Important Personalities of Modern India Lkkewt

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Table of Contents
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) - Architect of Nonviolence.................................... 6

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) - Founding Father of Modern India....................14
B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) - Crusader for Social Justice................................. 23
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) - Spiritual Luminary: Inspiring Humanity with
Vedantic Wisdom...............................................................................................32
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) - Literary Titan: Weaving the Spirit of India
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through Poetic Elegance.................................................................................... 36
C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972) - Statesman and Scholar: Advocating for
Pluralism and Integrity......................................................................................41
Netaji Subash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) - Revolutionary Nationalist............... 47
Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) - Icon of Indian Revolution: Sacrificing Life for Liberty..
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) - India’s First President: Shaping the Republic
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with Dignity and Grace......................................................................................61
Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979) - Total Revolution Leader: Advocating for
Social Change and Democracy...........................................................................69
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) - Father of Indian Unrest: Igniting the Spark of
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Nationalism.......................................................................................................78
Vinayak Damodar Sarvarkar (1883-1966) - Firebrand Patriot: Shaping the
Ideology of Hindutva and Nationalism................................................................84
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Swaminarayan/Sahajanand Swami (1781-1830) - Divine Reformer: Fostering

Social Harmony and Devotional Bhakti............................................................. 90
Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) - Revolutionary Monk: Igniting Reform with
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Vedic Wisdom....................................................................................................95
Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861-1944) - Father of Indian Chemistry:
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Blending Tradition with Scientific Innovation...................................................101

Sahajanand Saraswati (1889-1950) - Champion of the Peasantry: Leading
Agrarian Reforms and Social Justice............................................................... 104
Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) - Pioneer of Muslim Renaissance in India........109
Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946) - Educational Reformer: Founding Banaras
Hindu University............................................................................................. 113
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891) - Reformer and Scholar: Advocating for
Women’s Education and Social Reform............................................................ 120
Aruna Asaf Ali (1909-1996) - Freedom Fighter and Patriot: Symbolizing the
Quintessence of Bravery..................................................................................124
M.N.Roy (1887-1954) - Radical Humanist........................................................129
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Annie Besant (1847-1933) - Theosophical Visionary: Fostering Indian Self-Rule
and Cultural Revival........................................................................................135
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) - Nightingale of India: Blending Poetry with Patriotism
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Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) - Grand Old Man of India: Exposing Economic
Drain and Championing Nationalism...............................................................145
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) - Moderate Voice of Freedom: Pioneering
Constructive Swaraj........................................................................................ 150
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1883) - Harbinger of Indian Renaissance:
Championing Social Reformation.....................................................................156
Sri Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) - Spiritual Revolutionary: Merging Nationalism
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with Spiritual Evolution...................................................................................165
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (1872-1936) - Maritime Pioneer: Steering India’s Naval
Awakening...................................................................................................... 170
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) - Philosopher-President: Bridging Eastern
and Western Thought...................................................................................... 175
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Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1931) - Firebrand Orator: Fostering the Spirit of
Swadeshi.........................................................................................................179
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Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) - Freedom Fighter and Patriarch: Laying Foundations
for a Nehruvian Legacy....................................................................................184
Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925) - Early Nationalist Leader: Advocating for
Civil Rights and Self-Government.................................................................... 190
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Rukhmabai (1864 –1955) - Trailblazer for Women’s Rights: Defying Tradition for
Reform............................................................................................................ 195
Romesh Chunder Dutt (R C Dutt) (1848-1909) - Economic Historian: Unveiling
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the Economic History of India..........................................................................200

Chittaranjan Das (C R Das) (1870-1925) - Patriot and Leader: Steering Swaraj
and Sacrificing Self for National Good..............................................................205
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Ananda Mohan Bose (1847-1906) - Educational Reformer and Nationalist:

Fostering Intellectual Awakening..................................................................... 212
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Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928) - Social Reformer: Envisioning a Casteless and

Equitable Society.............................................................................................217
Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (1879-1973) - Rationalist Revolutionary: Championing
Social Justice and Equality............................................................................. 223
Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) - Religious Reformer: Advocating for a
Universal Religion............................................................................................232
Dadoba and Atmaram Pandurang - Pioneers of Social and Religious Reform:
Fostering the Prarthana Samaj Movement....................................................... 239
Madame HP Blavatsky (1831-91) - Mystic and Co-Founder of Theosophy:
Bridging Eastern and Western Esoteric Traditions...........................................245
Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905) - Spiritual Revivalist: Anchoring the Brahmo
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Samaj’s Philosophical Insights.........................................................................249
Badruddin Tyabji (1844-1906) - Judicial Pioneer: Bridging Law and National
Unity...............................................................................................................254
Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823-1892) - Social Reformer: Advocating Rationality and
Social Responsibility........................................................................................259
Usha Mehta (1920-2000) - Quiet Revolutionary: Radiating the Spirit of Freedom
through the Secret Congress Radio..................................................................265
Surya Sen (1894-1934): Master Da, the Unyielding Flame of India's Freedom
Struggle.......................................................................................................... 271
Achyut Patwardhan (1905-92): The Lion of Satara........................................... 276
Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912): Advocate of Women's Rights and Pioneer of
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Legal Reforms..................................................................................................284
V.K. Krishna Menon (1896-1974): Defending India's Sovereignty..................... 290
Indulal Yagnik (1892-1972): The Voice of Farmers and Freedom Fighters.........296
Satish Chandra Mukherjee (1865-1948): Pioneer of National Education in India....
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Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946).......................................................................... 309
Durgabai Deshmukh (1909-1981): The Iron Lady of India and Her Impact on
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Indian Society................................................................................................. 314
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890-1988): The Frontier Gandhi.......................... 321
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948): From Barrister to Statesman.................. 334
Bhikaiji Cama (1861-1936): Mother of Indian Revolution................................. 354
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Dinabandhu Mitra (1830-1873): A Literary Pioneer of Colonial Bengal............. 358

V. Krishnaswamy Iyer (1863-1911): An Architect of Modern Indian Banking and a
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Champion of Nationalism................................................................................ 361

Lala Har Dayal (1884-1939): Architect of the Ghadar Movement and His
Enduring Legacy............................................................................................. 364
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Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati (1858-1922) - Championing the Cause of Women's

Rights and Emancipation................................................................................ 369
Pherozeshah Mehta (1845-1915): The Lion of Bombay and His Impact on India's
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Freedom Struggle............................................................................................ 375

Vithalbhai Patel (1873-1933): A Life of Commitment to Freedom and Justice...379
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894): The Literary Giant of Bengal....383
Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967): A Pillar of Indian Socialism and Nationalism.....
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Rash Behari Bose (1886 – 1945): A Revolutionary Journey.............................. 391
Ram Prasad Bismil (1897-1927): A Revolutionary Poet and Freedom Fighter....395
Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840-1911): Amrita Bazar Patrika & India League............399
Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru (1875-1949): The Liberal Leader Who Championed
Constitutional Reforms....................................................................................403
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Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919): The Father of Telugu Renaissance......407
Rani Gaidinliu (1915-1993): A Naga Freedom Fighter...................................... 411
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (1887-1964)................................................................. 414
Subramania Bharati (Mahakavi Bharatiyar) (1882-1921): Shaping Nationalism
with Verse....................................................................................................... 417
Other Personalities..........................................................................................422
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Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) - Architect of
Nonviolence
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a
renowned freedom activist and a powerful
political leader. He played an important role in
India's struggle for Independence against the
British rule of India through non-violent means
which ultimately led to Indian independence. He
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was also known as Father of India, Bapu
(endearment for father), and Mahatma (Great
Soul). He also improved the lives of India's poor
people and depressed classes. His ideology of
truth and non-violence influenced many
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including Martin Luther and Nelson Mandela.
His professions include lawyer (studied law in
London, 1888), politician, activist, and writer.
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Early Life:
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, India,
to Karamchand Gandhi and Putlibai. At age 13, he married Kasturba Kapadia as
part of an arranged marriage. She bore four sons and supported Gandhi's
endeavors until her 1944 death.
In September 1888 at age 18, Gandhi left India alone to study law in London.
Gandhi also adopted vegetarianism and joined the London Vegetarian Society,
whose intellectual crowd introduced Gandhi to authors Henry David Thoreau and
Leo Tolstoy. He was also deeply influenced by the stories of Shravana &
Harishchandra, Bhagavad Gita, and Thirukkural (ancient Tamil literature) as
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they reflected the importance of truth. These books' concepts set the foundation
for his later beliefs.
Gandhi passed the bar on June 10, 1891, and returned to India. For two years,
he attempted to practice law but lacked the knowledge of Indian law and the
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self-confidence necessary to be a trial lawyer. Instead, he took on a year-long case
in South Africa.
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Contributions:
Movement in South Africa:

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● 1893: Gandhi went to South Africa to work as a lawyer. There he had

first-hand experience of racial discrimination when he was thrown out of
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the first-class compartment of the train despite holding the first-class ticket
because it was reserved for white people only and no Indian or black was
allowed to travel in the first class. This incident had a serious effect on
him. He also observed that this type of incident was quite common against
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his fellow Indians. Therefore, he decided to protest against racial

discrimination in South Africa.
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● 1894: Gandhi agrees to extend his stay in South Africa, and helps to
establish the Natal Indian Congress. He assumes a prominent and vocal
role in the local campaign for Indian rights.
● 1899: Gandhi forms the Indian Ambulance Corp to provide relief support
for British soldiers during the South African War (formerly the Anglo-Boer
War).
● 1901: Goes to India to attend a session of the Indian National Congress. He
returns to South Africa the following year.
● 1902: Gandhi establishes law offices in Johannesburg.
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● 1903: Gandhi begins printing the newspaper, Indian Opinion (later titled
Opinion), in Johannesburg.
● 1904: Gandhi established The communal Phoenix settlement. Meets
Herman Kallenbach (Architect & Gandhi’s associate).
● 1906: Gandhi gave birth to the idea of Satyagraha. He chaired a meeting
in Johannesburg, in which the Indian community was called upon to resist
new anti-Asiatic laws through acts of civil disobedience.
● 1908: Gandhi is arrested for not carrying a passbook. After he was
released, he led thousands of Indians in burning their passbooks and
registration papers at Johannesburg.
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● 1910: Gandhi and Kallenbach established Tolstoy Farm on the outskirts of
Johannesburg. It becomes Gandhi’s base in South Africa.
● 1913: After the Searle Judgement (under which marriages conducted
under Indian law were declared invalid), many Indian women join the
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Satyagraha.
1914: Suspends Satyagraha, in return for the abolition of taxes,
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recognition of Indian marriages, and the freedom of movement of Indians.
● Movement in South Africa transformed Gandhi into a new person and it
played an important role in the evolution of Satyagraha which was used in
upcoming freedom struggles in India.
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Movement in India:
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● 1915: Gandhi returned to India and joined the Indian National Congress
with Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his mentor.
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● 1916: He established the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad so that his

followers could learn and practice the truth and non-violence.
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● 1917: Champaran satyagraha - marks Mahatma Gandhi’s first

successful application of his method of ‘satyagraha’ in India. The indigo
cultivators of Champaran, Bihar were greatly exploited by the planters who
were largely European. The cultivators were bound by law to grow indigo on
3/20th (the tinkathia system) of the total area of their land and sell it to the
planters at the price fixed by the latter. As a result of this system, the poor
peasants were greatly distressed and approached Gandhi in order to lead
their struggle against the planters. Gandhi accepted their request but was
banned from entering the district by district authority orders. In protest,
Gandhi did satyagraha. As a result of his campaign, an enquiry was
conducted into the conditions of the peasants. This went a long way in
giving the indigo cultivators some relief.
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● 1918:
○ Ahmedabad Mill Strike: In February 1918, there was a conflict
between mill owners and workers of the Gujrat Mill. Gandhiji
organised satyagraha in favour of cotton mill workers in 1918 at
Ahmedabad. It was one of the formative events in the political career
of Mahatma Gandhi.
○ Kheda Satyagraha of 1918: Gandhi organised this movement to
support peasants of the Kheda district, Gujarat. The people of Kheda
were unable to pay the high taxes levied by the British due to crop
failure and a plague epidemic.
1919:
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○ Young India was a weekly paper or journal in English started by

Mahatma Gandhi. It was published from 1919 to 1931. Through this
work, he desired to popularise India's demand for self-government or
Swaraj. He used Young India to spread his unique ideology and
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thoughts regarding the use of nonviolence in organising movements
and to urge readers to consider, organise, and plan for India's
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eventual independence from Britain.
○ Navajivan (a new life) was weekly newspaper published by Gandhi,
in Gujarati, from 1919 to 1931, from Ahmedabad.
1920-22: Non-Cooperation Movement - Gandhi launched this mass
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movement which involved participation from the nationalists as well as the
public. Factors that led to the formation of this movement were the
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oppressive policies of Britishers such as the Rowlatt Act and the

Jallianwala Bagh incident in Amritsar. The campaign involves Indians
revoking their cooperation from the British government, with the aim of
inducing the British to grant self-governance (swaraj). The British
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government arrested Gandhi and sentenced him to six years in jail for
sedition. Gandhi withdrew the non-cooperation movement after the
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Chauri-Chaura Incident. After the non-cooperation movement ended,

Gandhi withdrew from the political platform and focused on his social
reform work.
● 1929: Navajivan Trust is a publishing house based in Ahmedabad, India.
It was founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1929 and has published more than
800 titles in English, Gujarati, Hindi and other languages to date. The
objective of Navajivan Trust was to propagate peaceful means for the
attainment of Hind Swaraj (Swaraj for India).
● 1930: Civil Disobedience Movement - The Simon Commission came to
India in 1928. It was to look into the functions of the constitutional system
in India. As there was no Indian member in it, it was boycotted by all
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political parties in the country. Later, in 1929, the Congress under the
leadership of Nehru declared 'Poorna Swaraj' as its main goal. As
nationalist feelings began to rise, Gandhi sent a letter containing eleven
demands to Lord Irwin in 1930 asking him to accept it. When he refused,
Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement. Civil disobedience
implies the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws,
orders, and demands of a government. In the year 1930, Gandhi started
this movement (Dandi) by violating the salt law. The movement was
discontinued following the Gandhi Irwin Pact of 1931.
● 1932:
○ Communal Award - Ramsay Macdonald announced communal
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award due to repeated failure of communities to decide on the
proportion of representation. The award provided for a separate
electorate for depressed classes. Gandhi condemned this award as it
was based on Britishers’ Divide and Rule Policy and it will destroy
Hinduism. He led a fast unto death which ultimately resulted in
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Poona Pact between Congress and depressed classes headed by B.R.
Ambedkar. Poona pact provides for reservation of depressed classes
in Hindu joint electorate.
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○ As a result of the communal awards and Poona pact, Gandhi
dedicated himself to the upliftment of depressed classes and
untouchables. Gandhi founded Harijan Sevak Sangh (All India
Anti-Untouchability League) in 1932. He also started a journal
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named Harijan which means "People of God".

1934: Gandhi resigned from the Congress party membership as he did not
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agree with the party’s position on different issues.
● 1936: Gandhi returned to active politics in 1936 with the Lucknow session
of Congress where Jawaharlal Nehru was the president.
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● 1938: Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose’s principles clashed during the
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Tripuri session which led to the Tripuri crisis in the Indian National
Congress.
● 1942: Quit India Movement - The Quit India Movement was launched by
Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 at the Bombay session of the All India
Congress Committee (AICC). Also known as the Bharat Chhodo Andolan,
this movement was a mass civil disobedience that took place in the
country. Gandhi demanded that the British must leave India immediately
or face dire consequences. As a part of this movement, a call for mass
agitation was followed by violence that took over the country after which
Indian National Congress leaders were arrested. The main reason for the
Quit India Movement to begin was because the Britishers were planning to
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drag the country into World War II without consent to fight on behalf of the
United Kingdom (UK). During that time, more than 87,000 Indian soldiers
were martyred in World War II including people from Pakistan, Nepal, and
Bangladesh. Also, the Cripps Mission which was led by Sir Stafford Cripps,
a member of the War Cabinet in March 1942, made an attempt to secure
India's cooperation in World War II. Following this, Cripps was sent to India
to discuss and support the British Government's Draft Declaration with
Indian leaders. Moreover, the declaration also granted India Dominion
Status after the war. To which, Congress denied discussing any terms
unless given total freedom.
● 1947: India wins independence. Gandhi fasts as penance for
inter-communal violence following the partition of India and Pakistan.
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Ideologies:
Gandhi developed a set of religious and social ideas first during his period in
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South Africa from 1893 to 1914 and later in India. He developed these ideologies
from various inspirational sources including Bhagavad Geeta, Jainism,
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Buddhism, Bible, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Tolstoy (His book The Kingdom of
God is within you had a deep influence on Gandhi), John Ruskin (Gandhi
paraphrased his book Unto the Last as Sarvodaya), among others. These
ideologies have been further developed by later Gandhians most notably, in India
by Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan, outside of India by Martin Luther
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King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and others. Major Gandhian ideologies are as follows.
Truth and Non-Violence:
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● They are the twin cardinal principles of Gandhian thoughts.

● For Gandhiji, the truth is
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○ Relative truth of truthfulness in word and deed.

○ Absolute truth - the ultimate reality. This ultimate truth is God (as
God is also Truth). Morality - the moral laws and code - its basis.
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● Nonviolence is Active love, that is, the polar opposite of violence, in every
sense. Nonviolence or love is regarded as the highest law of humankind.
Satyagraha:
● It is a method of securing rights through nonviolent action, that is, through
personal suffering rather than inflicting injury on others.
● It means the exercise of the purest soul-force against all injustice,
oppression, and exploitation.
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● The origin of Satyagraha can be found in the Upanishads, and the
teachings of Buddha, Mahavira, and other greats including Tolstoy and
Ruskin.
Sarvodaya:
● The term Sarvodaya means ‘Universal Uplift’ or ‘Progress of All’.
● It was first coined by Gandhiji as the title of his translation of John
Ruskin’s book on political economy, Unto the Last.
Swaraj:
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● Although the word swaraj means self-rule, Gandhiji gave it the content of
an integral revolution that encompasses all spheres of life.
● For Gandhiji, swaraj of people meant,
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○ The sum total of the swaraj (self-rule) of individuals.
○ Freedom for the meanest of his countrymen.

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○ Much more than freedom from all restraints, it is self-rule and
self-restraint and could be equated with moksha or salvation.
● He envisaged Ram Rajya where the swaraj is achieved for the people by the
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people.
Swadeshi:
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● The word swadeshi is a conjunction of two Sanskrit words - ‘Swa’ means

self or own and ‘desh’ means country. So Swadesh literally means one's
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own country. But it can be loosely translated in most contexts as

self-sufficiency.
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● It is the focus on acting within one's own community, both politically and
economically.
● It is the interdependence of Community and Self-sufficiency.
● Gandhi believed this would lead to independence (swaraj) as the British
control of India was rooted in control of her indigenous industries.
● Swadeshi was represented by the charkha or the spinning wheel, The
“center of the solar system” of Mahatma Gandhi’s constructive program.
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Trusteeship:
● It is a socio-economic philosophy propounded by Gandhiji.
● It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the trustees of
Trusts that looked after the welfare of the people in general.
Education:
● Gandhi believed that Education needs to be a lifelong experience.
● He developed a scheme on education named Nayee Taleem.
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● He gave priority to vocational education, the idea of ‘earn & learn’, and the
learnings like social forestry, nursing, home science, handicrafts, etc.
Death:
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On 30th January 1948, Gandhi was on his way to address a prayer meeting in
the Birla House New Delhi when a Hindu fanatic named Nathuram Godse fired
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three bullets into his chest from close range killing him instantly.
Legacy:
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Gandhi always held on to non-violence and simple living throughout his life, in
his principles, practices, and beliefs. He influenced several great leaders and the
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country respectfully addresses him as the father of the nation or Bapu.

Rabindranath Tagore is said to have given the title of Mahatma to Gandhi. It was
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose who first addressed him as the Father of the
Nation. Many great world leaders like Nelson Mandela followed Gandhiji’s
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teachings and way of life. Therefore, his impact on the world is still very high.
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Literary Works:
Hind Swarajya (1909), Indian Home Rule (1910), Sermon on the Sea (1924 - the
American edition of Hind Swaraj), Dakshina Africana Satyagrahano Itihasa /
Satyagraha in South Africa (1924-25), Satyana Prayogo Athava Atmakatha / An
Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth (1924-25),
Mangalaprabhata (1930), India's Case for Swaraj (1931), Songs from Prison:
Translations of Indian Lyrics Made in Jail (1934), The Indian States' Problem
(1941), The Good life (1943), Gandhi Against Fascism (1944), From Yeravda
Mandir: Ashram Observances (1945), Conquest of Self (1946), Women and Social
Injustice (1947), Self-restraint v. Self-Indulgence (1947), Gandhigrams (1947).
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Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) - Founding
Father of Modern India
Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of independent

India. One of the most prominent leaders of India’s
Independent Movement, Pandit Nehru is known as the
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architect of modern India. Pandit Nehru or Chacha Nehru as
he was affectionately called was a nationalist leader, social
democrat, author, and humanist. Nehru was known for his
vision, administrative aptitude, and scholastic prowess. He
was a prolific writer and authored books such as ‘The
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Discovery of India’ and ‘Glimpses of the World History’.
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Early Life:
Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad on 14 November 1889. His father was
Motilal Nehru, a renowned lawyer, and leader of the Indian independence
movement. He had a degree in natural science (1910) at Cambridge University,
London. As a student, he had been interested in the struggle of all nations who
suffered under foreign rule. He took a keen interest in the Sinn Fein Movement in
Ireland. He was inspired and influenced by the works of Garibaldi (Italian
national hero), G B Shaw, H G Wells, Bertrand Russell, J M Keynes, Meredith
Townsend, and Lowed Dickinson. He became a lawyer in 1912 but soon drifted
towards the national cause.
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Contributions:
1912: Nehru attended the Bankipore session of Congress as a delegate. The
Congress party at that time was composed of moderates and elites, and Nehru
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immediately suspected the effect they can have on Indian society. But he agreed
to work with the party and support the Indian Civil Rights movement led by
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Gandhi in South Africa.
1914-15: World War I started and there were mixed feelings among Indians
concerning the war. Nehru worked as a volunteer for the St. John Ambulance
during the war.
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During the war years, Nehru established himself as a leader with radical political
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beliefs. Moderates like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who thought independence was a
long way off, dominated the political debate at the time.
After Gokhale's death in 1915, moderate ideology faded, and radical leaders like
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Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant took over the political scene, launching
the Home Rule movement.
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1916: In the Lucknow Congress session, Nehru met Gandhiji for the first time
and the latter has claimed to have influenced him. In 1916, Nehru married
Kamala Kaul, with whom he had a daughter, Indira Priyadarshini, in 1917.
1919: Nehru became the secretary of the Home rule league, Allahabad.
1920: In the Pratapgarh District of Uttar Pradesh, he organised the first Kisan
March. During the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22, he was imprisoned
twice.
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1922: The Chauri chaura tragedy prompted Gandhiji to call the Non-Cooperation
campaign back in 1922. This sparked a division in the Congress, prompting
figures such as Motilal Nehru and CR Das to join the Swaraj Party, while
Jawaharlal Nehru remained steadfast in his support for Gandhiji's decision.
1923: In September 1923, Nehru was appointed General Secretary of the All
India Congress Committee.
1926: In 1926, Nehru went on a trip of Italy, Switzerland, England, Belgium,
Germany, and Russia. As an official representative of the Indian National
Congress, he attended the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in Brussels,
Belgium.
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1927: In Moscow in 1927, he attended the tenth anniversary commemoration of
the October Socialist Revolution.
1928: In Lucknow in 1928, he was lathi-charged while leading a demonstration
against the Simon commission.
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He attended the All-Party Congress on August 29, 1928, and was a signatory to
the Nehru Report on Indian Constitutional Reform, which was named after his
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father Motilal Nehru.
He also became the General Secretary of the 'Independence for India League,'
which he co-founded with Subhas Chandra Bose. The league demanded full
severance of the British relationship with India.
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Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency of INC sessions

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1929: Nehru was appointed as President of the Indian National Congress's

Lahore Session, where the objective of full independence for the country is
proclaimed. Nehru raised the Indian tricolour on the banks of the Ravi in Lahore
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at midnight on New Year's Eve 1929.

