
1

2.2 Genitive 11

series of appositional terms) and then taken up again and

resumed by a pronoun serving as the subject of the sen-
tence: ‫ ְיה ׇוה הוּא ׇהֱאֹלִהים‬, “Yhwh, he is God” (1 Kgs 18:39),
‫אֵכל‬
ֺ ‫ׇהִאׇשּׁה ֲאֶשׁר ׇנַתׇתּה ִעׇמּ ִדי ִהוא ׇנְת ׇנה־ִלּי ִמן־ׇהֵעץ ׇו‬, “The woman,
whom you gave to be with me, she gave me fruit from the
tree, and I ate” (Gen 3:12). The nominative absolute nor-
mally serves to reactivate a noun or clause already known
from the context.
This construction goes by several names, including casus
pendens (Latin “hanging case”), dislocated construction, and
focus marker.11 The sentence constituent further down the
line taking up the noun or pronoun again may be called
the resumptive. Furthermore, such dislocation or suspen-
sion of a word is not limited to nominative (subjective)
functions. An accusative variation will be pointed out in
the following text (2.3.1, f).
Finally, care must be taken to distinguish dislocation
from simple fronting, which is a function of word order
(see 5.1.2, b.2). Fronting moves a noun (subject or object)
before the verb in a clause for focusing, or for introducing
or reactivating an entity.12

2.2 Genitive
Most relationships that exist between two nouns are
expressed in BH by means of a construction we call “gen-
itive” by analogy to similar functions in other languages.
English usually expresses this genitive relationship between
two nouns with the word “of.” For example, in the phrase
“the daughter of the king,” the noun “king” acts as a genitive

11 Khan 1988, xxvi–xxviii; Naudé 1990; Joüon and Muraoka 2006, 551–54;
Moshavi 2010, 81–83; Waltke and O’Connor 1990, 76–77. See the dis-
cussion of casus pendens under the label left-dislocation in Holmstedt 2014,
118–24, or front dislocation in Korchin 2015.
12 Holmstedt 2014, 115–18; van der Merwe, Naudé, and Kroeze 1999,
346–49; Long 2013, 179–84.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Treatment,

338

Cold douche, use of,

338

Electricity, use of,

338

Nitrite of amyl and nitro-glycerin, use of,

338

Music, use of,

338

Purgatives and tonics, use of,

338
Cataleptoid phenomena in the insane,

327

Cathartics in cerebral abscess,

800

in cerebral hemorrhage,

976

in cerebral hyperæmia,

774

Cauterization in vertigo,

427

Cautery, use of, in cerebral hyperæmia,

774
 in spinal sclerosis,

905

Cephalic soufflé, diagnostic significance of,

779

Cerebellum, focal lesions of,

90

tumors of, symptoms,

1062

Cerebral anæmia,

774

786
 from emotional disturbance,

780

from ligature of carotid,

776

Arteries, occlusion of,

946

Congestion, active, insomnia from,

382

Hyperæmia in the insane, treatment,

136

Meningeal hemorrhage,

710

Meningitis, chronic,
721

Neurasthenia,

355

Paralysis,

917

Pia mater, congestion of,

715

inflammation of,

716

Symptoms of thermic fever,

390

Syphilitic insanity,

202
 Tissue, alterations of, in epilepsy,

491

Veins and sinuses, thrombosis of,

982

occlusion of,

918

Cerebro-spinal sclerosis, multiple,

873

Cervical sympathetic, diseases of,

1263

Etiology and pathology,

1263

,
1264

Course and diagnosis,

1265

Symptoms,

1264

Eye and pupil, changes in,

1264

Heart, disorders in,

1265

of irritation of,

1264

of destructive disease of,

1264
 Secretions, changes in,

1265

Treatment,

1265

Cervico-brachial neuralgia,

1234

occipital neuralgia,

1234

Charcot's joint disease in tabes dorsalis,

830

837
Cheyne-Stokes phenomenon,

777

respiration in tubercular meningitis,

728

729

Child-bearing and cerebral anæmia,

778

Childhood, headache in,

405

Insanity of,

171
Children, cerebral hemorrhage in,

928

Hysteria in, treatment,

275

Softening of brain in,

990

Chloral, abuse of (see

Opium Habit

).

use of, in acute simple meningitis,

721

in alcoholism,

641

,
645

646

in cerebral anæmia,

789

hyperæmia,

773

in chorea,

455

in epilepsy,

500

in hysteria,

276

in insanity,
136

in insomnia,

380-382

in migraine,

415

in tetanus,

558

in the opium habit,

673

674

676

in tubercular meningitis,

736
 in vaso-motor neuroses,

1256

Chloroform, habitual addiction to,

667

use of, in hysteria,

286

in neuralgia,

1229

in tetanus,

551

Choked disc, in tumors of brain,

1035
Cholesteotomata, in brain tumors,

1049

HOREA

439

Definition,

440

Diagnosis and prognosis,

453

Duration,

449
 Etiology,

440

Age and sex, influence on causation,

441

Climate, season, and race,

444

Heredity, influence on causation,

440

Rheumatism, influence on causation,

442

Reflex irritation and eczema,

444

Scarlet fever and pregnancy,

443
 Social condition and over-study,

441

History and synonyms,

439

Morbid anatomy and pathology,

450

Symptoms,

445

during sleep,

445

446

Heart, state of, in,

448
 Mental condition in,

445

Movements, characters, and description of,

445

446

Paralysis and post-paralytic stage of,

447

Pulse and temperature in,

449

Sensibility and reflexes in,

448

Speech in,

445
,

448

Treatment,

454

Arsenic, use of,

455

Cimicifuga and conium, use of,

455

Electricity, use of,

455

Iron and zinc salts, use of,

455

Nitrite of amyl, bromides, etc., use,

455
 Strychnia, use of,

455

Chorea, hysterical,

242

in tumors of the brain,

1039

post-paralytic,

447

960

Chronic alcoholism,

598

et seq.
 cerebral anæmia of adults,

782

meningitis,

721

delirium tremens,

630

hydrocephalus,

740

lead-poisoning,

678

myelitis,

886

spinal meningitis,