Brushless DC electric motor

A brushless DC electric motor (BLDC), also known as an

electronically commutated motor, is a synchronous motor using a
direct current (DC) electric power supply. It uses an electronic
controller to switch DC currents to the motor windings producing
magnetic fields that effectively rotate in space and which the
permanent magnet rotor follows. The controller adjusts the phase
and amplitude of the DC current pulses to control the speed and
torque of the motor. This control system is an alternative to the
mechanical commutator (brushes) used in many conventional
electric motors. The motor from a 3.5 in floppy disk
drive. The coils, arranged radially,
The construction of a brushless motor system is typically similar to
are made from copper wire coated
a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), but can also be a with blue insulation. The rotor (upper
switched reluctance motor, or an induction (asynchronous) motor. right) has been removed and turned
They may also use neodymium magnets and be outrunners (the upside-down. The grey ring inside its
stator is surrounded by the rotor), inrunners (the rotor is surrounded cup is a permanent magnet. This
by the stator), or axial (the rotor and stator are flat and parallel).[1] particular motor is an outrunner, with
the stator inside the rotor.
The advantages of a brushless motor over brushed motors are high
power-to-weight ratio, high speed, nearly instantaneous control of
speed (rpm) and torque, high efficiency, and low maintenance.
Brushless motors find applications in such places as computer
peripherals (disk drives, printers), hand-held power tools, and
vehicles ranging from model aircraft to automobiles. In modern
washing machines, brushless DC motors have allowed replacement
of rubber belts and gearboxes by a direct-drive design.[2]

Background DC brushless ducted fan. The two

coils on the printed circuit board
interact with six round permanent
Brushed DC motors were invented in the 19th century and are still magnets in the fan assembly.
common. Brushless DC motors were made possible by the
development of solid state electronics in the 1960s.[3]

An electric motor develops torque by keeping the magnetic fields of the rotor (the rotating part of the
machine) and the stator (the fixed part of the machine) misaligned. One or both sets of magnets are
electromagnets, made of a coil of wire wound around an iron core. DC running through the wire winding
creates the magnetic field, providing the power that runs the motor. The misalignment generates a torque
that tries to realign the fields. As the rotor moves, and the fields come into alignment, it is necessary to move
either the rotor's or stator's field to maintain the misalignment and continue to generate torque and
movement. The device that moves the fields based on the position of the rotor is called a
commutator.[4][5][6]

Brush commutator

In brushed motors this is done with a rotary switch on the motor's shaft called a commutator.[4][6][5] It
consists of a rotating cylinder or disc divided into multiple metal contact segments on the rotor. The
segments are connected to conductor windings on the rotor. Two or more stationary contacts called brushes,
made of a soft conductor such as graphite, press against the commutator, making sliding electrical contact
with successive segments as the rotor turns. The brushes selectively provide electric current to the windings.
As the rotor rotates, the commutator selects different windings and the directional current is applied to a
given winding such that the rotor's magnetic field remains misaligned with the stator and creates a torque in
one direction.

Disadvantages of commutator

The commutator has disadvantages that has led to a decline in use of brushed motors. These disadvantages
are:[4][6][5]

The friction of the brushes sliding along the rotating commutator segments causes power
losses that can be significant in a low power motor.
The soft brush material wears down due to friction, creating dust, and eventually the brushes
must be replaced. This makes commutated motors unsuitable for low particulate or sealed
applications like hard disk motors, and for applications that require maintenance-free
operation.
The electrical resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage drop in the motor
circuit called brush drop, which consumes energy.
The repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance of the windings causes
sparks at the commutator contacts, which is a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres and a
source of electronic noise, which can cause electromagnetic interference in nearby
microelectronic circuits.

During the last hundred years, high-power DC brushed motors, once the mainstay of industry, were
replaced by alternating current (AC) synchronous motors. Today, brushed motors are used only in low
power applications or where only DC is available, but the above drawbacks limit their use even in these
applications.

Brushless solution

In brushless DC motors, an electronic servo system replaces the mechanical commutator contacts.[4][6][5]
An electronic sensor detects the angle of the rotor and controls semiconductor switches such as transistors
that switch current through the windings, either reversing the direction of the current or, in some motors
turning it off, at the correct angle so the electromagnets create torque in one direction. The elimination of the
sliding contact allows brushless motors to have less friction and longer life; their working life is limited only
by the lifetime of their bearings.

Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity
increases.[7] Some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors; they include higher
efficiency and lower susceptibility to mechanical wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially less
rugged, more complex, and more expensive control electronics.

A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets that rotate around a fixed armature, eliminating problems
associated with connecting current to the moving armature. An electronic controller replaces the
commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually switches the phase to the windings to
keep the motor turning. The controller performs similar timed power distribution by using a solid-state
circuit rather than the commutator system.

Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including high torque to weight ratio,
increased efficiency producing more torque per watt, increased reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime by
eliminating brush and commutator erosion, elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and an
overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they are not
subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the housing, they can be cooled
by conduction, requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's
internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter.

Brushless motor commutation can be implemented in software using a microcontroller, or may alternatively
be implemented using analog or digital circuits. Commutation with electronics instead of brushes allows for
greater flexibility and capabilities not available with brushed DC motors, including speed limiting,
microstepping operation for slow and fine motion control, and a holding torque when stationary. Controller
software can be customized to the specific motor being used in the application, resulting in greater
commutation efficiency.

The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by heat; too
much heat weakens the magnets and damages the windings' insulation.

When converting electricity into mechanical power, brushless motors are more efficient than brushed motors
primarily due to the absence of brushes, which reduces mechanical energy loss due to friction. The
enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load regions of the motor's performance curve.[8]

Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include

maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is hazardous (i.e. explosive
environments) or could affect electronically sensitive equipment.

The construction of a brushless motor resembles a stepper motor, but the motors have important differences
due to differences in implementation and operation. While stepper motors are frequently stopped with the
rotor in a defined angular position, a brushless motor is usually intended to produce continuous rotation.
Both motor types may have a rotor position sensor for internal feedback. Both a stepper motor and a well-
designed brushless motor can hold finite torque at zero RPM.

Controller implementations
Because the controller implements the traditional brushes' functionality it needs to know the rotor's
orientation relative to the stator coils. This is automatic in a brushed motor due to the fixed geometry of the
rotor shaft and brushes. Some designs use Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the
rotor's position. Others measure the back-EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, eliminating
the need for separate Hall effect sensors. These are therefore often called sensorless controllers.

Controllers that sense rotor position based on back-EMF have extra challenges in initiating motion because
no back-EMF is produced when the rotor is stationary. This is usually accomplished by beginning rotation
from an arbitrary phase, and then skipping to the correct phase if it is found to be wrong. This can cause the
motor to run backwards briefly, adding even more complexity to the startup sequence. Other sensorless
controllers are capable of measuring winding saturation caused by the position of the magnets to infer the
rotor position.[9]

A typical controller contains three polarity-reversible outputs controlled by a logic circuit. Simple controllers
employ comparators working from the orientation sensors to determine when the output phase should be
advanced. More advanced controllers employ a microcontroller to manage acceleration, control motor speed
and fine-tune efficiency.

Two key performance parameters of brushless DC motors are the motor constants (torque constant) and
(back-EMF constant, also known as speed constant ).[10]

Variations in construction
Brushless motors can be constructed in several different physical
configurations. In the conventional inrunner configuration, the
permanent magnets are part of the rotor. Three stator windings
surround the rotor. In the external-rotor outrunner configuration, the
radial relationship between the coils and magnets is reversed; the
stator coils form the center (core) of the motor, while the permanent
Schematic for delta and wye winding
magnets spin within an overhanging rotor that surrounds the core.
styles. (This image does not
Outrunners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain
illustrate the motor's inductive and
the three groups of windings, and have a higher torque at low generator-like properties)
RPMs. In the flat axial flux type, used where there are space or
shape constraints, stator and rotor plates are mounted face to face.
In all brushless motors, the coils are stationary.

There are two common electrical winding configurations; the delta configuration connects three windings to
each other in a triangle-like circuit, and power is applied at each of the connections. The wye (Y-shaped)
configuration, sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the windings to a central point, and power is
applied to the remaining end of each winding. A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low
torque at low speed but can give higher top speed. Wye configuration gives high torque at low speed, but
not as high top speed. The wye winding is normally more efficient. Delta-connected windings can allow
high-frequency parasitic electrical currents to circulate entirely within the motor. A Wye-connected winding
does not contain a closed loop in which parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses. Aside from the
higher impedance of the wye configuration, from a controller standpoint, the two winding configurations
can be treated exactly the same.[11]