In 1929-31, he drafted a resolution called Fundamental Rights and Economic
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Policy, which outlined the congress's main goals and the country's prospects.
The Congress party under Sardar Patel accepted the resolution in the Karachi
Session of 1931.
He was imprisoned several times between 1930 and 1935, in connection with the
Salt Satyagraha and other Congress-led campaigns. On February 14, 1935, he
finished his Autobiography in Almora Jail.
1936-38: Due to his wife's sickness, Nehru travelled to Europe again. However,
his interest in socialism and Marxism was awakened during this tour.
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In 1936, he was re-elected as President of the Lucknow Session. Despite Nehru
and Gandhi Ji's opposition, the Congress party chose to run in the 1937
provincial elections.
Nehru hoped to promote socialist Maulana Azad as the voice of Indian Muslims,
but Gandhiji's backing for Jinnah and the Muslim League weakened Nehru's
position.
1939: when World War II broke out, Viceroy Linlithgow placed India in the war
without consulting Indian representatives.
The Congress, led by Nehru, notified the British administration that it would
collaborate with them but only under specific conditions, which the Viceroy
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refused.
On October 23, 1939, Congress asked the Congress ministries in the different
provinces to resign in protest on October 23, 1939. Nehru wanted Jinnah and the
Muslim League to join the protest before this key declaration, but Jinnah refused.
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Civil disobedience, Lahore resolution, and August offer
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1940: Jinnah and the Muslim League also passed the Pakistan resolution in
1940, demanding a separate Muslim nation called Pakistan.
Linlithgow made the august offer to Nehru offering domino staus to India in
return for support in world war II. The Indian leaders rejected the offer calling it
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incomplete and vague.

E
Nehru was arrested for offering individual Satyagraha to protest against India’s
forced participation in the war. He was released along with the other leaders in
December 1941.
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The Japanese attack, Cripps Mission, and Quit India movement

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In 1942, Japan attacked India through Burma, and the British threatened by the
attack decided to hold talks to Indian Leaders.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of
the British War Cabinet who was politically close to Nehru and also knew Jinnah,
with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional problem. Cripps’s mission
failed, however, for Indian leaders under Gandhi and Nehru would accept nothing
less than independence.
1942: Nehru moved the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution at the All India Congress
Committee session in Bombay.
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On August 8, 1942, he was arrested along with other leaders and taken to
Ahmednagar Fort. This was his longest and last of his detentions.
1945: He was released in January, after which he organized legal defence for the
officers and men of the Indian National Army (INA) charged with treason.
1946: He was elected President of the Congress for the fourth time on July 6,
1946, and again for three more terms from 1951 to 1954.
Cabinet mission and the interim government
A final attempt was made by the viceroy Wavell to bring the Congress Party and
the Muslim League together, which failed. The Labour government that had
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meanwhile displaced Churchill’s wartime administration sent a Cabinet Mission
to India and later replaced Lord Wavell with Lord Mountbatten.
1946: The Cabinet Mission was sent to India to propose a plan for the transfer of
power. This led to elections to provincial assemblies, and members elected
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members of the constituent assembly. An interim government headed by
Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. The Muslim league joined the government
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later with Liaquat Ali Khan as Finance minister.
On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan were partitioned as two separate
independent countries.
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Jawaharlal Nehru: The first Prime Minister of India

Jawaharlal Nehru took office as Prime Minister of independent India on 15th
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august and his inaugural address is called ‘Tryst with Destiny’.

1947: Nehru declares that no princely state would exist in independent India and
they need to join the constituent assembly. He made Vallabhbai Patel and V.P
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Menon in charge of integrating the states, in which they were successful.

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1950: The new Constitution of India came into force on 26th January 1950
making India a sovereign democratic republic.
1952: The first elections under the new constitution of India were held. Congress
Party under Nehru’s leadership won the elections and formed the first elected
government of the Republic of India.
1952-57: Second Nehru Ministry at the Centre
Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the states reorganization commission in 1953 to
organize states on a linguistic basis. This commission was headed by Justice
Fazal Ali.
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He advocated democratic socialism and encouraged India’s industrialization by
implementing the first five-year plans. He attempted to push the development by
undertaking both agrarian reforms and industrialization together.
1958-62: Third Nehru Ministry at the Centre
The Congress party won the 1957 and later 1962 elections as well. Nehru served
as Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms that are for 17 years.
He annexed Goa into India from the Portuguese occupation in 1961 after years of
failed negotiations. He was lauded and criticized for the use of force internally
and externally.
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The Sino-Indian War of 1962 was a troubled time under his last term as Prime
Minister.
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Nehru & Indian National Congress (INC):
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● Nehru attended Congress Session (1912) at Patna and he felt that the party
was restricted to upper-class elites. He worked hard for the party.
● INC was moderate at that time. But his ideas were radical:
○ He spoke of complete constitutional independence at a time when
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most people were content with a few constitutional reforms.

○ He advocated for non-cooperation and resigning of honorary
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positions as a method of opposing British rule.

○ He supported more aggressive nationalists who were pressing for
home rule.
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● He became the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee in

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September 1923.
● He became the Party president in the Lahore session in 1929. Declaration
of complete independence as the goal of the freedom movement was
passed.
● From 1946, he was elected the president of the congress party and he
served for three more terms.
Nehru & the Home Rule League:
Nehru was influenced by Annie Besant and worked for her Home Rule League.
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Nehru & Gandhi:
● Nehru met Gandhi in 1916 and was drawn to him instantly. Became his
close friend, follower & associate.
● Nehru was at the forefront of many movements led by Gandhi including the
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), the Civil Disobedience Movement
(1930), and the Quit India Movement (1942).
● He was imprisoned for the first time during Non-Cooperation Movement
(NCM). When Gandhi called off NCM due to Chauri Chaura Incident, there
was a split in the party (Swaraj Party was formed by Motilal Nehru and C R
Das). However, Jawaharlal Nehru remained with congress.
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Internationalising struggle for Indian Independence:
● Nehru understood the importance of having a worldview. He visited many
countries and sought relations with similar democratic movements in those
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nations.
He represented India at a meeting of oppressed nationalities in Brussels.
●
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Nehru and Princely States:
● Nehru played a crucial role in making the struggles of the people of the
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princely states align with the freedom movement.

● He became the president of the All India States Peoples Conference in 1935.
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He threw open its membership to people across the political spectrum. It

played an important part in the integration of the princely states into India.
Nehru & Post-Independent India:
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After India achieved independence on 15 August 1947, Nehru became the

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●
prime minister. As prime minister, he delivered his now-famous address to
the nation, ‘Tryst with Destiny’.
● Nehru’s ideals conceived in ‘Objective Resolution’, guided the Constituent
Assembly to create a working constitution. It provided an enormous leg up
to the country’s historically discriminated sections such as Dalits and
religious minorities.
● It was he who founded the robust tradition of parliamentary supremacy
over the military that stopped India from becoming another junta-ruled
Third World autocracy.
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● His vision of a united India led to the speedy integration of the princely
states into the Indian Dominion supported by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and
V K Krishna Menon.
● He advocated for a mixed economy and established heavy industries
believing them to be essential to the development of a country. But he put
heavy control and regulations on the industry. He implemented the first of
his five-year plans in 1951 emphasizing the importance of increasing
agricultural production.
● In 1953, he appointed the States Reorganisation Commission to redraw
state boundaries on linguistic lines.
● He advocated the use of Hindi as the country’s official language but this
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was met with heavy resistance from non-Hindi speakers.
● Nehru believed in secularism but his selective implementation of this ideal
led to many debates even today. He is said to have secularised different
personal laws for the majority community but has left the Muslim personal
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law from the legislation.
● He instituted various social reforms such as:
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○ Free public education and meals for Indian children,
○ Legal rights for women—including the ability to inherit property and

divorce their husbands.
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○ Enacted many laws to criminalize certain practices like caste-based

discrimination.
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● Initiated many projects like setting up of the IITs, ISRO, the defence
academies, the nuclear energy programme, etc.
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● He was keen on having cordial relations with other nations of the world.
● He was responsible for the liberation of Goa after years of failed

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negotiations with the Portuguese.

● From 1957, his birth anniversary is celebrated as ‘Children’s Day’ in India.
● His policies of non-alignment (he was the founder and leader of the
Non-Aligned Movement) and panchsheel (principles of peaceful
cooexistence) guided India’s international relations until the outbreak of
the Sino-Indian war in 1962. The war contributed to his declining health
and subsequent death in 1964.
He was the Prime Minister of the country till his death and he is also the
longest-serving prime minister to date. Nehru was succeeded by Lal Bahadur
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Shastri as the prime minister. His only daughter Indira Gandhi would become the
prime minister later.
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PR
X
E
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B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) - Crusader for
Social Justice
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar popularly known as

Babasaheb Ambedkar is one of the main architects of the
Indian constitution. He was the chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constituent Assembly and hence he was
called the "Father of the Indian Constitution" and "Chief
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Architect of Constitution of India". He was a well-known
political leader, philosopher, writer, jurist, economist,
scholar, and social reformer. He dedicated his life to
eradicating untouchability and other social inequality in
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India and therefore, he was famously called "Modern Manu”
and “Undisputed leader of Scheduled Caste”.
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X
E
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Ambedkar: Early Life & Education
● Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in an ‘untouchable’ caste group the
Mahars at mhow, Madhya Pradesh. His birth anniversary is celebrated as
Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti on 14 April every year.
● Education: finished a graduate degree majoring in Persian and English
from Elphinstone College in 1912. He pursued a postgraduate degree from
Columbia University of USA in 1913. He enrolled in the London school of
economics in 1916 and he started working on his doctoral thesis titled The
Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and its Solution. He was awarded his
Ph.D. in economics in 1927.
● Career: As a probationer at the accountant general’s office marked by great
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moments of humiliation directly linked to his being a Mahar eventually led
to him leaving for Bombay. In Bombay, he first began by doing odd jobs
and was finally appointed as a professor of political economy at the
Sydenham College of commerce and economics.
He was considered the greatest Dalit leader because what Ambedkar
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●
achieved for his community could be achieved neither by any leader before
him nor after him. He was considered a leader of the community rather
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than the leader of the nation.
● He was the champion of human rights, an emancipator of the
untouchables, a scholar, a thinker, a critic of Gandhi, and a controversial
personality.
● He led a struggle for the Dalit class for equality in the society
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● He established organizations such as the Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha,
Independent Labour Party, and All India Scheduled Caste Federation.
He explicitly stated, “between the interest of untouchables and the nation,
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●
he will give the preference to the interest of the untouchables”.
Ambedkar’s Views
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On British Rule in India:

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● He criticized Britisher for not improving the conditions of the

Untouchables.
● He felt that the government was not sincere in spreading education among
the untouchables.
● He was particularly critical of administration on account of its over
expensive character.
● According to him, the abrupt departure of the British would result in the
political domination of the upper castes and therefore proper share should
be given to the untouchables before granting the self-rule to India.
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On Democracy:
● Ambedkar viewed democracy as an instrument of bringing about change
peacefully.
● Democracy for him was much more than just a scheme of the government.
He stated that “political democracy has no meaning without social and
economic democracy” pointing toward the deplorable conditions of the
Dalits.
● According to him,
○ In the Indian society, as long as the caste barriers and caste-based
inequalities exist the real democracy cannot operate.
○ Factors necessary for the successful operation of Democracy are
■ Political parties: necessary for the effective working of
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parliamentary democracy as it will ensure the existence of the
opposition.
■ Civil service: should be neutral and non-political because
administrators would be permanent and not dependent on the
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fortunes of the political parties.
■ Ethical and moral factors: People and politicians must follow
certain norms in public life. The law and legal remedies can
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never replace a voluntary sense of responsibility. The majority
must always respect the views of morality because it is very
essential that the minority feel free, safe, and secure in a
democracy. Caste will always create barriers to the
development of healthy democratic traditions.
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On State Socialism:
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● According to him,
1. Liberty is meaningful when accompanied by equality.
2. Socialism must function within a democratic framework.
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● State Socialism means that the state would implement a socialist program
by controlling the industrial and agricultural sectors.
Two major aspects:
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●
1. Key & basic industries will be owned by the state.
2. Agriculture will be treated as a state industry and the state will
initiate collective farming.
● Ambedkar suggested that the program of State socialism should be made
an unalterable part of the constitution and any party that comes to power
will have to implement the program.
On Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity:
● According to him, liberty alone would not be sufficient. Liberty and equality
must exist simultaneously
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● They can be realized only when there is a strong sense of unity among
members of society which is called the Fraternity.
On Social Change:
● According to him, the progress of the nation could not be realised without
first removing untouchability.
● Removal of untouchability depends mainly on the abolition of the caste
system.
● Social reforms should be given priority.
● There is a need to attack the caste system because
○ Caste has made Hindu society stagnant.
○ Hindu society fails to satisfy the test of a homogeneous society and
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only a conglomerate of a different caste.
○ Caste is an obstacle to the growth of national spirit.
On Caste System and Untouchability:
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● Ambedkar was not satisfied with the explanations related to the caste
system found in religious texts.
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● His major literary works revolve around the abolition of caste such as
Annihilation of Caste, Caste in India, Who were Sudras, Origin of
Untouchability.
● He attempted the scientific understanding of the origin of caste on the
basis of anthropological research:
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○ He rejected the theory of the Aryan invasion (upper caste were

Aryans and the untouchables were original inhabitants such as
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Dasas and Dasyus) because according to him, there was no historical

evidence for the theory of the Aryan invasion and therefore, all caste
in India has a common origin.
○ He rejected the view of Manusmriti that different varnas originated
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from different parts of Virata Purusha. In Manusmriti, untouchables

were mentioned as Chandalas who were the offspring of the Shudra
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father and the Brahmin mother. This shows the pollution of

Brahmins by Shudras.
● Ambedkar used the term Dalits (from the Marathi word Dal, meaning
Broken). He called Dalits broken men. According to him,
○ There used to be a tribal way of life and tribal wars.
○ Some tribes gradually started settled life, then agriculture started,
and then cattle rearing started.
○ Other tribes were nomadic and many of them were defeated and
scattered. They became broken and weak as they lacked land and
hence they were made dependent on the settled tribes.
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○ A contract was made between the people living in the village and the
people living on the outskirts of the village that the latter’s duty was
to watch and ward the security of the former.
○ Later on, people living on the outskirts accepted Buddhism and they
insisted on remaining Buddhists which made the Brahmins target
them.
● He rejected the concept of Antyaja given by the Hindu literature which
states that Antyaja was the last to take birth from the body of Brahma.
According to Ambedkar, they were called Antyaja because they were living
outside the village.
● Therefore he concludes that the practice of untouchability was based on
purity, pollution, anger, and rivalry rather than of some historical/religious
origin.
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On Beef Consumption:
According to Ambedkar, originally beef waiting was not prohibited but to regain
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their lost status, Brahmins stopped eating non-vegetarian food to show
themselves as pure.
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On Hinduism/Brahmanism:
● Ambedkar stated ‘I had no choice but to be born as Hindu. However, it is in
my capacity not to die as a Hindu. The religion which forces the poor to
remain poor, uneducated, which allows man to touch the excreta of cow but
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not touch the fellow human being is nothing but madness’.

● He converted to Buddhism on 14th Nov 1956 stating ‘I am disowning the
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religion of my birth. I am reborn. I reject religion which treats me inferior.’

● According to Ambedkar,
○ Hindus cannot form a nation as they are segmented communities
and warring tribes.
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○ Hindus are a race of losers who continue to lose to other religions.

○ Hinduism is nothing but Brahmanism, a hegemony of Brahmins, not
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a religion but madness and it cannot be a missionary religion.

○ The core idea of Hinduism is endogamy, that is, the custom of
marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe.
Without destroying endogamy, the caste system cannot end.
Difference between Gandhi’s and Ambedkar’s views

Views Gandhi Ambedkar
Varna System - Supporter - Against it
- According to him, it is a - According to him, it is
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division of labour Caste system
Conversion - Against conversion - Converted to Buddhism
- According to him
● If a person is born in
a particular religion, it
is a divine will
● One should not go
against the divine will
● One should be open to
accepting good things
of all religion
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Method of - Established Harijan Sevak - Had no faith in Gandhi’s
abolishing Sangh for the upliftment of constructive programs for
untouchability Harijans abolishing untouchability.
- He objected to using the
- He also started a journal
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term Harijan by Gandhi as
named Harijan which it’s a misleading term
means “People of God”. because they are not the
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loved ones but only the
depressed sections of society.
- His methods include
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● Secular Education: to
instill values of liberty
and equality among
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the students.
● Economic progress:
through new skills and
move to cities to take
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advantage of
industrialization
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● Political power: to
protect, safeguard and
introduce new policies
● Conversion to
Buddhism: which is
based on humanism
and believed in the
spirit of equality and
fraternity
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Comparison of Ambedkar and Marx
● Ambedkar believed in the Marxist concept of class and class struggle. But
he believed that Marxism is not much relevant for India as the basic
structure of Indian society is not based on economic structure but based
on the caste system.
● He didn’t agree with Marx’s view of the state as an instrument of the
dominant class and view of religion as the opium of masses.
● He had faith in affirmative action (Affirmative action or positive
discrimination, refers to a set of policies and practices within a government
or organization seeking to include particular groups based on their gender,
race, sexuality, creed, or nationality in areas in which they are
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underrepresented, such as education and employment).
● He didn’t support the dictatorship of the proletariat during the transition
period.
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Ambedkar’s Contributions PR
The main architect of the Indian Constitution:
● Ambedkar’s legal expertise and knowledge of the Constitution of different
countries were very helpful in the framing of the constitution.
● He became chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent
X
Assembly and played an important role in framing the Indian Constitution.

● His most important contributions were in areas of fundamental rights,
strong central government, and protection of minorities.
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● He considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy (Article 32) as the soul of

the constitution.
● He had complete faith in democracy and emphasized ‘democracy as a way
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of life’ and he supported the parliamentary form of democracy.

Social Reforms:
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● Ambedkar was against caste-based discrimination in society.

● He advocated for the Dalits to organize and demand their rights.
● He promoted the education of Dalits and made representations to the
government in different capacities in this regard. He was part of the
Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon Commission in
1925.
● He established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare
Association).
● He started magazines like Mooknayak, Equality Janta, and Bahishkrit
Bharat.
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● In 1927, he launched active agitation against untouchability.
○ He organised and agitated for the right of Dalits to enter temples and
to draw water from public water resources.
○ He condemned Hindu scriptures that he thought propagated caste
discrimination.
● He advocated separate electorates for the ‘Depressed Classes’, the term by
which Dalits were called at that time.
○ He attended all the three Round Table Conferences (1930-32) in
London and each time forcefully projected his views in the interest of
the ‘untouchable’.
○ He was in disagreement with Mahatma Gandhi at that time since
Gandhi was against any sort of reservation in the electorates. When
the British government announced the ‘Communal Award’ in 1932,
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Gandhi went on a fast in Yerwada Jail. Therefore, an agreement was
signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar in the jail whereby it was
agreed to give reserved seats to the depressed classes within the
general electorate. This was called the Poona Pact.
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● A few months before he died, he converted to Buddhism in a public
ceremony in Nagpur and with him, lakhs of Dalits converted to Buddhism.
● He also emphasised equal rights for women.
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Politics:
● He founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) which later
transformed into the Scheduled Castes Federation.
X
○ He contested in 1937 from Bombay to the Central Legislative

Assembly.
E
○ He also contested from Bombay (north-central) after independence in

the country’s first general elections.
○ But he lost both times.
● He also worked as Minister of Labour in the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
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● After independence, Ambedkar became the first Law Minister in 1947

under the Congress-led government. Later he resigned due to differences
with Jawaharlal Nehru on the Hindu Code Bill (passed in the 1950s to
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codify and reform Hindu personal law in India).

● He was appointed to the Rajya Sabha in 1952 and remained a member till
his death.
Economy:
● He advocated a free economy with a stable Rupee.
● He also mooted birth control for economic development.
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Major Literary works of Ambedkar
1. The Annihilation of Caste,
2. Pakistan or the Partition of India,
3. The Buddha and his Dhamma,
4. The Untouchables, Buddha Or Karl Marx,
5. Administration and Finance of the East India Company,
6. The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India,
7. The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution.
Criticism of Ambedkar
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Arun Shourie (economist, journalist, author, and politician) in his book
Worshipping false gods called Ambedkar ‘anti-national’ mainly on the grounds of
● Ambedkar’s opposition to the poorna swaraj resolution of 1929.
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● His advice to Dalits not to join INC.
● His support to Jinnah’s demand for Pakistan.
● His need of Britishers to stay in India.
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Death
Dr. B R Ambedkar died on 6th December 1956 because of diabetic illness in his
X
home in Delhi. Dr. B R Ambedkar had a son named Yashwant Ambedkar. He was
also called “Bhaiyasaheb Ambedkar”. After his death, Dr. B R Ambedkar was
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awarded the Bharat Ratna Award.
Conclusion
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Caste-based inequality in India still prevails. While Dalits have gained a political
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identity via reservation and forming their own political parties, they lag behind in
social (health and education) and economic aspects. There has been an increase
in casteism, communalism, separatism, gender inequality, etc. It is high time that
Ambedkar’s vision of constitutional morality must replace religious morality to
prevent permanent damage to the Indian Constitution.
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Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) - Spiritual
Luminary: Inspiring Humanity with Vedantic
Wisdom
Swami Vivekananda was a true luminary, credited with
enlightening the western world about Hinduism. He was an
ardent disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and a major
force in the revival of Hinduism in India. He presented Indian
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philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world. He
pushed for national integration in colonial India, and won the
hearts of everyone with his incredible speech at Chicago in 1893
(Parliament of the World Religions) by addressing the audience
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as “Sisters and Brothers of America”. In 1984 the Government of
India declared that 12 January, the birthday of Swami
Vivekananda, will be celebrated as National Youth Day.
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X
E
S
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Life History
● Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Dutta in Calcutta on January 12,
1863.
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● He was a child of unquestioned expertise and intellectual capability who
used to take grasp of all his school teachings at first sight. This excellence
was recognized by his Gurus and thus was named “Shrutidhar” by them.
He possessed manifold talents and skills comprising swimming, and
wrestling which were a part of his schedule.
● Influenced by the teachings of Ramayana and Mahabharata, he had
bottomless respect for religion. Narendra was a lover of heroism and
mystical by nature. Despite his upbringing in a spiritual family, he owned
an argumentative personality in his infancy. His entire beliefs were assisted
by an apt rationale and judgment behind them. Such a quality made him
even put a question the existence of the Almighty. He thus visited several
saints and asked each one “have you seen God?” His spiritual quest was
left unanswered until he met “Ramkrishna Paramhansa” and he became
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his guru.
● In 1887, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission. Ramakrishna Mission is
an organization that works in the area of value-based education, culture,
health, women's empowerment, youth, and tribal welfare and relief and
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rehabilitation.
● In 1893, upon the request of Maharaja Ajit Singh of the Khetri State, he
took the name ‘Vivekananda.’
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● In 1899, he established the Belur Math, located in West Bengal, which is
the headquarters of Ramakrishna Math & Ramakrishna Mission, and
became his permanent abode.
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His Views & Contributions

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Religion
● His writings and teachings did a lot to spread Hindu philosophy in the West
especially Advaita Vedanta and Yoga philosophies.
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● His teachings opened up interfaith debates and awareness.

● He preached ‘neo-Vedanta’, an interpretation of Hinduism through a
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Western lens, and believed in combining spirituality with material progress.

● He believed that every religion directed us to the eternal supreme –freedom,
knowledge, happiness. This can be done by realizing one’s Atma as part of
Paramatma.
● He spelled out the four pathways of attaining moksha from the worldly
pleasure and attachment in his books - Raja-yoga, Karma-yoga,
Jnana-yoga and Bhakti-yoga.
● He worked towards a better understanding of Hinduism. According to him,
the best form of worship was the service of the people.
● He laid stress on physical and moral strength. One of his many quotes
says, “You will be nearer to heaven through football than through the study
of the Gita”.
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Rationality
● He urged Indians to eliminate the caste system and promote science and
industrialisation.
● He worked against superstitions.
● He advocated for the upliftment of women’s position in society.
● He wanted the people to embrace the spirit of equality and free-thinking.
Nationalism
● He worked towards nationalism and inspired many people to join the
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independence movement.
● He urged the youth of the country to fight colonial oppression, do social
service and work for the people in unity.
● His four pillars of nationalism are:
○ Consciousness and pride in the ancient glory of India.
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○ Development of moral and physical strength.
○ Awakening of the masses.
○ Unity is based on common spiritual ideas.
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Education
● He gave great importance to education for India’s recovery.
X
● According to Vivekananda: “A country is advanced in proportion as

knowledge is distributed among the masses”.
He said our educational method should be such that it enables students to
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●
reveal their natural knowledge and power.
● He said that education would make students self-dependent and help them
to meet life's obstacles.
He encouraged a character-building education for man-making.
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●
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Youth
● He thought that if our youth is strong-minded, there can be nothing
impossible for us to achieve in the world
● He inspired so many youths of the country with his teaching, lessons, and
books.
● His birthday is celebrated as National Youth Day on January 12, and the
week starting on that day is known as National Youth Week.
● One of his many quotes says, “A man is not poor without a rupee but a
man is really poor without a dream and ambition.”
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Literary
● He composed many songs and poems including Kali the mother.
● His Bengali writings testify to his belief that words (spoken or written)
should clarify ideas rather than demonstrate the speaker's (or writer’s)
knowledge.
● Bartaman Bharat: Meaning “Present Day India”. It is a knowledgeable
Bengali language essay written by Vivekananda. It was first published in
the March 1899 issue of Ubdodhan, the only Bengali language magazine of
Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission. It was reprinted as a book
in 1905. It teaches the readers to honour and treat every Indian as a
brother irrespective of whether he was born poor or in a lower caste.
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Literary Works
Sangeet Kalpataru (1887), Karma Yoga (1896), Raja Yoga (1896), Vedanta
Philosophy: An address before the Graduate Philosophical Society (first published
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1896), Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897), Bartaman Bharat (in Bengali)
(March 1899), Udbodhan My Master (1901), Jnana yoga (1899), Vedanta
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philosophy: lectures on Jnana Yoga (1902).
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Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) - Literary
Titan: Weaving the Spirit of India through
Poetic Elegance
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was a Bengali poet,

short-story writer, song-composer, essayist, playwright,
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philosopher and most importantly a remarkable nationalist who
struggled for India’s independence through various
unconventional means. The Nobel laureate was the youngest
son of Debendranath Tagore, a religious reformer who sought to
revive the ultimate monistic basis of Hinduism. Tagore’s mastery
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of language and literature made him the voice of India and its
spiritual heritage all over the world. He also played a crucial role
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in developing the indigenous education system in India by
harmonizing the ideals of the East and the West. His varied
endeavours helped broaden the bases of nationalism in India.
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Early life and education
● Tagore was born on 7 May 1861 in a wealthy Pirali Bengali Brahmin family
in the Jorasanko mansion of Calcutta (now Kolkata). His mother’s name
was Sarada Devi whom Tagore lost when he was only fourteen years of age.
● At a very young age, Tagore began to travel across India with his father.
● He had a great desire for learning new things. At a very tender age, he read
biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit and
examined the classical poetry of Kālidāsa.
● In 1878, Tagore enrolled at a public school in Brighton, England intending
to become a barrister.
● He also attended University College London for a brief period and returned
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to India in 1880 without any degree.
● In 1883, he got married to Mrinalini Devi with whom he had five children,
four of whom later died before reaching full adulthood.
● In 1890, he began to manage his family estates in Shilaidaha, a region now
in Bangladesh.
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● In 1901, Tagore left Shilaidaha and moved to Shantiniketan (West Bengal)
where his wife and two children died.
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● Tagore lost his father in 1905.
Contribution to art & literature

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● Tagore’s life experiences manifested themselves in his works and enriched
them. His artistic expressions covered a wide range of themes, starting
from mystical romanticism to patriotism.
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● In 1877, he rose to fame for his several notable works, including a long
poem set in the Maithili style pioneered by Vidyapati.
● He also wrote, "Bhikharini" ("The Beggar Woman") — the Bengali
language's first short story.
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● Tagore was highly inspired by the works of William Shakespeare and

English, Irish, and Scottish folk tunes when he was in Europe.
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o This influence made him desire to reconcile European novelty with

Bengali traditions.
● His early works also include writings such as Sandhya Sangit (1882) and
the famous poem "Nirjharer Swapnabhanga" ("The Rousing of the
Waterfall").
● During his stay in Bangladesh, also known as Tagore's Sadhana period
(1891–1895); named after one of Tagore’s magazines, he wrote more than
half the stories of the three-volume and eighty-four-story Galpaguchchha
(or Golpoguchchho; "Bunch of Stories"). The stories are filled with irony and
emotion depicting a wide range of Bengali lifestyles, especially village life
with the predicament of the poor being in focus.
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● His other works include Naivedya (1901) and Kheya (1906). He also
translated his poems into free verse.
● Other works
o Notable poems: Manasi (1890) [The Ideal One], Sonar Tari (1894)
[The Golden Boat], Gitanjali (1910) [Song Offerings], Gitimalya
(1914) [Wreath of Songs], and Balaka (1916) [The Flight of
Cranes].
o Notable plays: Raja (1910) [The King of the Dark Chamber],
Dakghar (1912) [The Post Office], Achalayatan (1912) [The
Immovable], Muktadhara (1922) [The Waterfall], and
Raktakaravi (1926) [Red Oleanders].
o Notable short stories and novels: Gora (1910), Ghare-Baire (1916)
[The Home and the World], and Yogayog (1929) [Crosscurrents].
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● Apart from these, he also wrote musical dramas, dance dramas, essays of
all types, travel diaries, and two autobiographies.
● His excellence as a writer gained him a large following among Bengali and
foreign readers alike.
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● In 1913, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature for the idealistic (for
Western readers) and accessible nature of his collection of poetry named
“Gitanjali: Song Offerings” published in 1912.
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● In 1915, Tagore was awarded a knighthood by the British Crown.
● Tagore also left numerous drawings and paintings, and songs for which he
wrote the music himself.
o He wrote approx 2230 songs in his whole life.
o In his last 13 years of life, he painted 3000 paintings approximately
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proving his power of creativity.

o Tagore composed the national anthem of India (Jana Gana Mana)
and Bangladesh (Amar Shonar Bangla). He also contributed to the
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national anthem of Sri Lanka.

● In short, he was a multi-talented personality.
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Contribution to the national movement

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● As much as Tagore was known for his contribution to art and literature, his
role in the Indian national movement was similarly remarkable.
● He offered firm support to Indian nationalists and publicly criticized
European imperialism.
● Partition of Bengal (1905)
o The event led to widespread protests against the British policy of
divide and rule.
o The Indian National Congress (INC) had launched the Swadeshi
Movement where Indians were asked to denounce all the British
items and use native ones. Although Tagore supported India’s
struggle for freedom, he did not support this movement.
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o He emphasized the self-help and intellectual upliftment of the
masses, since he believed that British imperialism was not a primary
evil, but instead a "political symptom of our social disease", and
urged Indians to accept that "there can be no question of blind
revolution, but of steady and purposeful education".
o To unite the masses in Bengal, he wrote the song Banglar Mati
Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal).
o He also started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and
Muslim communities tied colourful threads on each other's wrists.
● Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
o Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest against the atrocities
and brutality inflicted upon Indians.
o His actions received widespread support.
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● Changing the worldview about India
o Through his works, he made the world aware of the visions of India
and the idea of global integrity acting as a gateway to the world.
o Tagore travelled, lectured, and read his poetry extensively in Europe,
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the Americas, and East Asia and became a spokesperson for Indian
independence from British colonial rule.
o His philosophy and the idea of the universality of man established
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India’s identity after independence as a nation believing in the
ideology of peace and universal brotherhood.
● Others
o Tagore’s politically charged compositions - " Chitto Jetha
Bhayshunyo" ("Where the Mind is Without Fear") and " Ekla Chalo
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Re" ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone") had a mass appeal
and it motivated Indians to struggle for India’s independence.
o Although he differed from Gandhi on several issues, he played a key
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role in resolving the Gandhi- Ambedkar dispute involving separate

electorates for untouchables, ending a fast "unto death" by Gandhi.
o He was also against the education system that was forced upon India
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by the English.
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Contribution to education in India

● Tagore was against the traditional methods of classroom education which
were mostly based on the Western style of education. He disregarded the
system by comparing schools to mills of rote learning with no freedom for
creativity.
● He believed that the primary objective of education was to enable the
preservation of the perfect symphony between one’s life and the world
outside. Therefore, he insisted on imparting education in natural
surroundings.
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● The four fundamental principles of Tagore's educational philosophy are;
naturalism, humanism, internationalism and idealism.
o Based on these principles, Tagore laid the foundation stone of Visva
Bharati University in 1918.
o Shantiniketan ("Abode of Peace") was also based on these ideas. He
invested his Nobel Prize money in building this campus located in
Bolpur, West Bengal. Here, he sought to blend the best of Indian and
Western traditions.
● His educational reforms focused on holistic development. He remodelled
the education system in such a way that teachers would be more like
mentors guiding students towards emotional, intellectual and spiritual
upliftment.
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Major achievements and titles
● He was the first Non-European and Asian to receive Nobel Prize.
He was the only person to have composed national anthems for more than
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one country.
● He is called by several names such as Gurudev, Kabiguru, Bard of Bengal,
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Biswakabi and others.
His Quotes
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● “Reach high, for stars lie hidden in you. Dream deep, for every dream,
precedes the goal.”
● “Don't limit a child to your own learning, for she was born in another time.”
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● “I slept and dreamt that life was joy. I awoke and saw that life was service. I
acted and behold, service was joy.”
● “If you cry because the sun has gone out of your life, your tears will prevent
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you from seeing the stars.”

● “It is very simple to be happy, but it is very difficult to be simple.”
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Tagore breathed his last on 7 August 1941, in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India.
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C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972) - Statesman
and Scholar: Advocating for Pluralism and
Integrity
C. Rajagopalachari, fondly known as Rajaji, was a prominent

Indian statesman, lawyer, writer, and independence activist
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who played a crucial role in the Indian freedom struggle. As a
close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, he was instrumental in
shaping the course of the Indian National Congress and
contributed significantly to the formation of modern India.
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Rajaji was a versatile leader, known not only for his political
acumen but also for his literary prowess. He held key
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positions in the Indian government, including the first Indian
Governor-General and the Chief Minister of Madras State.
His life and work continue to inspire generations of Indians, leaving an indelible
mark on the nation's history and culture.
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Early Life and Education
Birth and family background: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was born on
December 10, 1878, in the town of Thorapalli, in the then Madras Presidency,
British India (present-day Tamil Nadu). Hailing from a Brahmin family, he was
exposed to traditional values and religious teachings from an early age. His
father, Chakravarti Venkatarya Iyengar, was a prominent lawyer, and his mother,
Singaramma, was a deeply religious woman. Rajaji was the youngest of four sons,
and the family's intellectual and spiritual environment played a significant role in
shaping his worldview.
Education and early career as a lawyer: Rajagopalachari received his primary
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education at the Municipal High School in Hosur, followed by higher education at
Central College, Bangalore, and later at the prestigious Presidency College,
Madras. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1897 and went on to study law at
the Madras Law College. After completing his legal studies in 1900, Rajaji started
practicing as a lawyer in Salem, where he quickly gained a reputation for his
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sharp intellect and eloquent arguments. His legal career not only laid the
foundation for his future political endeavors but also introduced him to the harsh
realities of British colonial rule, which would eventually inspire him to join the
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fight for India's independence.
Entry into Politics and Role in the Indian National Congress

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Association with the Indian National Congress: Rajagopalachari's journey in

politics began when he joined the Indian National Congress in 1911. His legal
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background and keen intellect made him an invaluable asset to the party. Rajaji
quickly rose through the ranks, and his passion for India's independence and
advocacy for self-rule resonated with the party's goals.
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Influence of Mahatma Gandhi and commitment to non-violence:

Rajagopalachari's political ideology was significantly influenced by Mahatma
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Gandhi, whom he met in 1919. Inspired by Gandhi's principles of non-violence

and civil disobedience, Rajaji became a staunch advocate of these methods in the
fight for India's independence. He participated in various non-violent movements
and was a firm believer in the power of peaceful protest to bring about social and
political change.
Key positions held within the party: Over the years, Rajagopalachari held several
important positions within the Indian National Congress, including General
Secretary and later, President. As a key member of the party's Working
Committee, he played a pivotal role in shaping its policies and strategies. His
leadership abilities and diplomatic skills helped the party navigate through some
of the most challenging periods in India's struggle for freedom.
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Role in the Civil Disobedience Movement: Rajaji was an active participant in the
Civil Disobedience Movement, a non-violent campaign led by Mahatma Gandhi
against the British salt tax. In 1930, he played a significant role in organizing the
Salt Satyagraha in the then Madras Presidency. His involvement in the movement
not only highlighted his unwavering commitment to India's freedom struggle but
also showcased his exceptional organizational and leadership skills.
Literary Contributions
Overview of his works: Apart from his political achievements, Rajagopalachari
was a prolific writer and made significant contributions to Indian literature. His
body of work spans various genres, including books, essays, and letters. Rajaji's
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writings often touched upon themes of patriotism, social justice, and spirituality,
reflecting his deep understanding of Indian culture and his commitment to the
nation's progress.
Focus on his famous works: Among Rajaji's numerous literary works, two stand
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out as particularly influential: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari's Mahabharata and
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari's Ramayana. These two books are retellings of the
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Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, in simple and engaging language,
making the complex stories accessible to a wider audience. Rajaji's ability to
capture the essence of these timeless tales while infusing them with his unique
insights made these works immensely popular and enduring. His other notable
works include Satyam Eva Jayate, Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life, Bhaja
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Govindam, Siraiyil Tavam.

Influence of his writings on Indian culture and politics: Rajagopalachari's writings
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had a profound impact on Indian culture and politics. His literary works not only
promoted the understanding and appreciation of India's rich cultural heritage but
also served as a vehicle for conveying his political ideals and vision for the
country. Rajaji's thought-provoking essays and letters inspired many to join the
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struggle for independence and contributed to shaping the values and principles of
modern India.
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Governorship and Chief Ministership

First Indian Governor-General of India: In 1948, Rajagopalachari was appointed
as the Governor-General of India, becoming the first Indian to hold this position.
He served in this role for only a year but made significant contributions to the
development of the nation during his tenure. As Governor-General, Rajaji was
instrumental in resolving the Kashmir issue, which had been a long-standing
dispute between India and Pakistan.
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Tenure as the Chief Minister of Madras State: After his term as Governor-General
ended, Rajagopalachari returned to his home state of Madras (present-day Tamil
Nadu), where he was elected as the Chief Minister in 1952. As Chief Minister, he
introduced several pioneering measures, including the introduction of the
mid-day meal scheme for school children and the abolition of agricultural taxes.
His tenure was also marked by several controversies, including the imposition of
Hindi as a compulsory language in schools, which sparked protests across the
state.
Key achievements and controversies during his tenures: Rajaji's tenures as
Governor-General and Chief Minister were marked by both achievements and
controversies. As Governor-General, he played a crucial role in resolving the
Kashmir issue, which had threatened to escalate into a full-fledged war between
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India and Pakistan. He also championed the cause of religious and communal
harmony and worked towards improving the standard of living for the rural poor.
As Chief Minister, Rajagopalachari introduced several innovative measures aimed
at improving the lives of the common people. These included the introduction of
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the mid-day meal scheme for school children and the abolition of agricultural
taxes. However, his decision to impose Hindi as a compulsory language in schools
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was met with widespread protests and opposition, which eventually forced him to
withdraw the proposal.
Overall, Rajagopalachari's tenure as Governor-General and Chief Minister was
characterized by his commitment to progressive ideals and his vision for a
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modern, democratic India. Despite the controversies that marked his tenures,
Rajaji remains a respected figure in Indian politics and a source of inspiration for
generations to come.
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Founding of the Swatantra Party

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Reasons for the formation of the party: In 1959, C. Rajagopalachari, along with a
group of like-minded individuals, founded the Swatantra Party. The party was
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formed in response to what its founders saw as the growing trend of socialism
and centralization in Indian politics. Rajaji believed that the government's
increasing control over the economy was detrimental to India's progress and that
a free-market system was essential for the country's growth and development.
Ideology and core principles: The Swatantra Party was founded on the principles
of individual liberty, free enterprise, and decentralized governance. The party's
ideology was rooted in classical liberal thought, emphasizing the importance of
limited government and economic freedom. The party advocated for the
dismantling of state controls and regulations, promoting private enterprise and
entrepreneurship as the key drivers of economic growth. The Swatantra Party
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also championed the cause of federalism, calling for greater autonomy and
decision-making power for the states.
Influence on Indian politics: The Swatantra Party emerged as a significant force
in Indian politics in the 1960s, challenging the dominance of the Congress Party.
The party's emphasis on individual freedom and economic liberalism struck a
chord with many Indians who were disillusioned with the socialist policies of the
Congress Party. The Swatantra Party won a significant number of seats in the
1967 general elections, becoming the principal opposition party in some states.
Although the Swatantra Party was short-lived and eventually merged with the
Janata Party in 1974, it played a crucial role in shaping the political discourse in
India. The party's advocacy for economic freedom and decentralization of power
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challenged the prevailing socialist and centralizing trends in Indian politics and
inspired a new generation of political leaders committed to the principles of
classical liberalism.
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Legacy and Impact PR
Contributions to India's independence struggle and nation-building: C.
Rajagopalachari was one of the most prominent leaders of the Indian
independence movement and played a crucial role in the nation-building process
after independence. He worked closely with Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders
to mobilize public opinion and rally support for the cause of independence. After
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independence, Rajaji held several important positions in the government,
including Governor-General and Chief Minister, and introduced several
pioneering measures aimed at improving the lives of the common people.
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Influence on Indian politics and policy-making: Rajaji's legacy is also reflected in

his lasting impact on Indian politics and policy-making. He was a staunch
advocate of individual liberty, free enterprise, and decentralized governance, and
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his ideas continue to shape the political discourse in India today. Rajaji's
advocacy for economic freedom and limited government has inspired generations
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of political leaders committed to promoting economic growth and development

through private enterprise and entrepreneurship.
Recognitions and honors received: Rajaji's contributions to Indian politics and
society have been widely recognized, both in India and abroad. He was awarded
India's highest civilian honor, the Bharat Ratna, in 1954, in recognition of his
service to the nation. Rajaji's legacy also lives on through various institutions and
organizations that he helped establish, such as the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, an
educational institution dedicated to promoting Indian culture and values.
Overall, C. Rajagopalachari's legacy as a leader, thinker, and writer continues to
inspire people around the world. His commitment to promoting individual
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freedom and economic growth, his vision for a modern, democratic India, and his
contributions to the independence struggle and nation-building process have
earned him a revered place in Indian history and culture.
Conclusion
C. Rajagopalachari was a towering figure in Indian politics and society, whose
contributions to the independence struggle, nation-building process, and
promotion of individual freedom and economic growth continue to inspire people
around the world. Rajaji's legacy as a leader, thinker, and writer reflects his
unwavering commitment to the principles of democracy, economic liberalism, and
social justice. His vision for a modern, prosperous India, his advocacy for limited
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government, and his pioneering measures aimed at improving the lives of the
common people have earned him a revered place in Indian history and culture.
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Netaji Subash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) -
Revolutionary Nationalist
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was an Indian Nationalist
whose patriotism toward India has created a mark in the
hearts of many Indians. He is regarded as the most
influential freedom fighter with outstanding leadership
skills and a charismatic speaker. His famous slogans are
'tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe aazadi dunga',
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'Jai Hind', and 'Delhi Chalo'. He is famous for the
militant approach that he used to achieve independence
and for his socialist policies. He founded Azad Hind Fauj
(Indian National Army) and made many contributions to
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India's freedom struggle.
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Early Life and Education:
Subash Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January 1897, in Cuttack, Orissa
Division, Bengal province. His parents were Prabhavati Dutt Bose and
Janakinath Bose.
After his early schooling, he joined the Ravenshaw Collegiate School. From there
he went to join Presidency College, Calcutta where he was expelled due to his
nationalist activities. Later, he joined the University of Cambridge, U.K.
In 1919, bose headed to London to give the Indian Civil Services (ICS)
examination. Even though he was selected, he resigned from Civil Services as he
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believed he could not side with the British.
Bose was highly influenced by Swami Vivekananda’s teachings and he considered
him his spiritual guru. During the mid-1930s, he travelled across Europe,
researched, and wrote the first part of his book, The Indian Struggle, which
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covered the country’s independence movement in the years 1920-34.
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Contributions:
Association with Gandhi

Bose met M.K. Gandhi in 1921.
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● He actively participated in the Salt Satyagraha of 1930 and the Civil
Disobedience Movement led by Gandhi.
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○ Bose was imprisoned for his participation and put under house
arrest.
○ He vehemently opposed the suspension of the civil disobedience
movement and the signing of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931.
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● He believed in the use of force against the British which contradicted the
views of Mahatma Gandhi.
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● Bose's strong revolutionary urge for the emancipation of his motherland

made him critical of many of Gandhiji's techniques.
Association with Chittaranjan Das:
● Gandhi directed Bose to work with Chittaranjan Das.
● He considered C.R.Das as his political mentor.
● In 1921, Bose took over the editorship of the newspaper Forward founded
by Chittaranjan Das’s Swaraj Party.
● When C.R.Das was elected Mayor of Calcutta Corporation, he nominated
Bose as the chief executive.
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● Later, due to C.R.Das’s connection with revolutionary movements, Bose
was sent to Mandalay prison in 1925 where he contracted Tuberculosis
and he was released in 1927 due to his failing health.
Trade Union Movements:
Bose organised youth and promoted trade union movements. In 1930, he was
elected as the Mayor of Calcutta and the President of the All India Trade Union
Congress (AITUC).
Association with Congress:
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● In 1923, bose was elected as the President of the All India Youth Congress
and also as the Secretary of Bengal State Congress.
● 1928: As Subash Chandra Bose stood for unqualified Swaraj
(independence), he rejected Motilal Nehru’s report which demanded
dominion status for India.
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● In the 1930s, bose was closely associated with left politics in Congress
along with Jawarharlal Nehru and M.N. Roy.
The endeavour of the left group resulted in the Karachi Resolution (1931)
●
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which declared that the main aim of the Congress was the Socialization of
means of production and guaranteeing fundamental rights.
● In 1938, bose took over as the elected president of the Indian National
Congress in the 1938 Haripur session.
In the 1939 Tripuri session, he was re-elected as the President against
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Gandhi’s candidate Pattabhi Sittarammayya.
● However, due to ideological differences with Gandhi, Bose left Congress and
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found a new party named The Forward Bloc with the aim to consolidate
the political left and get a major support base for his ideology.
● 1940: When INC organized Individual Satyagraha, Subash Chandra Bose
organized an ‘Anti-Compromise Conference’ at Ramgarh, Bihar. He was
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arrested by the British shortly afterwards for organizing a protest for the
removal of the Holwell Monument (Memorium for Blackhole tragedy of
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Calcutta). He was later released and placed under House arrest in Calcutta.
Free India Centre & Indian Legion:
● In January 1941, he made a dramatic escape disguised as a Muslim, and
after a long detour reached Berlin.
● Bose founded the Free India Centre in Berlin and created the Indian
Legion out of the prisoners of war who had previously fought for the
British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces.
● In Germany, he was attached to the special bureau for India which was
responsible for the broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind
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Radio. On this radio, Bose on 6th July 1944 addressed Mahatma Gandhi
as the Father of the Nation.
● Bose was given the honorific title of Netaji in Germany in 1942 by the
Indian soldiers of the Indian Legion and officials of the Special Bureau for
India in Berlin.
● Bose sought help from Hitler and Mussolini for the liberation of India. But
whatever hope he had of gathering up support for India’s liberation was
dashed as Hitler was too preoccupied with his own problems.
Azad Hind & Indian National Army:
● Disappointed with Hitler, Bose went to Singapore in 1943, to boost the
flagging morale of the Indian National Army (originally founded by Rash
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Behari Bose and Captain Mohan Singh but was disbanded due to the
differences that had emerged between Captain Singh and the Japanese).
● Netaji declared India free and formed a provisional Government named
Azad Hind (Free India) and an army named Azad Hind Fauj (Indian
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National Army) with an aim to fight the British and liberate India with the
help of Japan.
● Indian National Army (INA)
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○ INA was composed of Indian prisoners of war of the British-Indian
Army who was captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and in
Singapore and Indian civilians in South-East Asia.
○ Its strength was around 50,000.
○ INA was non-communal with Muslims quite prominent among its
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officers and ranks.