Applications
Brushless motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost and control
complexity prevents brushless motors from replacing brushed motors completely in the lowest-cost areas.
Nevertheless, brushless motors have come to dominate many applications, particularly devices such as
computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in electronic equipment are powered
exclusively by brushless motors. They can be found in cordless
power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to
longer periods of use before the battery needs to be charged. Low
speed, low power brushless motors are used in direct-drive
turntables for gramophone records.[12]

Transport

Brushless motors are found in electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles,

personal transporters, and electric aircraft.[13] Most electric bicycles
use brushless motors that are sometimes built into the wheel hub
itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets The four poles on the stator of a two-
attached to and rotating with the wheel.[14] The same principle is windings single-phase brushless
applied in self-balancing scooter wheels. Most electrically powered motor. This is part of a computer
radio-controlled models use brushless motors because of their high cooling fan; the rotor has been
efficiency. removed.

Cordless tools

Brushless motors are found in many modern cordless tools, including some string trimmers, leaf blowers,
saws (circular and reciprocating), and drills/drivers. The weight and efficiency advantages of brushless over
brushed motors are more important to handheld, battery-powered tools than to large, stationary tools
plugged into an AC outlet.

Heating and ventilation

There is a trend in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and refrigeration industries to use
brushless motors instead of various types of AC motors. The most significant reason to switch to a brushless
motor is a reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor.[15] In addition to the
brushless motor's higher efficiency, HVAC systems, especially those featuring variable-speed or load
modulation, use brushless motors to give the built-in microprocessor continuous control over cooling and
airflow.[16]

Industrial engineering

The application of brushless DC motors within industrial engineering primarily focuses on manufacturing
engineering or industrial automation design. Brushless motors are ideally suited for manufacturing
applications because of their high power density, good speed-torque characteristics, high efficiency, wide
speed ranges and low maintenance. The most common uses of brushless DC motors in industrial
engineering are motion control, linear actuators, servomotors, actuators for industrial robots, extruder drive
motors and feed drives for CNC machine tools.[17]

Brushless motors are commonly used as pump, fan and spindle drives in adjustable or variable speed
applications as they are capable of developing high torque with good speed response. In addition, they can
be easily automated for remote control. Due to their construction, they have good thermal characteristics
and high energy efficiency.[18] To obtain a variable speed response, brushless motors operate in an
electromechanical system that includes an electronic motor controller and a rotor position feedback
sensor.[19] Brushless DC motors are widely used as servomotors for machine tool servo drives.
Servomotors are used for mechanical displacement, positioning or precision motion control. DC stepper
motors can also be used as servomotors; however, since they are operated with open loop control, they
typically exhibit torque pulsations.[20]

Brushless motors are used in industrial positioning and actuation applications.[21] For assembly robots,[22]
Brushless technogy may be used to build linear motors.[23] The advantage of linear motors is that they can
produce linear motion without the need of a transmission system, such as ballscrews, leadscrew, rack-and-
pinion, cam, gears or belts, that would be necessary for rotary motors. Transmission systems are known to
introduce less responsiveness and reduced accuracy. Direct drive, brushless DC linear motors consist of a
slotted stator with magnetic teeth and a moving actuator, which has permanent magnets and coil windings.
To obtain linear motion, a motor controller excites the coil windings in the actuator causing an interaction of
the magnetic fields resulting in linear motion.[17] Tubular linear motors are another form of linear motor
design operated in a similar way.

Aeromodelling

Brushless motors have become a popular motor choice for model

aircraft including helicopters and drones. Their favorable power-to-
weight ratios and wide range of available sizes have revolutionized
the market for electric-powered model flight, displacing virtually all
brushed electric motors, except for low powered inexpensive often
toy grade aircraft. They have also encouraged growth of simple,
lightweight electric model aircraft, rather than the previous internal
combustion engines powering larger and heavier models. The A microprocessor-controlled BLDC
increased power-to-weight ratio of modern batteries and brushless motor powering a micro radio-
motors allows models to ascend vertically, rather than climb controlled airplane. This external
gradually. The low noise and lack of mass compared to small glow rotor motor weighs 5 g and
fuel internal combustion engines is another reason for their consumes approximately 11 W.
popularity.

Legal restrictions for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countries, most often due
to potential for noise pollution—even with purpose-designed mufflers for almost all model engines being
available over the most recent decades—have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.