○ INA introduced the innovation of a women’s regiment named after the
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Rani of Jhansi.
● As an ‘independent country’ Bose’s India declared war on Britain and the
USA but not on China and Russia.
● Bose gave famous slogans such as Jai Hind (Glory to India) and Dilli
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Chalo (On to Delhi).

● INA fought allied forces in 1944 inside the borders of India in Imphal and
Burma. However, with the fall of Rangoon, the Azah Hind Government
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ceased to be an effective political entity.

● It has to be noted that, before Bose withdrew from the eastern borders of
India because of inevitable circumstances, he had actually occupied and
freed more than 1500 sq. miles of the Indian Territory from the British.
● Significance: In November 1945, a British move to put the INA men on trial
immediately sparked massive demonstrations all over the country. This
created the wave of disaffection in the British Indian army during 1945-46
which ended with the Great Bombay Naval Strike of February 1946 which
was one of the major reasons behind the British’s decision to make a quick
withdrawal.
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Death of Subash Chandra Bose
As the INA forces were being captured or surrendering, Bose travelled to Tokyo
through Taiwan. Bose was reportedly killed in an air crash over Taipeh, Taiwan
(Formosa) on August 18, 1945.
Although it is widely believed that he was still alive after the plane crash, not
much information is available concerning this.
Ideologies:
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Samyavada or Doctrine of Synthesis: ‘Samyavada’ – an Indian word, which
means literally ‘the doctrine of synthesis or equality’.
● It points to a perfect balance between the material and the spiritual,
between the East and the West.
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● According to this doctrine, the spiritual aspects, the intellectual, ethical
and aesthetic values of life which had a high place in Indian culture must
be blended with material civilization in the new set-up.
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● The new India must be a synthesis of ancient glories and modern trends, of
Indian achievements and foreign contributions.
Against casteism: Any Indian irrespective of his caste (including non-martial
caste) and religious community could enlist in the INA. They were served food
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cooked in the common kitchen and shared in common barracks breaking the
age-old caste bonds and practices.
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Secularism: Common worship and celebrations of all religious festivals were

introduced in the INA in order to strengthen the secular feelings and thereby
promote National unity. Several Indians from the Minority Communities occupied
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high positions in the Provisional Government of Free India and the Azad Hind
Fauj.
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Women's rights: Bose had an innate faith in “Nari Shakti” or “Women‟s Power”.
Bose created history by establishing the world’s first all Women Regiment within
the Indian National Army in 1943 and named it “The Rani Jhansi Regiment.” It
was a full-fledged combat regiment with its Indian women soldiers getting all
essential military training similar to their male counterparts.
Education: Bose realized that education is a great force to create a sense of
national unity and solidarity.
● He wanted a common educational policy with a common script which
should be 'Roman Script', the common lingua franca being Hindusthani.
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● With respect to primary education, Bose was highly influenced by the
kindergarten system in Germany and Scandinavia and the Nursery School
of England.
● He was in favour of the visual or sensory method of education.
● Vivekananda's concepts of man-making and character-building elements in
education influenced Bose so much that, he wanted men of character to
free India from foreign domination.
● Bose firmly believed that no educational plan would be successful without
a comprehensive system of teachers' training.
Spiritualism
● His religious and spiritual inclination was further heightened in contact
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with the teachings of Ramkrishna Paramahansa and Vivekananda.
● He always had a small copy of Bhagavat Gita in the breast pocket of his
field uniform.
● Bose took the Upanishadic concept of 'Tyaga' and imbibed the ideal of
renunciation for self-realisation.
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● He became committed to working tirelessly for the benefit of the country
and its suffering masses.
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The relationship between Bose and Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose were two legendary personalities,
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gigantic in their political, moral, and ethical stature. Both of them were two
worthy sons of Mother India.
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To Subhash Bose,
● Gandhi always remained 'India's greatest man'.
● Subhash had all praise for Gandhi's unflinching patriotism, firmness in
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character, love for truth, etc.

● He recognised and admitted Gandhi as the undisputable, unrivalled leader
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of the masses.
● That’s why he addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the Nation.
Similarly, to Gandhi,
● Bose was like a son whose 'self sacrifice and suffering, drive, integrity and
commitment to the national cause and the capacity to bind all Indians into
one people were unsurpassed.'
● In 1942 Gandhi called Subhash Chandra Bose the “Prince among the
Patriots” and one whose “patriotism was second to none.”
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Their similarities:
● Both Gandhi and Bose were totally honest men.
● They were internationalists and humanists.
● They were secular in approach and anti-racial in outlook.
● Their minds were always focused on the liberation of their motherland.
● The whole life of both the leaders was an epic struggle for India's
independence.
Their differences:
Bose Gandhi
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a reluctant nationalist who belonged
a firebrand nationalist who believed in to the tradition of his mentor Gokhale
the tradition of Tilak and Aurobindo. and Tagore.
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adopted violent means for the He was a firm believer in non-violence
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liberation of India and led Indian and led peaceful mass protests.
National Army.
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Was a keen follower of radical leftist Believed in the Trusteeship pattern of

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and rationalist ideology and organized relation between Capitalist and

trade unions. labourers.
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Bose wanted to seize the opportunity Gandhi saw fascism and Nazism as a
provided by Second World War to oust greater danger to Indian polity and
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the Britishers and liberate India. Thus, society thus cooperating with the
he approached Germany, and Japan British.
to seek support for India’s cause.
Bose viewed freedom not only in terms Gandhi’s idea of freedom was based on
of political self-rule but also freedom self-rule and rule over self.
from socio-economic inequalities,
casteism, intolerance, etc.
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Quotes by Subhas Chandra Bose
● Bose gave the most famous quote “Give me blood and I will give you
freedom”.
● Another famous quote was Dilli Chalo (On to Delhi), the call he used to give
the INA armies to motivate them.
● Jai Hind or, Glory to India was another slogan given by him and which was
later adopted by the Government of India and the Indian Armed Forces.
● He also coined “Ittihad, Etemad, Qurbani” (Urdu for Unity, Agreement,
Sacrifice).
● INA also used the slogan Inquilab Zindabad, coined by Maulana Hasrat
Mohani.
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In conclusion, Subhash Chandra Bose is an unforgettable national hero who had
a tremendous love for his country. Furthermore, this great personaly sacrificed
his whole life for the country.
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“By freedom, I mean all-round freedom, i.e. freedom for the individual as well as for
the society; freedom for the rich as well as for the poor; freedom for men as well as
for women; freedom for all individuals and for all classes.” - Subash Chandra
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Bose.
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Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) - Icon of Indian
Revolution: Sacrificing Life for Liberty
Bhagat Singh, also known as ‘Shaheed (martyr) Bhagat Singh',

was an Indian revolutionary and freedom fighter who fought
against the British with extraordinary zeal and courage. He
popularised the slogan of ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ which eventually
became a catchphrase of the Indian national movement. He
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played a crucial role in revolutionising India’s struggle for
Independence and that is why the young martyr is treated as
the hero of India’s Independence movement.
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● Bhagat Singh’s full name was Bhagat Singh Sandhu. He was born on
September 27, 1907, in a Jat Sikh family in Banga village of Faisalabad
district (now Lyallpur), western Punjab, British India (now in Pakistan’s
Punjab province).
● His parents were Kishan Singh and Vidyavati Kaur. Bhagat Singhs’s family
had a legacy of active involvement in the freedom struggle. His father and
uncles were freedom fighters and were jailed for taking part in India’s
nationalist movement. They were members of the Ghadar party which was
led by Kartar Singh Sarabha and Har Dayal.
○ At the time of birth of Bhagat Singh, his father Kishan Singh and his
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uncles Ajit Singh and Swaran Singh were serving prison sentences
for opposing the Colonization Bill implemented in 1906.
● Given the family’s nationalist tendencies and patriotism, Bhagat Singh’s
grandfather did not allow Bhagat Singh to enrol at any school which was
loyal to the British government. Therefore, Bhagat Singh attended
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Dayanand Anglo-Vedic High School (operated by Arya Samaj) in Lahore for
his school education and then joined National College in Lahore.
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● From his early days, Bhagat Singh was a follower and admirer of Marxism
and drew inspiration from the writings of Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and
Mikhail Bakunin.
● Bhagat Singh ardently followed Kartar Singh Sarabha who was a leader of
the Ghadar party and an active participant in India’s freedom struggle. The
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latter was also a martyr of India, losing his life at the young age of 19.
● He was an avid reader as well. So was he fond of reading that till the very
young age of 21, he had read around fifty books which included writings of
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Ram Prasad Bismil, and many Russian and European writers.

● The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy deeply moved Bhagat Singh. He visited the
site when he was 12 years old.
In 1921, he along with the villagers had taken part in the protest against
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●
the killing of a significant number of victims at Gurudwara Nankana Sahib.
● He was also a devout follower of Gandhi and his ideals of non-violence.
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However, Gandhi’s calling off the Non-Cooperation Movement made him

unhappy and he joined the Young Revolutionary Movement.
● In 1923, Bhagat Singh joined the National College of Lahore where he
began engaging in revolutionary nationalist activities. During these days,
he also took part in college dramatics and writing competitions actively.
○ He also won an essay competition which was on the topic - “The
Problems in Punjab due to Freedom Struggle in India.”
● In 1927, Singh's parents planned to have him married but he rejected the
idea saying: "my bride shall be only death" and left. After several
reassurances from his parents that they wouldn’t force him to marry, he
returned to Lahore.
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● Bhagat Singh began to protest against British rule in India in his youthful
days and soon fought for national independence.
● It was during his college days that he founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha
- Youth Society of India (a socialist organisation) in March 1926 to
overthrow British rule in India.
● In 1927, he was arrested on the charge of having been involved in the
Lahore bombing case that took place in 1926. He was released after 5
weeks on a bond of 60,000 rupees.
● After his release, he began writing and editing for Urdu and Punjabi
newspapers which were published in Amritsar. He also wrote for Kirti (a
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journal published by Kirti Kisan Party) and for Veer Arjun under
pseudonyms.
● His writings had a great influence on Indian youth which resulted in the
Indians, especially youth opposing all British activities often causing huge
disruptions.
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● In 1928, he reorganised the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA),
which later became the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA).
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Other members of the party included Ram Prasad Bismil, Shahid
Ashfaqullah Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and
Sukhdev.
● Bhagat Singh was deeply affected by Lala Lajpat Rai’s death which was the
result of the severe injury that the latter suffered while holding a protest
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march against the British’s Simon Commission in Lahore in 1928. Bhagat
Singh decided to take revenge by killing the police officer, James A.Scott
(superintendent of police) who had ordered the lathi charge that resulted in
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Rai’s death.
● Bhagat Singh and other members of HSRA such as Sukhdev, Rajguru and
Chandrashekhar Azad drew up a plan to kill the officer. On December 17,
1928, they executed the plan at the district police headquarters in Lahore.
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However, they mistakenly killed Scott’s assistant John P. Saunders.

● After the killing, he escaped from Lahore to Howrah disguising himself as a
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married man with Bhagwati Charan Vohra’s wife Durgavati Devi since the
police were looking for an unmarried Sikh boy.
● On 8 April 1929, he along with Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs at Central
Legislative Assembly to oppose the Public Safety Bill and Trade Dispute
Bill. Their intent was not to kill anyone but only to scare the British though
a few people suffered some injuries. After throwing bombs, they did not run
away but stood there shouting the slogan of ‘Inquilab Zindabad' (“Long live
the revolution”).
○ The plan was to get arrested and stand trial so they could further
promote their cause.
○ They also showered leaflets which stated that ‘it takes a loud noise to
make the deaf hear.’
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Trial and execution
● Bhagat Singh along with his co-conspirator was arrested and sentenced to
life imprisonment.
● During the trial, he offered no defence. However, due to further
investigation, the police discovered the connection between Bhagat Singh
and the murder of officer Saunders (also known as the Lahore Conspiracy
Case) and he was re-arrested.
● Meanwhile, Singh was shifted from a Delhi prison to Mianwali where he
and his co-prisoners protested against discrimination between Indian and
European prisoners.
○ In 1929, while serving the prison sentence, they went on a hunger
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strike and demanded better food, books, newspapers etc. arguing
that they were political prisoners, not criminals.
● After several hearings in the Lahore Conspiracy case, Bhagat Singh along
with Rajguru and Sukhdev was awarded the death sentence.
Eventually, on March 23, 1931, Singh (at the age of 23) was executed along
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●
with Rajguru and Sukhdev in Punjab's Hussainwala (now in Pakistan). This
day is celebrated as 'Shaheed Diwas' (Martyrs' Day) to pay tribute to the
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trio.
● Singh's execution inspired numerous youths in India to take up the
revolutionary path and played a vital role in energizing the fight against the
British empire.
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Ideology
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● Bhagat Singh was a keen reader of Karl Marx, Angels, Lenin, Trotsky and
Bakunin. The Marxist ideology left a deep imprint on him and he was
influenced by anarchism and communism.
He was a visionary, with a pluralist and egalitarian perception of
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independent India. He not only desired freedom from British rule but also
poverty, untouchability, communal strife and all types of discrimination or
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exploitation.
● He as a journalist raised his voice against the aforementioned social evils in
Kirti, Arjun and Pratap, some of the well-known newspapers of their
times. His articles focused on the various aspects of the nationalist
struggle, combating communalism, untouchability, students, world
brotherhood, conditions of the working class and peasantry including
language and politics etc.
● Some of the topics of his articles such as ‘Religion and our freedom
struggle’, Achoot ka Sawaal (On Untouchability) and Sampradayik
Dangeaurunka Ilaj (Communal riots and their solutions) show his
concerns.
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● His organisation, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) aimed
at such a revolution which would usher in a new era, demolishing the
existing socioeconomic and political structure of Indian society. Their
revolution was not for anarchy or lawlessness but for social justice
● During his last days in prison, noticing recurrent Hindu-Muslim riots
which led to the conflict between the two religions, Singh dropped his belief
in religion and became an atheist considering religion to be a hindrance in
the revolutionaries' struggle for independence.
● His article, ‘Why I am an Atheist’, written during his stay in prison made
clear that the revolutionaries now need no religious inspiration as they
have an advanced revolutionary ideology, based on reason instead of blind
faith.
His ideas of social and economic justice and his passionate desire to rise
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●
above narrow caste and religious considerations would always remain
crucial as it is today.
Literary works
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● “The Problem of Punjab’s Language and Script “(1923).
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● “Vishv Prem” (“In love with the world”) (1924) and “Yuvak” (1925) published
in Matwala.
● “Holi Ke Din Rakt Ke Chinte” (“Blood drops on Holi Day”) published in
1926.
● “The Red Pamphlet.”
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● “Court Statements”.
● “Letter to Young Political Workers”.
“Why I Am an Atheist” (1931).
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●
● “No Hanging, Please Shoot Us.”
● “Letter to Father.”
● “Introduction to Dreamland.”
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● “The Fragrance of Freedom.”

● Manuscripts: “The Ideal of Socialism”, “Autobiography”, “History of
Revolutionary Movement in India”, “At the Door of Death” and “Jail
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Notebook”.
● Others.
Famous quotes
● “I am a man and all that affects mankind is my concern.”
● "Revolution is an inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is an imperishable
birth right of all".
● "If the deaf have to hear, the sound has to be very loud".
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● "Merciless criticism and independent thinking are two traits of
revolutionary thinking. Lovers, lunatics and poets are made of the same
stuff".
● "Bombs and pistols don't make a revolution. The sword of revolution is
sharpened on the whetting stone of ideas".
● "People get accustomed to the established order of things and tremble at
the idea of change. It is this lethargic spirit that needs be replaced by the
revolutionary spirit"
● "Labour is the real sustainer of society".
● "They may kill me, but they cannot kill my ideas. They can crush my body,
but they will not be able to crush my spirit".
● "I am such a lunatic that I am free even in jail".
“Rebellion against king is always a sin according to every religion.”
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●
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) - India’s
First President: Shaping the Republic with
Dignity and Grace
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, played a

pivotal role in shaping the country's history. Born in Bihar
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in 1884, he was an accomplished scholar and a dedicated
freedom fighter, actively participating in India's struggle for
independence. As a prominent leader in the Indian
Nationalist Movement, he worked alongside key figures like
Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Lal Bahadur
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Shastri. His contributions to the country extend beyond his
presidency, as he was actively involved in humanitarian
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efforts and authored several books. Studying his life and
accomplishments is essential to understanding the
foundations of the Republic of India and the values of
patriotism and selflessness.
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II. Early Life and Education
A. Birth and family background
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was born on December 3, 1884, in Ziradei, Siwan district,
Bihar, India. His father, Mahadev Sahai Srivastava, was a scholar of Sanskrit and
Persian languages, while his mother, Kamleshwari Devi, was a religious woman.
B. Mother's influence and his siblings
Kamleshwari Devi played a significant role in shaping young Rajendra Prasad's
character by instilling values through stories from the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. Prasad had one elder brother, Mahendra Prasad, and three elder
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sisters, with his mother passing away during his childhood. His older sister,
Bhagwati Devi, raised him.
C. Early education
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1. Persian language, Hindi, and arithmetic classes
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At the age of five, Rajendra Prasad's parents enrolled him in classes taught by a
Maulavi, an accomplished Muslim scholar, where he learned the Persian
language, Hindi, and arithmetic.
2. Chapra District School
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After completing his elementary education, Prasad attended the Chapra District
School.
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3. T.K. Ghosh's Academy in Patna

Rajendra Prasad later joined T.K. Ghosh's Academy in Patna, where he studied
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with his elder brother, Mahendra Prasad, for two years.

D. Higher education
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1. Presidency College in Calcutta

In 1902, Rajendra Prasad enrolled at Presidency College in Calcutta as a science
undergraduate. He secured first place in the University of Calcutta's entrance
exam, which earned him a scholarship of Rs. 30 per month.
2. M.A. in Economics from the University of Calcutta
In March 1904, Prasad passed the F.A. at the University of Calcutta, and in
March 1905, he graduated with a first division. He later shifted his focus to the
study of arts, obtaining a first division M.A. in Economics from the University of
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Calcutta in December 1907. While pursuing his degree, Prasad lived with his
brother in the Eden Hindu Hostel and actively participated in The Dawn Society.
3. Law studies and obtaining a gold medal
Rajendra Prasad pursued law at the University of Calcutta's Department of Law,
where he took the Masters of Law examination in 1915, passed it, and received a
gold medal for his achievements.
4. Doctorate in law from Allahabad University
In 1937, Rajendra Prasad earned his doctorate in law from Allahabad University,
further solidifying his academic prowess.
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III. Personal Life
A. Marriage to Rajavanshi Devi
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad's personal life was marked by his early marriage to
Rajavanshi Devi in June 1896, at the tender age of 12. This union was arranged
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according to the traditions of that time in India.
B. One son, Mrityunjaya Prasad
Rajendra Prasad and Rajavanshi Devi had one child together, a son named
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Mrityunjaya Prasad. Following in his father's footsteps, Mrityunjaya Prasad also

chose a career in politics, furthering the family's involvement in the Indian
political landscape.
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IV. Professional Life

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A. Career as a Teacher
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Before embarking on his illustrious political journey, Dr. Rajendra Prasad had a
successful career as an educator. After completing his M.A. in economics, he
joined Langat Singh College in Muzaffarpur, Bihar as a professor of English
and later became the principal. However, he decided to leave his position at the
college to pursue legal studies at Ripon College in Calcutta. While studying law in
Kolkata, he also served as a Professor of Economics at Calcutta City College
in 1909, further expanding his expertise in the field of education.
B. Career as a Lawyer
Dr. Rajendra Prasad's legal career began in 1916 when he was appointed to the
High Court of Bihar and Odisha. His legal acumen was quickly recognized, and
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in 1917, he was elected as one of the first members of the Patna University
Senate and Syndicate. This involvement in the university's administration
showcased his dedication to both law and education. In addition to his work at
the High Court and Patna University, Dr. Prasad also practiced law in Bhagalpur,
Bihar, a well-known silk city. His career as a lawyer laid the foundation for his
future political endeavors and provided him with the skills necessary to become a
prominent leader in the Indian Independence Movement.
V. Involvement in the Indian Independence Movement

A. Introduction to the Indian National Congress
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad's foray into the Indian Independence Movement began when
he was introduced to the Indian National Congress during its 1906 annual
session held in Calcutta, which he attended as a volunteer. He officially joined the
organization in 1911 when the annual session was once again held in Calcutta.
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B. Meeting Mahatma Gandhi
In 1916, Dr. Prasad met Mahatma Gandhi at the Indian National Congress's
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Lucknow Session. Gandhi invited him to join one of his fact-finding missions in
Champaran, which would prove to be a transformative experience for Dr. Prasad.
C. Joining the Noncooperation Movement
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad was deeply inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's determination,

bravery, and conviction. When the Indian National Congress passed the motion of
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non-cooperation in 1920, he left his lucrative legal profession and university

duties to wholeheartedly support the movement. In response to Gandhi's call for
a boycott of Western educational institutions, he advised his son, Mrityunjaya
Prasad, to leave school and enroll in Bihar Vidyapeeth, an institution he and his
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colleagues established based on the traditional Indian model.

D. Role in the Indian National Congress
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1. Throughout his involvement in the Indian National Congress, Dr. Prasad

held several leadership positions. He was first elected as President in
1934 during the Bombay session. When Subhash Chandra Bose resigned
in 1939, he was re-elected as President. After J.B. Kripalani resigned, Dr.
Prasad became Congress President for the third time in 1947.
2. Dr. Prasad played a crucial role in the Quit India Resolution, which was
passed by Congress in Bombay on August 8, 1942. This resolution led to
the arrest of many Indian leaders, including Dr. Prasad. He was taken into
custody and sent to Bankipur Central Jail in Patna's Sadaqat Ashram,
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where he remained imprisoned for nearly three years until his release on
June 15, 1945.
E. Interim Government and Constituent Assembly
1. After the establishment of an Interim Government of 12 nominated
ministers led by Jawaharlal Nehru on September 2, 1946, Dr. Prasad was
assigned the Food and Agriculture Department. His administrative
experience proved invaluable in this new role.
2. On December 11, 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President
of the Constituent Assembly. In this capacity, he played a pivotal role in
the drafting and adoption of India's Constitution, which ultimately led to
the establishment of the Republic of India.
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VI. Humanitarian Services
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was known not only for his political leadership but also for
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his dedication to humanitarian causes. Throughout his life, he was deeply
involved in relief efforts during natural disasters, demonstrating his commitment
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to the welfare of the people.
A. Relief Efforts During Natural Disasters
1. In 1914, when a devastating flood struck Bengal and Bihar, Dr. Prasad
organized relief work for the affected population. He raised funds and
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gathered resources to help the people in need, showcasing his compassion

and leadership skills.
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2. In 1934, Bihar faced a catastrophic earthquake that claimed thousands of

lives and left countless people homeless. Dr. Prasad stepped up to manage
the relief work and reconstruction efforts, personally visiting the affected
areas to assess the damage and provide assistance. He also played a
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crucial role in the establishment of the Bihar Central Relief Committee to

streamline aid and recovery work.
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3. When the city of Quetta was hit by a disastrous earthquake in 1935, Dr.
Prasad's empathy extended beyond the borders of his own country. He
collected funds and resources for the victims, showcasing his humanitarian
spirit and commitment to helping those in need, regardless of nationality or
borders.
VII. Presidency of India

Dr. Rajendra Prasad's journey led him to become a central figure in India's
history, as he was elected as the nation's first President following the adoption of
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the Constitution in 1950. His tenure as President was marked by dedication,
diplomacy, and a commitment to the welfare of the nation.
A. Election as the First President of India
On January 26, 1950, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the first President of
India, marking the beginning of his constitutional role in the newly independent
nation.
B. Independent and Non-partisan Role
As President, Dr. Prasad acted independently of any political party, fulfilling the
constitutionally mandated role and ensuring impartiality in his decisions and
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actions.
C. Diplomatic Relations and Foreign Travel
During his tenure, Dr. Prasad worked to establish diplomatic relations with
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foreign countries, traveling widely as India's ambassador and representing the
nation on the global stage.
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D. Re-election in 1952 and 1957
Dr. Prasad's leadership and dedication to the country earned him two consecutive
re-elections in 1952 and 1957, making him the first two-term president of
India.
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E. Mughal Gardens at the Rashtrapati Bhavan

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Under his presidency, the Mughal Gardens at the Rashtrapati Bhavan were
opened to the public for the first time, becoming a major tourist attraction in
Delhi and offering a glimpse into the beauty and history of the presidential
residence.
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F. Involvement in State Affairs and the Hindu Code Bill

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Towards the end of his tenure, Dr. Prasad became more involved in state affairs,
particularly in the context of the contentious Hindu Code Bill. His engagement in
this issue demonstrated his commitment to the well-being of the nation and its
people.
G. Retirement in 1962
After serving as President for twelve years, Dr. Rajendra Prasad announced his
retirement in 1962. Following his retirement, he returned to Patna, opting to live
on the Bihar Vidyapeeth campus, where he spent the remainder of his life.
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VIII. Death and Legacy
Dr. Rajendra Prasad's impactful life came to an end on February 28, 1963, in
Patna. His legacy continues to inspire generations of Indians and serves as a
reminder of his unwavering commitment to the nation and its people.
A. Death in Patna on February 28, 1963
Dr. Rajendra Prasad passed away in Patna on February 28, 1963, after a
lifetime of selfless service to the country. His death was a great loss to the nation,
marking the end of an era.
B. Wife's Death on September 9, 1962
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Dr. Prasad's wife, Rajavanshi Devi, predeceased him by a few months, passing
away on September 9, 1962. The couple's unwavering support for each other
throughout their lives was a testament to their enduring bond.
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C. Burial at Mahaprayan Ghat, Patna
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In accordance with his wishes, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was laid to rest at
Mahaprayan Ghat in Patna. His final resting place is a site of pilgrimage for
many who wish to pay their respects to this great leader.
D. Rajendra Smriti Sangrahalaya in Patna
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To preserve his memory and share his life story with future generations, the
Rajendra Smriti Sangrahalaya was established in Patna. This museum contains
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numerous artifacts and personal belongings that offer a glimpse into the life and
times of India's first President, ensuring that his legacy continues to inspire and
inform future generations.
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IX. Awards and Scholarly Contributions

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Dr. Rajendra Prasad's outstanding service to the nation was recognized through
numerous awards and accolades, including the prestigious Bharat Ratna in
1962. In addition to his public service, he also made significant contributions to
the fields of literature, history, and politics through his numerous authored
works.
A. Bharat Ratna in 1962
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was awarded India's highest civilian honor, the Bharat
Ratna, in 1962. This recognition was a testament to his lifelong dedication to the
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cause of India's independence, the drafting of the Constitution, and his service as
the first President of the nation.
B. List of books authored by Rajendra Prasad
Dr. Prasad was also an accomplished writer, penning several books on various
subjects. Some of his notable works include:
1. Satyagraha at Champaran (1922): This book chronicles the historic
Champaran Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi, in which Dr. Prasad
played a significant role.
2. Division of India (1946): In this work, Dr. Prasad discusses the events
leading up to the partition of India and the challenges it presented.
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3. Atmakatha (Autobiography): Dr. Prasad's autobiography offers a detailed
account of his life and experiences in the freedom struggle.
4. Mahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminiscences (1949): This book
recounts Dr. Prasad's personal experiences with Mahatma Gandhi,
particularly during their time together in Bihar.
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5. Bapu Ke Kadmon Mein (1954): This book serves as a tribute to Mahatma
Gandhi and highlights his influence on Dr. Prasad's life.
6. Since Independence (1960): In this work, Dr. Prasad shares his thoughts
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on India's journey since gaining independence and the challenges it faced
in building a new nation.
7. Bharatiya Shiksha: This book delves into the Indian education system and
Dr. Prasad's vision for its development.
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8. At the Feet of Mahatma Gandhi: This book further explores Dr. Prasad's
relationship with Mahatma Gandhi and the profound impact Gandhi had
on his life and career.
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X. Conclusion
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In conclusion, Dr. Rajendra Prasad's life was marked by unwavering dedication to

India's struggle for independence, the drafting of its Constitution, and his service
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as the nation's first President. His remarkable accomplishments, both personal

and professional, have left an indelible mark on India's history. As an author,
scholar, and humanitarian, Dr. Prasad's legacy continues to inspire generations
of Indians to contribute to the betterment of the nation and uphold the values
enshrined in the Constitution.
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Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979) - Total
Revolution Leader: Advocating for Social
Change and Democracy
Jayaprakash Narayan, affectionately known as JP or the Lok

Nayak, was a critical figure in the narrative of India's
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socio-political history. A key player in India's struggle for
independence, his passion for social justice and reform made
him a beacon for the populace. Known for his ideologies of
socialism, Sarvodaya, and participatory democracy, his work
didn't cease with independence. He spearheaded the Total
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Revolution and influenced significant political shifts, leaving an
indelible mark on the nation.
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A. His birth, family, and early years
● Jayaprakash Narayan was born on October 11, 1902, in Sitab Diyara, a
village in Bihar near the border of Uttar Pradesh.
● His parents were Harsu Dayal Srivastava and Phul Rani Devi. His father
was a junior official in the Canal Department of the State government and
was often transferred around the region.
● Raised in a middle-class family, he grew up amidst his brothers and
sisters.
● His early childhood was greatly influenced by the freedom movement that
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was picking up momentum in India. This sparked his interest in the cause
of India's independence.
B. His education in India and abroad
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● Narayan started his education in Sitab Diyara.
● He completed his early education and matriculation from the Bihar and
Orissa District School in Patna in 1920.
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● He then joined the Patna College to pursue further studies but was deeply
disturbed by the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in 1919, and the violent
repercussions of the Non-cooperation Movement of 1921. This led to his
growing interest in the freedom struggle rather than formal education.
● Inspired by the writings of Rajendra Prasad and Annie Besant in
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"Searchlight" and "New India," he developed a keen interest in the struggle

for Indian Independence.
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● He got married to Prabhavati Devi, daughter of lawyer and nationalist Brij

Kishore Prasad, in October 1920. She was a freedom fighter and an active
participant in the struggle for independence.
● In 1922, JP moved to the United States to pursue his higher studies in
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political science and economics at universities in California, Iowa,

Wisconsin, and Ohio. His exposure to various global cultures and
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ideologies during this period had a significant influence on his perspective

and political ideology.
● In the US, he was introduced to Karl Marx’s works and was influenced by
Marxist ideology. He also came across writings of several Russian
revolutionaries, which left a deep impact on him. It was during this period
that he transformed into a Marxist.
● After spending seven years in the U.S., JP returned to India in 1929,
equipped with a foreign degree, a new world view, and an impassioned
spirit to participate in the freedom struggle.
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III. Political Ideologies and Involvement
A. Overview of JP's political ideologies
● From his early days, Narayan was committed to the cause of independence.
His political ideology was heavily influenced by his education abroad and
exposure to a variety of political and economic philosophies.
● JP was a staunch socialist and believed in equal distribution of wealth and
power. His socialism was largely influenced by the theories of Karl Marx
and Russian revolutionaries' writings.
● During his time in the United States, he was deeply influenced by the
writings of Marx and the Russian Revolution. However, he didn't fully
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subscribe to the violent means that Marx proposed to achieve a classless
society. JP's version of socialism emphasized democratic and peaceful
means.
● The concept of "Sarvodaya" was a core part of JP's political ideology.
Sarvodaya, meaning 'universal upliftment' or 'progress of all,' was first
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coined by Gandhi. It aimed for a society where everyone was prosperous
and happy.
● JP's Sarvodaya was not just about economic prosperity, but also spiritual
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and moral upliftment. It was based on the principles of non-violence,
decentralization of economic and political power, and a just social order.
● He believed in participatory democracy, where people at the grassroots level
were involved in decision-making processes. According to him, democracy
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was not just about elections, but also about decentralization of power and
active participation of citizens in governance.
● JP strongly advocated for the Panchayati Raj system to ensure
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decentralization of power and to promote participatory democracy.

B. Involvement with the Indian National Congress and subsequent departure
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● After returning to India, JP joined the Indian National Congress in 1929,

being heavily influenced by Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence and
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satyagraha.
● He was part of the Civil Disobedience Movement and was imprisoned
during the Salt Satyagraha in 1930.
● In 1934, JP was elected as the General Secretary of the All India Congress
Committee.
● Despite his high position in the Congress hierarchy, JP was increasingly
dissatisfied with the party's political line. He felt the Congress was moving
towards a more conservative position and deviating from its primary
objective of serving the poorest sections of the society.
● He strongly disagreed with Nehru's inclination towards democratic
socialism, feeling it was too moderate and failed to address the real
socio-economic issues in India.
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● In 1948, he, along with other socialist leaders, formed the Socialist Party,
separating from the Congress. The Socialist Party aimed to establish a
socialist order in India based on a decentralized political structure with a
strong emphasis on the Panchayati Raj system.
● JP left active politics in 1954 and dedicated himself to the Bhoodan
Movement started by Vinoba Bhave, which aimed to persuade wealthy
landowners to voluntarily give a portion of their land to landless people.
However, he returned to the political arena during the emergency period
(1975-1977) to lead a popular people's movement against the then Indira
Gandhi government, known as the JP Movement or Total Revolution.
IV. Role in India's Independence Movement
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A. JP's role in the Quit India movement
● Jayaprakash Narayan, often referred to as JP, played a significant role in
the Quit India Movement of 1942.
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● The Quit India Movement was a civil disobedience movement launched by
the Indian National Congress under Gandhi's leadership, calling for an end
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to British rule in India.
● Despite his socialist leanings, JP's involvement in the Quit India Movement
showed his loyalty towards the Congress and the cause of Indian
independence.
● JP was one of the prominent leaders who led mass protests, strikes, and
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demonstrations against British colonial rule.

● After the arrest of major Congress leaders, including Gandhi and Nehru, JP
was among the leaders who kept the movement alive.
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● He went underground to evade arrest and led the movement from secrecy,
coordinating activities and disseminating information.
B. JP's advocacy for the use of arms, a departure from Gandhi's methods
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● Despite his deep respect for Gandhi and his philosophy of non-violence, JP
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advocated for a more assertive approach towards British rule.

● He believed that passive resistance alone might not be sufficient to expel
the British.
● His belief in the use of arms, in extreme situations, if necessary, to fight
oppression marked a departure from the Gandhian method of non-violence.
This belief was influenced by his education and exposure to revolutionary
ideologies abroad.
● However, he maintained that the use of violence should be the last resort
when all peaceful methods have failed.
C. His time in jail and efforts to overthrow British rule
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● JP's active involvement in the independence movement led to his arrest
multiple times by the British authorities.
● He was jailed for the first time during the Civil Disobedience Movement in
1930.
● He spent a considerable amount of time in prison during the Quit India
Movement. Even while in prison, JP continued his efforts to overthrow
British rule through correspondence and advocacy.
● His time in jail further solidified his resolve to fight for India's
independence and deepened his understanding of India's socio-political
scenario.
D. His interactions with other prominent figures such as Gandhi and S. C.
Bose
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● JP shared a deep bond with Mahatma Gandhi. Despite their differences in
political ideology, JP respected Gandhi for his commitment to truth and
non-violence. Gandhi's philosophy greatly influenced JP's political journey.
● JP had multiple interactions with Gandhi during the freedom struggle,
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especially during the Quit India Movement.
● He was also acquainted with Subhas Chandra Bose, another prominent
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leader in the Indian independence movement. While JP and Bose had
different approaches towards achieving independence, they shared a
mutual respect for each other.
● His interactions with these leaders shaped his political ideologies and
strategies, influencing his role in the freedom movement and later in
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post-independence India.
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V. Post-Independence Role
A. JP's work post-independence, founding of the Praja Socialist Party
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● After India achieved independence, Jayaprakash Narayan, known as JP,

continued his active involvement in politics, shaping the trajectory of the
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new nation.
● Disillusioned with the direction the Indian National Congress was taking,
he, along with other socialist leaders, founded the Praja Socialist Party in
1952.
● The Praja Socialist Party was established with the aim of promoting
democratic socialism in India, taking inspiration from Gandhian principles
of village self-governance.
● However, JP later became disenchanted with party politics and decided to
dedicate his life to the Sarvodaya Movement, inspired by Gandhian
principles.
B. JP's role in the Bhoodan Movement
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● The Bhoodan Movement was initiated by Vinoba Bhave in 1951 with the
objective of redistributing land to the landless peasants. JP actively
participated in this movement, demonstrating his commitment to social
justice and economic equality.
● JP became deeply involved in the Bhoodan Movement, traveling extensively
throughout India, persuading landowners to donate land voluntarily.
● The success of the Bhoodan Movement is often attributed to JP's tireless
efforts and persuasive skills. His involvement in the movement further
cemented his reputation as a selfless and committed leader, dedicated to
the welfare of the downtrodden.
● JP's belief in Sarvodaya or "welfare for all" was deeply reflected in his work
with the Bhoodan Movement.
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C. His concept of Chaukhamba Raj
● Chaukhamba Raj was a political philosophy conceived by JP that advocated
decentralization of political power to the village level.
● The term Chaukhamba Raj means "rule of the four pillars". These four
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pillars are: village, district, state, and centre. According to JP, power should
be decentralized and each of these four pillars should have autonomy in its
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functioning.
● This concept was inspired by Gandhian principles of village self-governance
or Panchayati Raj. JP believed that this system of governance would ensure
direct participation of citizens in decision-making and administration,
leading to a more equitable and just society.
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● JP's Chaukhamba Raj is seen as an extension of his broader political

philosophy that emphasized grassroots democracy and social justice.
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VI. The Call for Sampoorna Kranti (Total Revolution)

A. Events leading to JP's call for Total Revolution
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● The late 1960s and early 1970s was a period marked by widespread
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political corruption, social inequality, and economic distress in India.

● JP, who had largely distanced himself from active politics, felt a strong need
to intervene in the face of this national crisis.
● He was deeply disturbed by the rampant corruption and the prevailing
apathy towards societal problems within the political class. He also
perceived an erosion of democratic values in the country.
● As a result, in 1974, JP issued a call for Sampoorna Kranti or Total
Revolution, a mass movement aimed at societal transformation and the
restoration of democracy.
B. Impact of the Total Revolution on Indian society and politics
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● The call for Total Revolution had a profound impact on Indian society and
politics, leading to a widespread protest movement that spread across
several states, notably Bihar and Gujarat.
● The movement mobilized millions of students, peasants, and other citizens,
who took to the streets demanding an end to corruption and the
establishment of a true democracy.
● The Total Revolution was instrumental in the declaration of Emergency by
then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975.
● The movement ultimately led to the fall of the Congress government in
1977 and the rise of the Janata Party – a coalition of opposition parties.
● JP's call for Total Revolution reinvigorated Indian politics and underscored
the power of peaceful protest and democratic dissent.
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C. The concept of Total Revolution and its different aspects
● The Total Revolution called for by JP was a holistic approach to societal
transformation. It was not just a political revolution, but also encompassed
social, economic, and cultural aspects.
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● The aim was to create a just, equitable, and participatory society free from
corruption and exploitation.
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● At the heart of this revolution was the power of the people, particularly the
youth, to enact change. JP believed that real change could only come from
the grassroots level.
● The Total Revolution also emphasized the need for moral and ethical values
in politics and public life, something that JP believed was sorely lacking in
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Indian politics of the time.

D. The Bihar agitations and JP's role
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● The Bihar agitation, also known as the Bihar Movement, was a major
chapter in the Total Revolution. It started as a student protest against
rising prices, corruption, and unemployment in 1974.
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● JP was invited to lead the protest. Under his guidance, it transformed from
a student movement to a mass movement demanding systemic change.
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● JP's leadership galvanized the protestors and the agitation rapidly spread
across the state and beyond.
● The Bihar agitation played a critical role in the political developments of the
time, contributing to the declaration of Emergency and the subsequent
political change in the country. JP's role in leading the agitation reaffirmed
his status as a champion of democracy and people's power.
VII. Legacy
A. JP's enduring influence on Indian politics and society
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● Jayaprakash Narayan, often referred to as JP, has left an indelible imprint
on the socio-political landscape of India. His legacy extends far beyond his
lifetime, influencing generations of leaders and activists.
● His ideology of Sarvodaya, rooted in Gandhian principles, continues to
inspire discussions on equitable and sustainable development in India.
● The concept of Sampoorna Kranti (Total Revolution) sparked a paradigm
shift in the Indian political scenario. It encouraged citizens to become
active participants in the democratic process, advocating for transparency,
accountability, and ethical standards in politics.
● JP's role in the Bhoodan Movement, promoting land redistribution to the
landless, highlighted the economic disparities in the Indian society and the
need for land reforms.
● His strong opposition to the Emergency in 1975, standing as a bulwark
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against authoritarianism, has made him a symbol of democracy and
people's power. His fearless stand during this period continues to serve as
an example of political courage and integrity.
● The Loknayak Jayaprakash Institute Of Sociology, named in his honor,
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continues his work in social sciences, promoting research in sociology and
related disciplines.
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B. His contribution to the Nav Nirman Andolan in Gujarat and the formation
of the Janata Party
● The Nav Nirman Andolan was a socio-political movement in Gujarat in the
mid-1970s, catalyzed by rising prices, corruption, and unemployment,
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much like the Bihar agitation.

● JP extended his support to the Gujarat agitation, strengthening the
movement and amplifying its impact. His involvement also lent it national
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prominence, turning it into a part of the broader movement for Total

Revolution.
● Following the successful mobilization of public opinion against the
government during the agitations and the subsequent Emergency period,
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JP played a key role in the formation of the Janata Party.