Radio-controlled cars

Their popularity has also risen in the radio-controlled (RC) car area. Brushless motors have been legal in
North American RC car racing in accordance with Radio Operated Auto Racing (ROAR) since 2006.
These motors provide a great amount of power to RC racers and, if paired with appropriate gearing and
high-discharge lithium polymer (Li-Po) or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries, these cars can
achieve speeds over 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph).[24]
Brushless motors are capable of producing more torque and have a faster peak rotational speed compared to
nitro- or gasoline-powered engines. Nitro engines peak at around 46,800 r/min and 2.2 kilowatts (3.0 hp),
while a smaller brushless motor can reach 50,000 r/min and 3.7 kilowatts (5.0 hp). Larger brushless RC
motors can reach upwards of 10 kilowatts (13 hp) and 28,000 r/min to power one-fifth-scale models.[25]

See also
Trains portal

Piezoelectric motor
Squirrel-cage rotor

References
1. Control differences between ac induction motor and brushless dc motor? – Electrical
Engineering Stack Exchange (http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/43105/control
-differences-between-ac-induction-motor-and-brushless-dc-motor).
electronics.stackexchange.com (2019-12-20). Retrieved on 2019-12-26.
2. "What is a BLDC Motor in a Washing Machine?" (https://www.dumblittleman.com/bldc-moto
r/). Dumb Little Man. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
3. T.G. Wilson, P.H. Trickey, "D.C. Machine. With Solid State Commutation", AIEE paper I.
CP62-1372, October 7, 1962
4. Clarence W. de Silva (2009). Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=iQXLBQAAQBAJ&q=brushless+dc+motor+commutator+&pg=PA633).
CRC Press. pp. 632–633. ISBN 978-1420076875.
5. Helmut Moczala (1998). Small Electric Motors (https://books.google.com/books?id=EBteVX
BlF-sC&q=brushless+commutator&pg=PA165). London: Institution of Electrical Engineers.
pp. 165–166. ISBN 085296921X.
6. Chang-liang Xia (2012). Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drives and Controls (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=FkRYP7DWO9cC&q=%22brushless+dc+motor%22+comm
utator&pg=PP18). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-1118188361.
7. M. Gopal (2002). Control Systems: Principles and Design (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=FZak6CkrVLQC&pg=PA165). Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-07-
048289-0.
8. "Brushless DC Motor vs. AC Motor vs. Brushed Motor?" (https://www.orientalmotor.com/brus
hless-dc-motors-gear-motors/technology/AC-brushless-brushed-motors.html). Retrieved
2021-04-29.
9. "The Rotor Position Study of Brushless DC Motors Without Position Sensors | IEEE
Conference Publication | IEEE Xplore" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10280801/).
ieeexplore.ieee.org. Retrieved 2023-12-23.
10. Brushless Motor Kv Constant Explained (http://learningrc.com/motor-kv/). Learningrc.com
(2015-07-29). Retrieved on 2019-12-26.
11. "Delta vs Wye phase connections" (https://community.parker.com/technologies/electromecha
nical-group/w/electromechanical-knowledge-base/1360/general---delta-vs-wye-phase-conn
ections). Retrieved 2021-11-01.
12. "Vinyl Turntable Drive Techniques" (https://fromvinyltoplastic.com/vinyl-turntable-drive-techni
ques/). 2 November 2019. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
13. "Custom axial flux permanent magnet BLDC" (https://web.archive.org/web/2020112421243
9/https://turncircles.com/axial-flux-light-weight-custom-electric-motor). Turncircles. Archived
from the original (https://turncircles.com/axial-flux-light-weight-custom-electric-motor/) on 24
November 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
14. "home page" (https://www.ebikekit.com/). .ebikekit.
15. ECMs and HVAC Systems (http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/machinery-tools-supplies/EC
M-Mogl;merlkg,.mf,.mblkjocxpkb?rs,toiesof,.dmo;viodkeflejroue9ifrorjhioyrs8odfuslkdksha9f8
gorsjhkfdiuiawdpojeklsghiuogjbklmdsklfnfiuohewsiufhkernhkjjriovjd;osmfklnesjoogiortors-H
VAC-Systems). Thomasnet.com. Retrieved on 2019-12-26.
16. "Reliance Electric GV3000 Drive 30V4160 | Automation Industrial" (https://30v4160.com/blo
g). 30v4160.com. Retrieved 2023-12-23.
17. "Brushless DC Motors Used in Industrial Applications" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012110
4003748/http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/brushless-dc-motors-used-in-industrial-applicati
ons-1617). Ohio Electric Motors. 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.ohioelectricmot
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18. Ohio Electric Motors. DC Motor Protection. (http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/dc-motor-prot
ection-804) Ohio Electric Motors. 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120126205
734/http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/brushless-dc-motors-low-maintenance-and-high-effici
ency-623) January 26, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
19. Sabrie Soloman (1999). Sensors Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=VvQRkAzT
1h4C&pg=SA5-PA6). McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-07-059630-6.
20. Peter Campbell (1996). Permanent Magnet Materials and Their Application (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=_HYiPeL1hrwC&pg=PA172). Cambridge University Press. p. 172.
ISBN 978-0-521-56688-9.
21. M. Gopal (2002). Control Systems: Principles and Design (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=FZak6CkrVLQC&pg=PA159). Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-07-
048289-0.
22. Shimon Y. Nof; Wilbert Wilhelm; H. Warnecke (1997). Industrial Assembly (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=W61iB3oCyOoC&pg=PA174). Springer Science & Business Media.
p. 174. ISBN 978-0-412-55770-5.
23. Peng Zhang (2013). Industrial Control Technology: A Handbook for Engineers and
Researchers (https://books.google.com/books?id=k7mWp3onWUUC&pg=PA91). Elsevier
Science. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-08-094752-5.
24. Bobby Bernstein (15 January 2015). "Top 4 Fastest RC Cars for Sale in the World" (http://he
avy.com/tech/2015/01/top-4-fastest-rc-cars-for-sale-traxxas-cen-racing-100-mph/).
heavy.com. Retrieved 2 February 2015. "As far as THE fastest RC car available for sale is
concerned, it is the Traxxas XO-1 Supercar. The XO-1 hits 100mph, with proper LiPos
batteries." The maker's product specifications indicate the usage of a "Traxxas Big Block
brushless motor" (https://traxxas.com/products/models/electric/64077xo1)
25. Maning, Jayric (2022-08-20). "Brushed vs. Brushless Motors: What's the Difference, and
What's Best?" (https://www.makeuseof.com/brushed-vs-brushless-motors/). MUO. Retrieved
2023-12-23.