● The Janata Party was a coalition of several opposition parties united in
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their opposition to the Emergency and the authoritarian tendencies of the

then government. The party's formation marked a significant shift in
India's political dynamics.
● Under JP's guidance, the Janata Party won the 1977 general elections,
ending the Congress party's uninterrupted rule since independence. This
marked a turning point in Indian politics, underscoring the power of
democratic dissent and people's will.
● JP's role in the formation of the Janata Party is a testament to his ability to
unite disparate political groups for a common cause. His legacy in this
regard continues to influence coalition politics in India.
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VIII. Literary Works
1. "Nation Building in India"
2. "Jayaprakash Narayan: Selected Works"
3. "India: Struggle for Freedom, Political, Social and Economic"
4. "A Revolutionary's Quest: Selected Writings of Jayaprakash Narayan"
5. "Prison diary, 1975-1977"
6. "The Essential JP: The Philosophy and Prison Diary of Jayaprakash
Narayan, 1978"
7. "Transforming the Polity: Centenary Readings from Jayaprakash Narayan"
8. "Towards Total Revolution: Politics in India, 1978"
9. "The Sky Darkens Over India: JP and the Movement for Social Justice,
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1976"
10. "Socialist Unity and the Congress Socialist Party, 1941"
11. "J.P. - Lohia Talks: A Flashback, 1957"
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IX. Conclusion
Jayaprakash Narayan's journey from being a young idealist studying in the
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United States to becoming a stalwart of India's socio-political sphere is a
compelling testament to his enduring influence. His unswerving dedication to
democracy, justice, and social equity, coupled with his critical role in pivotal
movements like the Bhoodan Movement, the Total Revolution, and the formation
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of the Janata Party, has shaped the course of Indian history. Even today, his
philosophies inspire countless individuals and movements, as he remains a
beacon of ethical politics and people-centric development in India. His legacy,
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therefore, is not confined merely to the past but continues to resonate in

contemporary Indian society and politics.
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Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) - Father of
Indian Unrest: Igniting the Spark of
Nationalism
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also known as Lokmanya Tilak was an
Indian nationalist, educationist, scholar, author,
mathematician, philosopher, lawyer, journalist, and a
renowned leader of the Indian national movement. He was one
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of the members of the assertive nationalists' trio Lal-Bal-Pal.
His firm advocacy of Swadeshi and strong determination to
acquire India’s autonomy was remarkable. His slogan “Swaraj
is my birth-right and I shall have it” breathed new life into the
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disillusioned national movement of India. So was his
popularity among the Indian masses that fellow Indians that
he came to be known as Lokmanya (“Beloved of the people” or "Revered by the
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world") while the British called him “the father of Indian unrest”. His help in
laying the foundation of India’s freedom movement led to Tilak being considered
the "father of the Indian national movement".
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● Bal Gangadhar was born into a middle-class Marathi Chipavan Brahmin
family in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra on July 23, 1856. His
ancestral village was Chikhali.
● His parents were Shri Gangadharshastri Tilak and Parvati Bai Gangadhar.
His father worked as a teacher and was a Sanskrit scholar.
● Tilak as a student was brilliant and possessed good mathematical abilities.
He received his initial education at Ratnagiri itself.
● However, in 1865 when Tilak was 10 years old, he moved to Pune from
Ratnagiri due to his father’s transfer. In Pune, he joined the
Anglo-Vernacular School where he got educated by some well-known
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teachers.
○ After moving to Pune, he lost his mother.
● In 1871, at the age of sixteen, Tilak got married to Tapibai (Née Bal) - a
10-year-old girl whose name was changed to Satyabhamabai after their
marriage. At that time, he was studying Matriculation.
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○ Soon after a few months of his marriage, Tilak lost his father in the
same year.
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● After completing his Matriculation in 1872, he joined Deccan College in
Poona (now Pune) in 1873.
● In 1877, he completed his Bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and Sanskrit.
● In 1879, he earned a degree in Law also from the University of Bombay
(now Mumbai).
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● After completing his graduation, Tilak decided to teach at a private school
in Pune. This school became the ground for the beginning of his political
career.
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Political career
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● Tilak later became a journalist and was a strong critic of British policies.
To awaken political consciousness among Indians, he founded and edited
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two weekly newspapers namely, Kesari (“The Lion”) - published in

Marathi in 1881 and the Mahratta, published in English.
○ The newspapers offered bitter criticism of British rule in India and
earned immense popularity.
● Tilak was a member of the Municipal Council of Pune, Bombay Legislature,
and an elected "Fellow" of the Bombay University.
● In 1890, Tilak joined the Indian National Congress (INC). However, he soon
began opposing the liberal-moderate attitude of the party toward the
struggle for achieving India’s independence.
● In 1891, Tilak opposed the Age of Consent Bill introduced by the British to
raise the marriage age from ten years old to twelve. Tilak considered it as
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“interference in the Hindu religion.” The incident made Tilak be regarded as
a hard-core Hindu nationalist.
● Indian nationalist struggle was initially confined to the upper classes. Tilak
wanted the masses to join the struggle. To arouse nationalist feelings
among the masses, he introduced Hindu religious symbolism and alluded
to the Maratha struggle against Muslim rule.
● He also organized two important festivals to further the nationalist intent
among Indians and promote the unity of people of all castes and sects.
○ In 1893, he organized Ganapati festival celebrations and in 1895, he
celebrated Shivaji’s birthday.
● In 1897, Tilak faced sedition charges for writing inflammatory articles that
instigated people to rise against the government and break the laws and
disturb the peace. The articles were directed against the British
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government’s rigidity and brutality in dealing with the bubonic plague that
had spread from Bombay to Pune.
○ Tilak was imprisoned for eighteen months and was released in 1898.
● After his release, Tilak emerged as a national hero and launched the
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Swadeshi Movement.
● Tilak was an assertive nationalist who believed in self-rule as opposed to
the moderate clan led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale who believed that the time
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is not yet ripe for such an eventuality.
● His beliefs were supported by fellow Indian nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal
from Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai from Punjab. This companionship of
believing in the same ideology made people call them the Lal-Bal-Pal trio.
● However, the differences in opinion between the assertive(radical)
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nationalists and moderates eventually led to the split in the Indian National
Congress (INC) in 1907.
In 1908, Tilak was again arrested on charges of sedition for he defended
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●
the revolutionaries - Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose, who had thrown a
bomb to kill an English district judge and the call for immediate Swaraj, or
Self-rule in his newspaper Kesari.
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○ After his trial, he was deported to Mandalay, Burma (now Myanmar)

and was imprisoned for six years, from 1908 to 1914.
After his release, Tilak re-united with his fellow nationalists and re-joined
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●
the Indian National Congress in 1916. In the same year, he signed the
historical Lucknow pact as a leader of the Indian National Congress (INC)
with the Muslim League.
● From 1916-18, he also founded and helped in setting up the All India
Home Rule League. In 1918, Tilak visited England as president of the
Indian Home Rule League and established relationships with the leaders of
the Labour Party. His foresight was justified because it was the Labour
Party that granted independence to India in 1947.
● After his return in 1919, his views were opposed to Gandhian tactics of
fighting for India’s independence. However, Tilak continued to campaign
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from village to village for his Home Rule League educating people about its
aims.

● Call for Swaraj
○ Tilak having sound knowledge and education was aware of the
economic underpinnings of the British Empire and was the first
thinker to draw the link between Swadeshi and Swaraj.
○ His call for Swaraj - “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
re-ignited the dying fervour of nationalist struggle among Indians. He
was one the first and strongest proponents for Swaraj (complete
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independence) in Indian consciousness.
○ His newspapers Kesari and The Mahratta helped arouse nationalist
sentiments among Indians enormously.
● Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
○ Tilak's understanding of the implications of British economic policies
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and exploitation made him realize the importance of the idea of
Swadeshi for India which was later followed and adopted by
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Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
○ After the Partition of Bengal, his proposal to Indians to consume
domestically produced products and boycott imported goods from
England and British economic enterprises were visionary since it
would have made India economically independent under British
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control.
○ Swadeshi and boycott were his key formula to break the economic
backbone of the British that would undo the political might of the
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empire.
● Lucknow Pact
○ Tilak played a leading role in the signing of the Lucknow Pact. It was
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a pact signed between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the All
India Muslim League headed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It paved the
way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the Khilafat Movement and the
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Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

○ The meeting at Lucknow also marked the reunion of the moderate
and radical wings of the Congress as well.
○ Tilak's prison experience had made him realise that Hindu-Muslim
unity was a pre-requisite for the fulfilment of the objective of Swaraj.
■ He was held in high esteem by the members of both the Indian
National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League and had
already worked with Jinnah.
■ It was all due to Tilak's efforts that at the Lucknow session
(1916) Congress witnessed the development of a joint
programme with the Muslim League.
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● Home Rule League
○ Tilak and Annie Besant established the Home Rule League in India
intending to mobilise public opinion through non-violent means to
further the goal of self-government in India.
○ The Home Rule Leagues were so successful in their efforts that the
British had to come up with the Montagu Declaration in 1917 which
laid down the foundation of political reforms in India instituted by
Britain after the First World War.
Contribution to education
Tilak believed that the subjugation of Indians by the British was not only
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●
the loss of their freedom but also the loss or destruction of their indigenous
culture, religion and language and thus he wished to awaken the Indian
minds to be able to understand the prevailing realities.
● According to Tilak, education was an instrument to fight for freedom and
thus he tried his best to contribute to educating Indians. He believed that
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education would inspire Indian minds to bring about a change in society.
He considered education so important that he started his career as a
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teacher.
● In 1880, he along with some other social reformers such as Vishnushastri
Chiplunkar started the New English School, in Pune. The goal was to
impart national education instead of British imperialist education to
students.
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● Tilak considered good education to be a powerful instrument to transform

masses into good citizens and English to be a powerful force for the
dissemination of liberal and democratic ideals.
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○ Keeping this in mind, Tilak with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and

Vishnushastry Chiplunkar founded the Deccan Education Society in
1884 to impart quality education to India's youth, especially in the
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English language.
● To spread education among Indians, he along with his companions also
founded the Fergusson College in Pune.
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● He also found his newspapers, Kesari and Mahratta with the intent to
educate people about their rights. Education to him was an instrument for
national awakening and a road to Swaraj. He was also the first political
educator in India.
● He also sought to educate Indians by organising social functions such as
the Ganapati festival and Shivaji birthday celebrations. All these efforts
were targeted at wedging the casteist and linguistic gaps among Indians
and uniting them for the national cause.
● His idea of national education was later followed by many leaders such as
Mahatma Gandhi and that is why he was considered the pioneer of
national education.
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Famous literary works
● Gita Rahasya.
● Orion; or, Researches into the Antiquity of the Vedas (1893).
● Arctic Home in the Vedas (1894).
Famous quotes
● "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
● "The problem is not the lack of resources or capability, but the lack of will."
● "If God is put up with untouchability, I will not call him God."
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● “It may be providence's will that the cause I represent may prosper more by
my suffering than by my remaining free.”
● "Religion and practical life are not different. To take sanyas (renunciation) is
not to abandon life. The real spirit is to make the country, your family, and
work together instead of working only for your own. The step beyond is to
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serve humanity and the next step is to serve God."
Tilak breathed his last on August 1, 1920, in Bombay.
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Vinayak Damodar Sarvarkar (1883-1966) -
Firebrand Patriot: Shaping the Ideology of
Hindutva and Nationalism
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, popularly known as Veer Savarkar,

was a significant force in India's fight for independence and the
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shaping of Hindu nationalism. As an influential writer, activist,
and politician, he left an indelible mark on the political and
cultural fabric of India. His profound writings, such as "The
Indian War of Independence, 1857" and "Hindutva: Who Is a
Hindu?", have played a vital role in defining the concept of
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Hindutva. Despite his contributions, his life was marked by
controversy and legal trials, including accusations of his
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involvement in the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. Today,
his actions and beliefs continue to spark debate, cementing his
place as a crucial, albeit complex, figure in Indian history.
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A. Birth and Family Background
● Born on May 28, 1883, in the village of Bhagur, near Nashik in
Maharashtra.
● Born into a Marathi Chitpavan Brahmin Hindu family.
● Parents: Damodar and Radhabai Savarkar.
● Siblings: A sister named Maina and two brothers, Ganesh and Narayan.
B. Early Influences and Experiences

● Savarkar's activity started in his high school years.
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● He was involved in an attack on a mosque in his village during the
Hindu-Muslim riots at the age of 12, claiming it was a response to
aggression from the Muslim community.
● His nationalist and rebellious spirit was evident from this early age,
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showing his willingness to take bold and drastic measures.
C. Founding of Mitra Mela and Abhinav Bharat Society
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● In 1903, along with his brother Ganesh Savarkar, he established a
revolutionary group called Mitra Mela in Nashik.
● The group was clandestine, aimed at evoking nationalist sentiments among
Indian youth.
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● This group later evolved and changed its name to Abhinav Bharat Society.
● The primary goals of Abhinav Bharat were the abolition of British rule
and the revival of Hindu pride.
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● Savarkar played a key role in the group, providing strategic direction and
motivating young minds towards the cause of Indian freedom and cultural
pride.
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III. Life in London and Political Activism

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A. Studies in London and Involvement with Indian Revolutionaries

● Savarkar moved to London in 1906 to study law and remained there until
1910.
● During his time in London, he was deeply involved with Indian
revolutionaries and radical activities.
● He was associated with the India House, an organisation that functioned
as an information centre and a meeting place for Indian students in
London.
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● Savarkar helped to instruct a group of Indian revolutionaries in sabotage
and assassination methods. These methods were apparently learned from
expatriate Russian revolutionaries in Paris.
● He also formed the Free India Society, a secret society of revolutionaries.
B. Writings and Impact on the Freedom Struggle

● During this period, Savarkar wrote "The Indian War of Independence,
1857" (1909).
● This work presented the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as the first expression of
Indian mass rebellion against British colonial rule, significantly deviating
from mainstream British portrayals of the event.
● The book was considered highly influential in the Indian independence
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movement and was banned by British authorities.
C. Controversy and Legal Troubles
● Savarkar faced legal troubles for his political activism and his alleged role
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in violent activities against the British.
● His involvement in the revolutionary activities led to his arrest on charges
of subversion and incitement to war in 1910.
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● In a trial, he was convicted for his alleged complicity in the assassination of
a British district magistrate in India.
● Following the conviction, Savarkar was sentenced to two life terms of
imprisonment totaling fifty years and was moved to the Andaman Islands.
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IV. Imprisonment and Philosxophy of Hindutva

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A. Arrest, Extradition, Trials, and Sentencing to Andaman Islands

● Savarkar was arrested in March 1910 on various charges relating to
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subversion and incitement to war.

● After his arrest, he was extradited from London to India for trial.
● During his trials, Savarkar faced charges for his alleged complicity in the
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assassination of a British district magistrate in India.

● After being convicted in the trials, he was sentenced and transported for life
imprisonment to the Andaman Islands, specifically to the Cellular Jail,
notorious for its harsh conditions.
B. "Hinditva: Who Is a Hindu?" and Propagation of Hindutva Philosophy
● While in prison, Savarkar authored the work "Hinditva: Who Is a Hindu?"
in 1923.
● In this work, Savarkar coined the term Hindutva ("Hinduness"), aiming to
define Indian culture as a manifestation of Hindu values.
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● This concept of Hindutva went on to become a major tenet of Hindu
nationalist ideology.
C. Return to India and Release from Custody
● Savarkar was brought back to India in 1921.
● After his return, he was released from detention in 1924.
● Savarkar resided in Ratnagiri, India, until 1937.
V. Role in Hindu Mahasabha

A. Joining Hindu Mahasabha and Promoting Hindu Supremacy
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● After being released from detention, Savarkar relocated to Ratnagiri in
India, where he lived until 1937. During this time, he intensely focused on
social reform and the protection of Hindu rights.
● In 1937, he officially joined the Hindu Mahasabha, a Hindu nationalist
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organization and political party.
● He actively advocated for Hindu supremacy in the socio-political domain of
India, defending the Hindus' religious and cultural rights over Indian
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Muslims.
● His work in the Mahasabha aimed to unite all Hindu communities,
emphasizing their common cultural and historical heritage.
B. Presidency in Hindu Mahasabha and Resignation
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● Savarkar was elected as the president of the Hindu Mahasabha and served
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for seven years, actively leading the organization and driving its activities.
● He established the party as a significant player in Indian politics, raising
the party's influence through his strong leadership.
● In 1943, Savarkar retired to Bombay, effectively resigning from the active
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political role he held within the Mahasabha.

C. Stance on Muslim League and Two-Nation Theory
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● Savarkar had a strong ideological conflict with the Muslim League and its
support of the two-nation theory.
● Despite the growing communal tension and demand for separate
electorates for Hindus and Muslims, Savarkar was a strong proponent of a
united India.
● He dismissed the idea of partition and expressed his concerns over the
concept of two nations based on religion.
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VI. Later Life and Controversies
A. Accusation and Trial for Gandhi's Assassination
● In 1948, after the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, Savarkar was
accused of being involved in the crime.
● The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a former member of the Hindu
Mahasabha, and it was suggested that Savarkar had some influence on his
actions.
● Savarkar was put on trial for his supposed role in the assassination.
However, due to insufficient evidence, he was eventually acquitted.
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B. Restrictions on Political Activity and Responses
● After his acquittal, Savarkar faced restrictions on his political activity.
● He was also subjected to additional police surveillance, which affected his
ability to participate in public political discourse.
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● Despite these constraints, Savarkar continued to express his views and
remained an influential figure in Hindu nationalist circles.
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C. Criticism of B.R. Ambedkar and Conversion to Buddhism
● Savarkar had a contentious relationship with B.R. Ambedkar, another
prominent figure in Indian politics and social reform.
● When Ambedkar converted to Buddhism, Savarkar publicly criticized his
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decision.
● Savarkar's criticism led to an intense debate within Indian society about
religion, caste, and identity. His views were seen as emblematic of the more
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conservative elements within Hindu nationalism.
VII. Death and Legacy

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A. Yamunabai's Death and Savarkar's Decision to Fast

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● Savarkar's wife, Yamunabai, passed away in the 1960s. Her death had a
significant impact on Savarkar.
● After her passing, Savarkar made a decision to undertake a
fast-unto-death. This decision was reflective of his deeply held beliefs and
convictions.
B. Circumstances of His Death and Final Rites
● Following his decision to fast, Savarkar's health gradually declined, and he
eventually passed away in 1966.
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● His final rites were performed in accordance with Hindu customs, and he
was cremated.
● His death marked the end of a significant chapter in the history of Indian
nationalism.
C. Influence on Indian Nationalism and Current Perspectives on His Legacy
● Savarkar's impact on Indian nationalism is profound. His philosophy of
Hindutva continues to be a significant ideological force within certain
sections of Indian politics.
● His writings, notably "The First War of Independence" and "Hindutva:
Who is a Hindu?", have been highly influential in shaping discourses
around nationalism and identity in India.
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● Current perspectives on his legacy are varied. While some view him as a
patriot and a champion of Hindu rights, others critique him for his divisive
ideas and his role in fostering Hindu-Muslim animosity.
● His contributions to the Indian freedom struggle and his staunch advocacy
for Hindu rights have cemented his place in the annals of Indian history.
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However, his role in stoking communal tensions continues to be a subject
of controversy and debate.
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VIII. Literary Works
1. "Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?"
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2. "Kale Pani"
3. "1857 - The First War of Independence"
4. "The Story of My Transportation for Life"
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IX. Conclusion
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Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, often considered as a controversial figure in Indian

history, has left an indelible imprint on the nation's journey towards
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independence and its post-colonial identity. His transformative journey, from a

radical revolutionary in his youth to a proponent of the contentious philosophy of
Hindutva, provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics of Indian
nationalism. His life was marked by bouts of political activism, periods of
incarceration, and dedicated efforts towards fostering Hindu unity. Despite the
controversies and debates surrounding his role in the Gandhi assassination and
his divisive ideology, Savarkar's legacy continues to influence political and
cultural narratives in India. Balancing these divergent perspectives, his life offers
a nuanced understanding of the many forces that shaped the struggle for
freedom and the establishment of modern India.
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Swaminarayan/Sahajanand Swami
(1781-1830) - Divine Reformer: Fostering
Social Harmony and Devotional Bhakti
Sahajanand Swami, popularly known as Swaminarayan

(1781-1830), was a spiritual leader and ascetic. He is the
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central figure in a modern sect (Vaisnavite) of Hinduism
known as Swaminarayan Hinduism. He contributed
significantly to Hinduism by building temples and propagating
Hindu religious scriptures and endeavoured to purify it
through his teachings and reformative activities.
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Early life
● Shree Sahajanand Swami was born on 2nd April 1781 on Ramnavmi (the
birthday of Lord Rama) in a small village called Chhapaiya near Ayodhya in
Uttar Pradesh.
● His parents were Hariprasad Pande (also known as Dharmadev) and
Premvati Pande (also known as Bhakimata or Murtidevi). They were
Brahmins or priest caste of Sarvariya. Swaminarayan was given the name
Ghanshyam Pande. Ghanshyam had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande,
and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande.
● At the tender age of 8, he began studying the Vedas (Hindu Scriptures). By
age of 10, Swaminarayan mastered all four Vedas, the Upanishads and the
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Puranas.
● When Swaminarayan was only 10 years old, his mother passed away.
Seven months after his mother’s death, his father passed away.
● Swaminarayan had no desire for worldly things and decided to renounce
his family. So, in 1892, at the age of 11, he left his home and began a
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seven-year pilgrimage across India, adopting the name Nilkanth Varn
(Varni means Brahmachari).
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● Swaminarayan’s mission was to find an Ashram which practised the
correct understanding of Hindu philosophies of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga
and Pancaratra.
● While travelling in the Himalayas on his seven-year journey, Swaminarayan
came across many yogis and he learnt the art of Ashtanga Yoga (eight-fold
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yoga) in just nine months under the guidance of Gopal Yogi.
● After the death of Gopal Yogi, Nilkanth Varni headed east to a village near
Kamakshidevi in Assam. Then, he proceeded to Jagannath Puri. From
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there, he went to Gujarat via Pandharpur, Pune and Nasik.

● After visiting places of pilgrimage at the banks of the Narmada and Tapi
rivers, he came to Dakor. He then entered Saurashtra and proceeded to
Dwarika.
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Transformation into a spiritual leader or ‘guru’

● When Swaminarayan was 18, he arrived at Shree Ramanand Swami's
Ashram in Lojpur a village near Junagadh. He settled in the state of
Gujarat around 1799.
● In 1800, he obtained Vaishnavi Diksha from Ramanand Swami, initiated
into the Uddhav Sampraday and was honoured with the name of
Sahajanand Swami alias Narayan Muni.
● In 1802, Ramanand Swami initiated Swami Sahajanand as Acharya and
Guru of the Uddhav Sampraday before his death.
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● Soon after the death of his Guru Ramanand Swami, Sahajanand Swami
held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan mantra. Since then, he
came to be known as Swaminarayan.
● The sect regarded him as the reincarnation of God Purushottama or
revered him as an incarnation of Narayana. The Uddhav Sampraday came
to be known as Swaminarayan Sampradaya.
● He spent the next 30 years spearheading a socio-spiritual revolution.
His philosophy and contribution to Hinduism

● Swaminarayan held the Bhagavata Purana in the highest honour and
authority.
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● Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma
to lead a pious life.
● He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation:
dharma, bhakti (devotion), jnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment).
His doctrines were similar to those of Vaishnava teachers such as
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Ramanuja (11th-century philosopher) and Yamunacarya.
● Swaminarayan was against the separation of sexes in temples,
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consumption of alcohol, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal
activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric practices.
● His teachings encouraged people to follow a pious and religious life and
were aimed at moral and spiritual revival.
● Swaminarayan initiated over 2000 sadhus, of which 500 were initiated as
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Paramahansa (Hindu spiritual teachers who have attained enlightenment

and the highest order of sannyasi in the sect) in a single night.
○ Prominent paramhansas included Muktanand Swami, Gopalanand
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Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Premanand

Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.
● Swaminarayan established big temples in six places demonstrating his
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unique theory of Ekeshwarvad i.e., Monotheism. He also established

several other small temples.
He also encouraged the study of religious scriptures. Commentaries were
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written on Gita, Upanishads and Bhagwad and many poems (Kirtans) were
composed by poets. He helped reveal the philosophy of Veda in simple
words.
● Swaminarayan himself wrote a small book called “Shikshapatri” which
summarised the essence of all the shastras. The text contains 212 rules
that are required to be followed by his devotees.
● Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksha (liberation) was not
attainable by everyone. He taught that the ‘Jeev’ is neither male nor female
and that everyone is equal in the eyes of God.
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● He established ekantik dharma, which had been destroyed many years ago,
and destroyed adharma. He was the propagator of Nishkam-Dharma, the
spirituality of desirelessness.
Social reforms and charitable works

● Sahajanand Swami was probably the most advanced reformer who worked
at the lowest strata of society. He worked on various fronts to bring about
change in society.
● He opened charity houses for the poor and organised food and water aid for
people during times of drought.
He stopped the practice of sati (self-immolation by widows), female
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infanticide and the sacrifice of animals in yagnas.
● He was against caste discrimination and allowed members from all varnas
(castes) into the Swaminarayan Sampraday. He instructed his
Paramahansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed
people from the lower varnas of society as his attendants.
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○ He ate along with members of lower varnas. However, partaking in
the consumption of food from lower castes and caste pollution was
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not supported by him.
● He encouraged female education. He challenged superstitions, addictions
and blind faith.
● The temples established by him fostered traditions, devotion, social services
and spiritual vigour in the masses.
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Literary works
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● Swaminarayan and his followers wrote several texts which are regarded as
shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan Sampraday.
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● Notable scriptures include the Shikshapatri (1826) and the Vachanamrut.

○ It contains Swaminarayan's philosophical, social and practical
teachings. It is a collection of dialogues recorded from his spoken
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words by five followers.

○ It is the first compiled prose in the history of the Gujarati Language.
● Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan,
Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the Muktanand Kavya, the
Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.
Relationship with other religions and the British

● Sahajanand Swami had good relationships with the British Imperial
Government, so they gifted Him with land to build a mandir in Ahmedabad.
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Swaminarayan's efforts to elevate the moral standards of the masses and
provide aid in times of calamities greatly impressed the British.
● He gave the Governor of Bombay, Sir John Malcolm, a copy of the
“Shikshapatri” which is kept in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, UK.
● He maintained cordial relationships with people of other religions; had
followers from other religions; even though some of his attendants were
Muslims, they wore a kanthi necklace and followed the panch-vartman.
Swaminarayan's attendants included Khoja Muslims.
Death and legacy

Sahajanand Swami left his mortal body at the age of 49 years on 1st June
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1830.
● Today there are millions of followers of the Swaminarayan faith in all
countries of the world.
● Mahatma Gandhi claimed that "The work accomplished by Bhagwan
Swaminarayan in Gujarat could not and would never have been achieved
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by the law. "
● Justice Ranade has rightly called him the 'Last of the Hindu Reformers'.
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Today the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, a Bhakti sampradaya, has emerged as
one of the most progressive and purest forms of Hinduism, internationally known
as the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha.
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Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) -
Revolutionary Monk: Igniting Reform with
Vedic Wisdom
Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was a Hindu

ascetic and renowned social reformer. He was the founder
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of Arya Samaj and one of the well-known figures of the
Hindu reform movement. He believed in the supreme
authority of Vedas and was a renowned scholar of the
Vedic lore and Sanskrit language. He was the first Indian
to raise his voice for the attainment of Swaraj and devoted
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his entire life to reviving Hinduism and fighting against the
evils inherent in it.
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Early life
● Swami Dayanand Saraswati was born on 12th February 1824 in a Brahmin
family in Jeevapar Tankara, Kathiawad region (now Morbi district of
Gujarat). His original name was Mul Shankar Tiwari.
● His parents were Karshanji Lalji Tiwari, who served as a wealthy tax
collector, and Yashodabai. They were orthodox Brahmins. Dayanand
Saraswati’s family had a strong financial background so there was no
dearth of money. As such Dayanand led a comfortable early life.
● He received his early education appropriate for a young Brahmin. He
received education on the Vedic model, learning Sanskrit and studying the
Vedas and other religious texts.
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● When he was eight years old, his Yajnopavita Sanskara ceremony was
performed, marking his entry into formal education.
○ By the age of 14, he had memorized a Sanskrit drama, a Sanskrit
vocabulary, the entire Yajur-Veda, and part of other Vedas.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati was a man of strong desire and firm character.
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He often had frequent disputes with his father, but he would never bow
down before him.
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○ It was evident that his rebellious nature and desire to express
himself were inherent from birth.
● Once Dayanand Saraswati accompanied his father to a Shiva temple. There
he saw a mouse eating the offerings and running over the idol’s body. The
incident raised doubts in his mind regarding the power of the Shiva idol
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who could not defend himself against a mouse.
○ It made him believe that idol worship was senseless.
His religious doubts were further intensified when one of his family
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members died. This made Dayanand Saraswati delve deep into the meaning
of life and completely changed his upcoming life.
○ Dayanand Saraswati wanted to overcome the limits of mortality and
decided to break away from all external forms and find the true path
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through the efforts of the soul. It made him choose Yoga as a path
toward true knowledge.
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● His parents were aware of his meditative and interrogative nature and thus
fixed his marriage. However, he soon left his home without tying the knot
and wandered in search of someone who could guide him to the truth.
○ In 1846, he adopted the life of a monk by leaving his home and
joining the Saraswati order of ascetics.
Transformation into an ascetic

● Dayananda Saraswati spent nearly twenty-five years, from 1845 to 1869,
as a wandering ascetic, searching for religious truth.
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● During this time, he gave up material life, devoting himself to spiritual
pursuits in forests, retreats in the Himalayan mountains, and pilgrimage
sites in northern India. He practised various forms of yoga as well.
● In 1860, he met a religious teacher named Swami Virjananda Dandeesha in
Mathura and became his disciple. With his teacher, he studied Vedas for
four years.
● Virajanand believed that Hinduism had strayed from its historical roots
and that many of its practices had become impure. After his education,
Dayananda Sarasvati promised Virajanand that he would devote his life to
restoring the rightful place of the Vedas in the Hindu faith and set his
journey towards fulfilling his promise.
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Formation of Arya Samaj
● Obeying his teacher’s command, Dayanand Saraswati travelled throughout
India, visiting especially places of pilgrimage, where he denounced idolatry
and superstitions of Hinduism.
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● He would often debate with pandits and religious scholars defeating even
the most erudite of Hindu scholars with his sheer knowledge and
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argumentative skills.
● During his tours, he began to gather a following. Thus, he founded the Arya
Samaj or Society of Nobles in 1875 in Bombay. In 1877, he extended the
organisation to Punjab.
● It was a monotheistic Hindu order that rejected the ritualistic excesses and
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social dogmas and symbolism of orthodox Hinduism and promoted a

united Hindu society based on Vedic teachings. It also encouraged
scepticism.
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● The main aim was to condemn unrighteous practices in the name of

customs, rites, and religions like child marriage, animal sacrifice,
priestcraft, offerings made in temples, caste discrimination, meat-eating
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and discrimination against women. He argued that all these practices

lacked Hinduism.
After the death of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the leadership of the Arya
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Samaj was assumed by several prominent figures, including Lala Hansraj,
Pandit Guru Datt, and Pandit Lekh Ram. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai and Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya were also associated with the organization.
● In more recent times, notable figures associated with the Arya Samaj
include Rajendra Prasad, who went on to become the first President of
India, and D. S. Rajan, who has been an active leader in promoting the
ideals of the organization.
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His philosophy
● Dayanand Saraswati believed that Hindus had moved away from the
teachings and traditions of the Vedas, which were the source of the
“ultimate truth” in the world.
● He considered this departure from true Sanatan Dharma (what he referred
to as Vedic religion) as the root cause for the advent of evil practices in
Hinduism such as idolatry, untouchability, sectarianism, sati, the primacy
of the priestly class, etc.
● He believed that these ‘regressive practices’ provided the reason for the
“civilising” mission of Christian missionaries and an audience for their
message among populations worst treated within the traditional Hindu fold.
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● Thus, Swami Dayanand’s main message was, “Go Back to the Vedas”, and
it formed the foundation of all his thoughts and actions. He taught that the
Vedas were the pure source of authentic knowledge.
○ He believed that returning to the roots of faith – the Vedas, would
help Hindus improve their lot and India’s social, political, and
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economic conditions at that time.
○ The aim was not to find a new religion but to re-establish ancient
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Vedantic teachings.
○ His message was for revivalism of the lost vigour of Hinduism rather
than progressive reform.
● Dayanand Saraswati preached respect and reverence for other human
beings, supported by the Vedic notion of the divine nature of the individual.
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● His “ten founding principles of Arya Samaj” conveyed the idea that all
activities must be done for the benefit of mankind as a whole, rather than
individuals or even idols and religious symbols.
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● This idea was synonymous with the idea of universalism and opposed to
the practice of caste discrimination. While Dayanand Saraswati did not
fully oppose the institution of caste itself, he advocated for significant
reform within it. By citing the Vedas, he claimed that caste is not supposed
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to be hereditary but should be based on an individual’s talents and

disposition.
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● In his religious teaching, he accepted the old doctrine of karma and

transmigration. He emphasized the Vedic ideals of brahmacharya,
including celibacy and devotion to God.
● He was against the practice of untouchability, which he believed was an
outcome of centuries of Brahmanical domination.
● He advocated Vedic education for all castes.
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Contribution as a social reformer
● Swami Dayananda ranked highest among the makers of modern India. He
worked hard for the political, religious, and cultural emancipation of the
nation.
● He opposed the practice of untouchability and preached respect and
reverence for other human beings.
● He campaigned against regressive practices such as child marriage and
advocated education for women.
● He wanted to address the fragmented nature of Hindu society and held the
Brahmins responsible for this. He argued that the Brahmins deprived the
backward sections of their right to attain Vedic knowledge and know the
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truth.
● Keeping this in mind, even before the establishment of the Arya Samaj,
Dayanand Saraswati had founded multiple Vedic schools.
○ These schools were modelled on missionary schools that were
increasingly popular among Indians.
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○ These Gurukuls provided an Indian alternative, based on the
principles of the Vedas.
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○ Dayanand Saraswati considered breaking the monopoly of brahmans
on Vedic knowledge crucial.
● His organization Arya Samaj sought to address and oppose all the
prevailing social evils in Hindu society such as idolatry and the overly
ritualistic traditions of Hinduism, child marriage and untouchability,
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supporting women’s education.
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Literary works
● Within his short span of 10 years of work, he created a vast, deep and
research-based literature on the Vedic lore.
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● He authored more than 70 works in all, including a 14-volume explanation

of the six Vedangas, 9 volumes of “Rigveda Bhasya” and 4 volumes of
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“Yajurved Bhasya”.
● His first major authorship was “Panchmahayajya Vidhi” in 1874.
● Other works include:
○ “Satyarth Prakash” (1875 and 1884).
■ It emphasised the need for a “return to Vedic principles”.
■ The book uses the language of religious revivalism.
○ “Arya Samaj ke Niyam aur Upniyam” (1874), “Aryabivinaya” (1876),
“Aaryoddeshya Ratnamaala” (1877), “Sanskarvidhi” (1877 and 1884),
“Rigvedadi Bhashya Bhumika” (1878), “Rigved Bhashyam” (up to
7/61/2) and “Yajurved Bhashyam”, “Ashtadhyayi Bhashya”
(1878-79), “Sanskrit Vakyaprabodhah” (1879), “Vyavahar Bhanu”
(1879), “Bhrantinivaran” (1880), “Bhramocchedan” (1880), “Anu
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Bhramocchedan” (1880), “Gokaruna Nidhi” (1880), “Vedanga
Prakash” (set of 14 books), “Swikar Patra”(1883) and others.
Death and legacy

● Dayanand Saraswati died under suspicious circumstances on October 30,
1883, after his public criticism of the Maharaja of Jodhpur. It is alleged
that he was poisoned by the Maharaja’s cook.
● He was the first to introduce and use the idea of “swaraj” through the call
“India for the Indians” in 1876 which was later picked up by the likes of
Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
His criticism of the British from a religious point of view as well as
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providing an ancient Indian alternative was crucial to the nationalist
discourse of the time.
● Many revolutionaries and freedom fighters were influenced by Swamiji like
Shyamji Krishna Varma, Subhas Chandra Bose; Lala Lajpat Rai; Madam
Cama; Vinayak Damodar Savarkar; Lala Hardayal; Madan Lal Dhingra;
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Ram Prasad Bismil; Mahadev Govind Ranade; Swami Shraddhanand; S.
Satyamurti; Pandit Lekh Ram; Mahatma Hansraj; Rajiv Dixit; and others.
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○ Other admirers included Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Bipin
Chandra Pal, Vallabhbhai Patel, Syama Prasad Mookerjee, and
Romain Rolland, who regarded Dayananda as a remarkable and
unique figure.
● Through the organization of Arya Samaj, he consolidated the fragmented
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Hindu society. He was the first to advocate ‘conversion’ into the Hindu fold.
He supported the idea of shuddhi, also called the ‘Shuddhi Movement’ to
bring back Islamic or Christian converts to Hinduism.
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● The Arya Samaj was one of the most influential movements of the early
modern period in India. It remained active in promoting Hinduism,
education, and social reform, and continues to be an influential Hindu
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organization to this day.

● Today, Dayanand Saraswati’s legacy carries on through the Arya Samaj
centres found across India as well as the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV)
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schools and colleges. The DAV schools have become popular in providing
quality education.
● The philosopher and President of India, S. Radhakrishnan called him one
of the “makers of Modern India”, as did Sri Aurobindo.
● Dayananda's personality and purifying reforms earned him the epithet "the
Luther of India."
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Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861-1944) -
Father of Indian Chemistry: Blending
Tradition with Scientific Innovation
Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray was an Indian chemist,

industrialist, historian, educationist, and philanthropist. He is
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regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" and one of the
first "modern" Indian chemical researchers. He was the
founder of Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, India's first
pharmaceutical company. He was first honored with the
imperial title of CIE (Companion of the Indian Empire) by the
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British government, and later knighted in 1919. He is also
noted for his social works and nationalist ideals.
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Prafulla Chandra Ray was born in 1861 in Jessore district, present-day
Bangladesh. Ray was associated with Brahmo Samaj from his childhood due to
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his father's connection with the Samaj. Ray studied in Albert School, established
by the Brahmo reformer Keshub Chandra Sen; due to his concentrated self-study
over the preceding two years, his teachers found him to have advanced much
further than the rest of the students in his assigned class. Ray went to the
Metropolitan Institution (later Vidyasagar College) which was established by
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. He also attended physics and chemistry
lectures as an external student at the Presidency College, Kolkata and he decided
to make Chemistry his career as he was drawn to the chemistry courses taught
by Alexander Pedler (an inspiring lecturer and experimentalist). He then went to
the University of Calcutta and later to the University of Edinburgh for studying
chemistry.
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Contributions of Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray
Science:
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● In 1896, he discovered mercurous nitrite, a stable compound that paved
the way for a whole lot of research papers on metal nitrites and
hyponitrites, ammonia nitrites, and organic amines.
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● He also proved that the pure ammonium nitrite is indeed stable by bringing
to pass a lot of experiments and explained that it can be sublimed even at
60 °C without decomposition.
● Ray was appointed as the General President of the Indian Science Congress
in 1920.
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● The Royal Society of Chemistry dedicated its coveted Chemical Landmark

plaque to Ray, the first non-European to be conferred the honour, in 2011
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on his 150th birth anniversary.

Nationalism:
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● Although Ray seldom participated directly in the nationalist movement,

owing to his job as a professor at then Calcutta’s Presidency College, he
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knew that without political independence, India’s economic progress would

be unachievable.
● As a result, he sympathised with all political movements — be it the
moderates, the extremists, or the non-cooperation movement. His affection
for both Mahatma Gandhi as well as Subhas Chandra Bose is well
established in his writings.
● As a nationalist, he wished for Bengalis to advance in the business world.
He set an example by founding the Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Works Pvt Ltd, a chemical company (1901) in Kolkata which is India's only
public-sector manufacturer of anti-malarial drugs.
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○ He is a believer in the ideal that “industry, as a rule, preceded
science,” and was conscious of the impact the setting up of a factory
would have on India’s knowledge reserve.
○ “In the early 1900s, almost all prominent revolutionaries had some
association either with Ray or Bengal Chemicals. For the cause of
Independence, Ray helped those involved in violent methods to make
bombs and supplied them with acid,”
○ It was the Second World War that brought new opportunities for Ray
and Bengal Chemicals. “There was a demand for essential drugs for
soldiers. A new plant and a pharmacy were installed at Panihati. Two
production units were shifted to Lahore in 1942. And a factory was
opened in Bombay in 1938,”
Recently, Hydroxychloroquine or HCQ, the Anti-malarial drug praised
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○
by some as a potential weapon against COVID-19, has put the
spotlight on this company.
Social reforms:
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● Ray was an outspoken rationalist who hated the caste system and other
irrational social constructs.
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● He organised the Bengal Relief Committee in 1923 after the floods.
● He made contributions to Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, Indian Chemical
Society, and Brahmo Girls’ School.
● He constituted awards
○ In 1922, he donated money to establish Nagarjuna Prize to be
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awarded for the best work in chemistry.

○ In 1937, another award, named after Ashutosh Mukherjee, to be
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awarded for the best work in zoology or botany, was established from
his donation.
● He persisted in his social reformation mission until his death in 1944.
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Literary Works
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● A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of

Sixteenth Century (1902)
● Saral Prani Bijnan (Simple Science) (1902)
● Life and Experience of a Bengali Chemist (1932)
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Sahajanand Saraswati (1889-1950) -
Champion of the Peasantry: Leading Agrarian
Reforms and Social Justice
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati (1889-1950) was an
ascetic(sanyasi), revolutionary, political activist, philosopher,
historian, writer, peasant leader and social reformer. He
challenged the colonial state and the oppressive landlords to
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address the concerns of the farmers and agricultural labourers
throughout his political career. As a revolutionary, he dedicated
his life to the cause of political and economic independence of
the Indian people.
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● Sahajanand Saraswati was born on 22 February 1889 on the day of
Mahashivratri in a lower middle-class farmer family of Brahmins of the
Bhumihar clan in the village Deva in the Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh
(North-Western Provinces, British India).
● He was known as Navrang Rai in his childhood. He was the youngest of six
brothers. His father’s name was Beni Rai. His mother died when he was
hardly three years of age. He was brought up by his aunt.
● Navrang did not enjoy a pleasant atmosphere either in the family or in the
surrounding areas for school education. However, he was a gifted child.
From his very childhood, he displayed great interest in study and ideas.
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● Observing his interest in studies, he was allowed to study at a school. By
the time, he joined a primary school, he was already ten. However, he was
so bright that he completed his six years of primary education just in three
years finishing it in 1902.
In 1904, he finished middle school securing a very high position for which
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he was entitled to a scholarship.
● Then, he joined German Mission High School at Ghazipur. He had a
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spiritual bent of mind since his childhood.
● Noticing his spiritual obsession, in 1905, he was married to a girl from a
neighbouring village who died soon. His family tried to arrange his second
marriage, but he escaped from worldly entanglement and went to Aparnath
Math at Kashi.
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● At the age of 18, he took diksha (training with mantras) from Swami
Achyutanand of Aparnath Math and was given a new name Swami
Sahajanand. Thus, he became a sanyasi(ascetic) in 1907.
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● As an ascetic, he travelled through the Himalayas, Vindhyachal, forests,

mountains, and caves in search of God and the true Yogi.
● He was deeply inclined to religious texts. After adopting the life of an
ascetic, he moved to Varanasi where he devoted nine years to the study of
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Sanskrit and Hindu philosophy.

● Till 1914, Sahajanand Swami spent his time wholeheartedly completing
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works on religion, politics, and social affairs. However, he soon realised his
calling and decided to work for the greater good of those who were weak
and helpless.
Contribution to the nationalist movement

● Sahajanand Saraswati turned to politics in 1920 following sentiments
arising out of the death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, due to which he started
collecting funds for the Tilak Swarajya Fund.
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● In 1920, he joined the Indian National Congress (INC) as a devoted
Gandhian. Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was deeply influenced by the
Mahatma‘s call to the nation.
● Though he was from U.P., he operated from Bihar and his activities
gradually spread to the rest of India with the formation of the All India
Kisan Sabha.
● He played a prominent role in organizing the Non-Cooperation movement in
the Shahabad district of Bihar and the adjoining district of Ghazipur in
Uttar Pradesh.
● He contributed significantly to the Non-Cooperation movement by
addressing public meetings, rousing the masses to actively participate in
the movement, and collecting the Tilak Swaraj fund. Following his active
participation, he was arrested immediately and sentenced to undergo
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rigorous imprisonment for one year.
● From 1924 to 1928, his activities centred on the propagation of Khadi and
prohibition, the two most important items of Mahatma Gandhi‘s
constructive program.
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● Simri village in Shahabad (now Buxar) district and Bihata in Patna district
became two important centres of his activities. He established a Khadi
weaving centre at Simri and an Ashram for political and Sanskrit teaching
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at Bihata.
● Recognising his work for Congress, he was first elected a member of the
UPCC and then of the BPCC and the AICC (All-India Congress Committee).
● He also took part in the Quit India Movement and was arrested. Later, he
left the Congress party over ideological differences and was inclined
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towards the Communist parties.

● However, Sahajanand Saraswati remained essentially a non-party man and
was loyal only to the peasants.
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All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS)

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● Swami Sahajananda Saraswati founded the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha

in 1929 and laid the foundation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the
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Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1936.

● The AIKS or Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha was graced by outstanding
leaders like N. G. Ranga, R. M. Lohia, Indulal Yagnik, Acharya Narendra
Dev, E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Jayaprakash Narayan and others. Jawahar
Lal Nehru also lent his support to AIKS.
● In 1936, AIKS propounded the following as fundamental goals in its
manifesto:
○ Abolition of the zamindari.
○ Cancellation of rural debt.
○ Land revenue reduction.
○ The shifting of land ownership to tillers.
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● The movement was initially planned on ideals of Gandhian politics, but it
soon shifted towards the INC’s Socialist lobby.
● The AIKS became a forerunner in streamlining the peasant movement. It is
now the largest peasant organisation in India.
Other contributions
● While being a Congress member, Sahajanand Saraswati continued the
campaign to free the farmers from the exploitation and terror of the
landlords. He advocated for the abolition of the zamindari system and the
creation of peasant proprietorship as the central focus of agrarian reforms.
He took up the burning issues of feudal oppression, such as forced labour,
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illegal exactions, evictions, etc., for organizing Kisan resistance and
struggle. He aggressively opposed the practices of 'Begar' (forced labour) in
Bihar.
● His inspiring and radical leadership made the Kisan Movement in Bihar a
powerful political force that led to the defeat of landlords by Congress in
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the 1936 elections to the Bihar Legislative Assembly.
● Saraswati organised the Bakasht Movement in Bihar from 1937–1938.
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"Bakasht" means self-cultivated. The movement was against the eviction of
tenants from Bakasht lands by zamindars.
● Given his efforts and the powerful role played by peasant movements, the
first Congress Ministry which was formed in Bihar as a result of the 1936
elections undertook numerous tenancy reforms and the Bihar Tenancy Act
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and the Bakasht Land Tax were passed.