Further reading
Jacek F. Gieras; Mitchell Wing (2002), Permanent magnet motor technology: design and
applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=u_NiSnZeLQQC), CRC Press,
ISBN 9780824743949
Krishnan Ramu (2009), Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motors (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=U-RxikH3aXEC), CRC Press, ISBN 9781420014235
 Howard E. Jordan (1994), Energy-efficient electric motors and their applications (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=utWtW_9NMgcC), Springer, ISBN 9780306446986
Bobby A. Bassham (2003), An Evaluation of Electric Motors for Ship Propulsion (https://web.
archive.org/web/20130408133056/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA417341),
Naval Postgraduate School, archived from the original (http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDo
c?AD=ADA417341) on April 8, 2013
Duane Hanselman (2012), Brushless Motors: Magnetic Design, Performance, and Control (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=HNBZLwEACAAJ), E-Man Press, ISBN 9780982692615

External links
How Motors Work (brushed and brushless RC airplane motors) (https://web.archive.org/web/
20131002195720/http://www.stefanv.com/rcstuff/qf200212.html) at the Wayback Machine
(archived 2013-10-02)
BLDC Motor Fan Advantages And Disadvantages (https://web.archive.org/web/2022011717
0719/https://www.bestfanindia.in/bldc-motor-fan-advantages-and-disadvantages/) at the
Wayback Machine (archived 2022-01-17)
Animation of BLDC Motor in different commutation (Block, Star, Sinus (sine) & Sensorless) –
compared to stepper motors (https://web.archive.org/web/20200205143752/https://us.nanote
c.com/support/knowledge-base-pages/animation-brushless-dc-motors/) at the Wayback
Machine (archived 2020-02-05) Flash
Electric Drives – Brushless DC / AC and Reluctance Motors (http://www.mpoweruk.com/mot
orsbrushless.htm) with useful diagrams
How Brushless Motor and ESC Work (https://howtomechatronics.com/how-it-works/how-brus
hless-motor-and-esc-work/) – Video explanation how Brushless DC Motor works, plus how
to control one with an Arduino micro-controller.
BLDC Vs Normal Ceiling fan Electricity Consumption (https://brandscroll.in/bldc-vs-normal-c
eiling-an-electricity-consumption/) - power consumption and cost if you run each fan for 10
hours per day

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