● He also led the successful struggle in the Dalmia Sugar Mill at Bihta, where
peasant-worker unity was a notable characteristic.
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● In 1949, on the occasion of Mahashivaratri, Swamiji established the

Sitaram Ashram at Bihta near Patna which became the centre of the
peasant movement.
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Literary works
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● Sahajanand Saraswati a forceful writer and ran the Hindi weekly Hunkar
from Patna.
● His noted works on peasant problems and struggles include: “The Other
Side of the Shield,” “Rent Reduction in Bihar: How it Works”, “Gaya Ke
Kisano Ki Karun Kahani” (Pitiable stories of the Kisans of Gaya), “How the
Kisans Fight” and “Kisan Sabha Ke Sansmaran” (Reminiscences of the
Kisan Sabha). He discussed many intricacies of agrarian society in his
books and different addresses of the Kisan Sabha.
● He wrote many books on different aspects such as caste and religion such
as “Bhumihar Brahmin Parichay” (Introduction to Bhumihar Brahmins),
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“Jhootha Bhay Mithya Abhiman” (False Fear False Pride); “Brahman
Kaun?” (Who is the Brahmin?); “Brahman Samaj ki Sthiti”(Situation of the
Brahmin Society) in Hindi. He also wrote “Brahmarshi Vansha Vistar” in
Sanskrit, Hindi and English.
● His autobiographical account, “Mera Jeevan Sangharsh’' (My Life's
Struggle) is an important text to understand the agrarian society in India.
Death and legacy

● Swami Sahajanand was a powerful agitator and propagandist. He united
millions of peasants in the defence of their rights and came to be addressed
as ‘Kisan Pran’ (life of Kisans) by his Kisan Sabha followers.
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● Such was his popularity that after his arrest for participating in the Quit
India Movement, Sahajanand Day was observed throughout Bihar on 19
April 1940 and Subhash Chandra Bose and the All India Forward Bloc
decided to observe 28 April as All-India Swami Sahajanand Day in protest.
● Subhash Chandra Bose called him “the undisputed leader of the peasant
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movement in India” and “the idol of the masses and the hero of millions..”
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Sahajanand Saraswati breathed his last on 25 June 1950 in Patna, India.
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Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) - Pioneer of
Muslim Renaissance in India
Syed Ahmed Khan was one of the most formidable figures of the
late 19th century in India. He was a great reformer, educationist,
and modernizer within the Muslim community. He joined the
services of the East India Company and remained loyal to them
during the revolt of 1857. He was concerned with the depressing
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situation of the Muslims, and raising them from their
backwardness became his aim. He is regarded as one of the
founders of the Two-Nation Theory, which says that Hindus and
Muslims cannot be one nation.
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● Born on October 17, 1817, in Delhi to a wealthy family that was close to
the Mughal court.
● He was a widely read person and studied books on mathematics, medicine,
Persian, Arabic, Urdu, etc.
● He received an honorary law degree from the University of Edinburgh later
in life.
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● He worked as a civil servant, journalist, educationist, social reformer, and
historian among others.
● He served in the British administration before the revolt of 1857.
● The 1857 revolt was one of the turning points in Syed Ahmed's life and he
penned a pamphlet titled The Causes of the Indian Revolt to explain the
reasons of the revolt from a “native perspective”.
● He received the Order of the Star of India from the British government in
1869. He was knighted by the British in 1888.
● Death: He died on 27 March 1898 in Aligarh.
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Contributions of Syed Ahmed Khan
Religious Reforms
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● Syed Ahmed Khan condemned superstition, customs, ignorance,
irrationalism, fanaticism, narrow-mindedness, and religious bigotry.
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● He advocated rationalism, broadmindedness, tolerance (unity between
Hindus and Muslims), and adopting original Islamic principles of purity
and simplicity. He interpreted based on rationalism and science.
● His view is that Muslims can be developed only through western science
and culture.
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● His views and actions have offended the orthodox Muslims but he
overcomes those obstacles.
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● He started a magazine named Tahzib-Ul Akhlaq for the social reformation

of Muslims of India.
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● According to Syed, Muslims should embrace modern education.

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● Syed translated western books into Urdu. In 1864, he established the

Translation Society at Aligarh which was later renamed as the Scientific
Society. The basic objective of the society was to translate scientific
literature to Urdu.
● He established schools and colleges. In 1875, he established
Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh which later became
Aligarh Muslim University to replicate an England-style university in
Indian for Muslims. The university provided education in humanities and
science in English medium. It provided admission for and raise funds from
different religious groups. The university was instrumental in the Aligarh
Movement, an important renaissance movement among Indian Muslims.
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● He started a journal on behalf of the society called The Indian Institute
Gazette.
Women Empowerment
Syed advocated for purdah removal, and women's education, and condemned
polygamy and easy divorce.
Political
● He wrote Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Reasons for the Indian Revolt of
1857) which cited British ignorance and aggressive expansionist policies as
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the chief causes of the revolt.
● He supported Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjee for obtaining
representation for Indians in government and civil services.
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First Phase of his Life:
Syed advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity and described Hindus and Muslims as
two beautiful eyes of a beautiful bride. He urged Muslims to give up on the killing
of cows since this would bring about good neighbourly relations between the
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Hindus and the Muslims.

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Second Phase of his Life:

● He changed his stance regarding Hindu-Muslim unity as the controversy of
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Hindi being recognized as a State language as opposed to Urdu led him to

believe Hindu-Muslim reconciliation cannot happen.
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● He advocated that conflict between Hindus and Muslims will only grow
rather than diminish.
● He opposed elections as they will lead to majoritarian rule over the
Muslims.
● Syed also advocated the Two-nation theory as he believed that Hindus and
Muslims could not be one nation.
● Due to his belief, he opposed the activities of the Indian National Congress
that would harm the interests of Muslims and that official hostility would
harm the interests of his educational efforts.
● He believed that Indians are not yet ready to govern themselves and their
interests would be best served by remaining loyal to British rule.
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● He founded United Patriotic Association in 1888 with the support of
some Hindu and Muslim leaders in order to oppose the Congress and tried
to prevent the Muslims from joining the congress and also to promote
political cooperation with the British and Muslim participation in the
British government.
Literary Works of Syed Ahmed Khan

Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Reasons for the Indian revolt of 1857), Tafsir on
Quran (The Mohammadan Commentary on the Holy Quran), Commentary on the
Holy Bible, Essays on the life of Mohammed, Asar-Us-Sanadid (The Remnants of
Ancient Heroes), A voyage to modernism, etc.
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Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946) -
Educational Reformer: Founding Banaras
Hindu University
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya also called Mahamana (a

luminous mind and magnanimous heart) was an educationist,
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journalist, lawyer, scholar, politician, social reformer and
renowned freedom fighter. He was one of those who served as the
president of the Indian National Congress (INC) multiple times. He
supported Hindu nationalism and worked on various fronts to
reform Hinduism. He was conferred with the highest civilian
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award in India posthumously, Bharat Ratna in 2014.
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● Madan Mohan Malaviya was born on December 25, 1861, in Allahabad,
Uttar Pradesh in a Brahmin family having a humble financial background.
● His parents were Pandit Brijnath and Moona Devi. Malaviya was the fifth
child (five brothers and two sisters). His father was a noted Sanskrit
scholar and was an exceptional Kathavachak, who recited the stories from
‘Srimad Bhagavata.’
● His great ancestors were also well known for their Sanskrit scholarship and
as they originally hailed from Malwa, Madhya Pradesh hence called the
‘Malaviyas’.
● Malaviya began his life as a student at the age of five. He received his early
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education at two Sanskrit pathshalas (traditional schools). They were
Pandit Hardeva’s Dharma Gyanopadesh Pathshala and another school run
by the Vidha Vardini Sabha.
● In 1868, he joined the Allahabad District School where he began writing
poems later published in journals and magazines.
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● In 1878, when he was sixteen years of age, he married Kundan Devi of
Mirzapur.
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● In 1879, Malaviya passed the F.A. examination from Muir College (now
Allahabad University) and in 1884, he passed the B.A. examination from
Calcutta University.
● Malaviya was interested in pursuing M.A. further but his family's modest
financial background did not permit him to do so. So, he took up a job as
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an assistant master at the Government High School in Allahabad.
● In 1887, he left his job as a teacher and joined as the editor of a nationalist
weekly. However, he, later on, joined L.L.B. at Allahabad and completed it
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in 1892 after which he began practising as a lawyer in Allahabad.
Political career
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● Madan Mohan Malaviya began his political career in 1886 at the age of
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twenty-five when he attended and addressed the second session of the

Indian National Congress (INC) at Calcutta.
● He was active in politics from 1886 to 1940. He began serving Congress
(INC) in 1886 and participating in India’s freedom struggle since then. He
was elected as the president of INC four times, that is, in 1909 (first time),
1918, 1932 and 1933.
● Malaviya was equally respected by the Moderates and Extremists and thus
worked as a harmonizer between the two clans in the INC.
● He became a member of the United Provinces’ (U.P.) council and Central
Council in Delhi in 1903 and 1908 respectively. During his membership, he
always worked for the freedom and rights of the Indian masses.
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● In 1906, he helped establish Hindu Mahasabha and revived it within the
Congress in 1922. The Sabha brought various Hindu nationalist
movements together. He served as the president of the special session of
Hindu Mahasabha in 1922 (Gaya) and 1924.
● Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya remained the Imperial Legislative Council’s
member from 1912 to 1926 (in 1919 it was transformed into the Central
Legislative Assembly).
● In 1912, he left his job as a lawyer to complete his dream of establishing a
university in the socio-national interest and contribute to the national
movement. However, when 177 freedom fighters were to be hanged in the
Chauri Chaura case (1922), he was the one who took up their case and got
156 of them acquitted.
In 1918, he was elected to the Municipal Corporation of Allahabad, followed
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by an election to the Provincial Legislative Council, where he served for
nearly three decades.
● In 1934, he left Congress (INC) in protest against the Communal Award
(1932) which sought to provide separate electorates for minorities. Then, he
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started Congress Nationalist Party and the party won 12 seats in the
1934 elections.
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● Malaviya was closely associated with India's freedom struggle and
sacrificed a lot to improve the political and educational status of Indians.
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He always fought for social, economic and political justice for Indians.
● Being a member of the councils, he always opposed all such moves that
were directed against Indians and put forward his firm opinion in a
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justified and rational manner which is why he was respected by British

officials and even his opponents.
● Being a member of the Industrial Commission (1916-18), Malaviya gave a
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dissenting note indicting the British economic policy towards India.

● In the year 1918, at the Economic Conference of Congress, Madan Mohan
Malaviya proposed for establishment of a “Central Purchasing Agency” for
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transparency in purchases of administration.

● He was an important figure in the Non-Cooperation Movement but disliked
the politics of appeasement and the participation of Congress in the
Khilafat movement.
● He along with Lala Lajpat Rai, Jawaharlal Nehru and others participated in
the protests and demonstrations against the Simon Commission in 1928.
● He participated in Gandhi's Salt Satyagraha (Civil Disobedience Movement)
and courted arrest. During the Civil Disobedience Movement in India, he
was arrested twice.
● Malaviya accompanied Gandhi and represented Indian National Congress
(INC) at the Round Table Conference held in 1931 in London.
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● In 1932, Malaviya launched the All India Swadeshi Sangh and issued a
manifesto for "Buy Indian” as a means of easing India's economic suffering
and reducing the poverty of the masses.
● Malaviya opposed the idea of separate electorates for Muslims under the
Lucknow Pact (1916). In the year 1928-29, he also tried to organize a unity
conference at Allahabad but it failed. The conference, if successfully
organized, it would have left a deep impact on Hindu-Muslim unity in
India.
● He is also remembered for his role in ending the Indian indenture system,
especially in the Caribbean.
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● Madan Mohan Malaviya was a visionary and felt the need to educate the
Indian masses, especially in their language as they lacked reading
materials in vernacular languages. Hence, he established the
“Bharti-Bhawan” library with the help of Pandit Balkrishna Bhatt and a
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rich person named Bhalla Ji in Ahyapur of Allahabad in 1889.
● The Muir College (now Allahabad University) became a university in 1887
and had hostels. However, the university lacked a hostel for Hindu
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vegetarian students. Keeping this in mind, he took an initiative for the
construction of a “Hindu Boarding House” in the year 1901. Today, this is
the largest hostel of Allahabad University.
● Although he was not against any language, he always worked for the
development of the languages of the native people. His newspapers,
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“Abhyuday”, “Leader” and the organisations founded by him such as

“Hindi Sahitya Sammelan” helped Hindi become a medium of
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communication in the country.

● Malaviya believed that universities like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
Allahabad and Punjab (Lahore) were attracting the cream of Indian minds
but only to serve the colonial purposes of the British Empire.
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○ So, with the intent of serving nationalist aspiration, he proposed the

idea of establishing Kashi Hindu Vishwavidyalaya popularly known
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as Banaras Hindu University (B.H.U.).

○ It was established in 1916 and Malaviya managed to receive unique
types of donations for the development of various facilities on the
campus and worked day and night to strengthen B.H.U. and develop
a modern India.
○ For Malaviya, the term 'Hindu' in the name of the University was
essential to project a liberal non-sectarian concept that would he
believed contribute towards a united and harmonious future.
○ He served as the Vice-Chancellor of B.H.U. for over 20 years.
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Other contributions
● As a journalist
○ Malaviya was a gifted writer and writing for newspapers was his
passion. He was appointed as the editor of Hindustan in 1887. Soon,
the Government of India press report rated Hindustan as the
best-produced and edited vernacular paper (1889-90).
○ He also served as the co-editor of Indian Opinion and the Advocate
for some time.
○ Around the same time, he helped Sachidanand Sinha start the
Hindustan Review (1893) and later the Indian People (1903).
○ Later on, he started two important newspapers namely, ‘Abhyuday’
in 1907 and ‘Leader’ in 1909. The writings in these newspapers
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highly influenced Indians.
○ He saved two newspapers from the closure of their publication. These
were the Indian Herald (later renamed Leader in 1909) and
Hindustan Times.
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○ In 1909, he also started a weekly Urdu paper Swarajya in Prayag
and the Hindi monthly Maryada (1910). He was the chairman of the
board of directors of the Hindustan Times from 1924 until he died.
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○ One of his major contributions to journalism was deciding the
honorarium of writers for their columns. He was the first editor to fix
their honorarium according to the column in the paper. He also
ensured that the truth was published fearlessly.
○ Malaviya contributed greatly to Indian journalism by performing
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varied roles such as editor, publisher, writer, protector of the rights of

the writers, a person to give voice to the truth perceived and raised
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by the common man etc.

● Promotion of the Hindi language
○ Malaviya realised the importance of Hindi for the masses. It was due
to his efforts for the development and official recognition of the Hindi
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language and script in Uttar Pradesh that Hindi was approved as an

administrative language in the year 1900.
○ His concern for the spread of the Hindi language was so genuine that
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he was the first to introduce Hindi as a subject at the Banaras Hindu

University (BHU) at B.A.level.
○ He was also the first to deliver a convocation address in Hindi at
Prayag University which was unconventional in those days.
○ He wanted people to overcome the complex imposed by English and
Pharasi and be independent and self-sufficient in their native
language. So, he established “Hindi Uddharini Pratinidhi Sabha” at
Prayag to strengthen Hindi.
○ To make people use and practise Hindi in their daily life and official
works, he revitalized “Nagari Pracharani Sabha” at Kashi (Varanasi)
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in 1889. In 1910 he also established “Hindi Sahitya Sammelan” in
Prayag for learning and reading Hindi.
○ His writings, poems, Hindi journalism, development of several
organizations to promote Hindi and mainly his love for the Hindi
Language helped Hindi become a language of the masses in those
days.
● Towards Hinduism
○ Although Malaviya was a staunch believer in Hinduism (Sanatana
Dharma) and its ideals and insisted on the Hindu way of life, he
never supported the evils of superstitions and rituals practised by it.
He opposed several rituals and traditions which were harmful to
society and humanity.
○ He opposed untouchability and gave mantra-diksha to the
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downtrodden at Dasashwamedh Ghat in Varanasi sitting with them
on the same wooden cot (Chowki).
○ He also gave mantra-diksha to many downtrodden in Calcutta and
proved through open dialogues that untouchability was not a
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practice in ancient India.
○ Malaviya made massive efforts to ensure the entry of so-called
untouchables into any Hindu temple.
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○ In 1935, his movement against untouchability in Nasik became
known to the whole of India.
○ In the year 1914, he established “All India Seva Samiti” to serve the
people coming to Prayag during the occasion of Ardhakumbha and
Kumbha.
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○ He also set up the Ganga Mahasabha in 1905 to fight against the

possibility of the British completely damming the flow of the Ganga at
Bhimgauda in Haridwar following which the British agreed in 1916 to
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ensure that Ganga’s flow would never be interfered with and no

decision on Ganga would be taken without the consent of Hindu
community.
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○ In 1941, he founded the Goraksha Mandal. He also founded a

non-profit organisation called Shri Mathura Vrindavan Hasanand
Gochar Bhoomi for the welfare of cows in Vrindavan.
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○ He expounded the values of Sanatana Dharma through his lectures,

stories and writings and exhorted his students in university to be
faithful to their God and religion.
Achievements
● Malaviya started scouting education for Indian students. He was one of the
founders of the Bharat Scouts and Guides.
● He was an orator par excellence in Hindi, Sanskrit and English. His
pronunciation and oratory in all languages were exemplary. He was thus
popularly known as the ‘Silver-Tongued Orator.’
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● He is credited with popularising the slogan “Satyamev Jayate”, i.e., “truth
alone will win.”
● He was awarded the highest civilian award in India posthumously, Bharat
Ratna in 2014.
● In his honour, a postage stamp was printed in 1961.
● The daily aarti that is performed at Har Ki Pauri, Haridwar was initiated by
Madan Mohan Malaviya.
Literary works
● A Criticism of Montagu-Chelmsford Proposals of Indian Constitutional
Reforms.
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Death
Madan Mohan Malaviya breathed his last on 12 November 1946.
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Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891) -
Reformer and Scholar: Advocating for
Women’s Education and Social Reform
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a renowned writer, scholar
and champion of humanity who brought about a revolution in
the educational system of Bengal. He is regarded as one of the
most influential figures in the Bengal renaissance, carrying on
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the reforms initiated by Raja Rammohan Roy. His efforts to
modernise and simplify Bengali prose earned him the title of
"Father of Bengali Prose" and he rationalised and simplified
the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained
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unchanged since 1880.
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● Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay was born on 26th September, 1820 in
West Bengal.
● After demonstrating his expertise in Sanskrit and philosophy, he was given
the title 'Vidyasagar', which translates to 'Ocean of Knowledge' in Hindi.
● In 1839, he passed his law examination with success. In 1841, he
graduated from Sanskrit College in Kolkata, having mastered Sanskrit
grammar, literature, dialectics, Vedanta, Smruti, and Astronomy.
● At 21, he became the head of the Sanskrit department at Fort William
College.
● He aided the Bengali poet Michael Madhusudan Dutta in his relocate from
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France to England to study law, then later supported his return to India,
where he composed some of the most renowned literary works in the
Bengali language.
● In recognition of his altruism, Michael Madhusudan bestowed the name
'Dayasagar' or 'Ocean of Generosity' upon him.
Reforms and Contributions

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As an Educationist
● In 1846, Vidyasagar was appointed as the Assistant Secretary of the
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Sanskrit College and within a year, he made several modifications to the

education system.
As the Principal of the Sanskrit College from 1851 to 1858, he implemented
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unprecedented reforms in both administration and education.
○ Vidyasagar held the opinion that regardless of caste or gender,
everyone was entitled to education, something that had no concept at
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the time.
○ He even opened up the College to people from lower castes.
○ Additionally, he motivated scholars to evaluate and interpret ancient
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sacred texts for contemporary use.

● He created 20 model schools in Hooghly, Midnapore, Burdwan and Nadia.
○ He personally supervised the schools, hired teachers and designed
their syllabus.
○ He modified the exam pattern by introducing monthly exams in lieu
of annual ones, and added English, Western Sciences and
Mathematics to the curriculum.
○ He also introduced admission and tuition fees, along with a weekly
holiday on Sundays and a summer vacation in the months of May
and June.
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● Ultimately, he sparked a revolution in the Bengali education system by
modifying the way Bengali language was written and taught.
As a Linguist
● Vidyasagar is renowned for his reconstruction of the Bengali alphabet.
○ He streamlined the Bengali typography system into a set of 12 vowels
and 40 consonants, removing Sanskrit phonemes.
○ His book 'Borno Porichoy', meaning 'Introduction to the Letter', is
still utilised as the introductory book for learning the Bengali
alphabet.
● He was a major figure in the Bengal Renaissance, a cultural, social,
intellectual and artistic movement that occurred in Bengal from the 19th
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century to the early 20th century.
○ During the Renaissance period, there was an immense surge of
Bengali literature, with Vidyasagar leading the way.
○ He wrote roughly ten books on Bengal's history and literature, which
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have all been deemed classics in our current era.
As a Social Reformer
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● Vidyasagar was a pioneer in improving the status of women in India.
● After studying ancient texts, he realized that the disadvantaged position of
Indian women was not based on religious teachings and was rather a result
of existing power structures.
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● With this knowledge, he launched a tireless campaign to pass the Widow

Remarriage Act in 1856 and actively encouraged his son Narayan Chandra
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Bandyopadhyaya to marry a widow in order to generate public support for

the act.
● Instead of creating new systems, Vidyasagar sought to transform society
from within, and as a result, widow remarriage was accepted in the
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conservative Hindu Brahmin society of Bengal.

● Vidyasagar was also a strong advocate of women education and vehemently
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opposed the practice of child marriage.

○ To further this, he established 35 schools for girls all over Bengal, the
most important being the Metropolitan School of Calcutta.
● He also fought against the Kulin Brahmin polygamy, a practice wherein
men married as many as eighty women, often elderly men marrying young
girls and even children. Unfortunately, these widows were often forced out
of their homes, leading to a life of destitution and misery.
● Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a man who was far ahead of his time. His
legacy and contribution to the upliftment and empowerment of women, as
well as his tireless efforts for ‘nari shiksha’, remain unparalleled.
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Literary works
● Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar was a renowned scholar who wrote biographies
of many renowned figures throughout history, in order to inspire the
younger generations with examples of strength, dedication, integrity,
patience, perseverance, courage, determination and philosophy. Some of
● His works include: Betaal Panchavinsati (1847), Banglar Itihaas (1848),
Jivancharita (1849), Bodhadoy (1851), Upakramanika (1851), Rijupath
(1851-52), Byakaran Kaumudi (1853), Borno Parichoy (1854), Shakuntala
(1854), kothamala (1856), Shome Prakash [Bengali Newspaper] (1858),
Brant’ (1858), Mahabharata (1860), Seetar Vanavas (1860), Bhrantivilaas
(1869), Oti Alpa Hoilo (1873), Aabaar Oti Alpa Hoilo (1873), Brajavilaas
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(1884), and Ratnopariksha (1886).
● Vidyasagar’s works on social reforms include Bidhobabivah (1855),
concerning the rights of widows to remarry; Bahubivah (1871) against
polygamy, and Balyabivah (1871) against child marriage.
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Death
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The passing of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar on 29th July 1891 marked a great
loss to the Bengali people. This renowned scholar, academician and reformer had
been a great influence on the lives of many.
His passing was mourned by many, including Rabindranath Tagore, who
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famously said, “One wonders how God, in the process of producing forty million
Bengalis, produced a man!”
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Aruna Asaf Ali (1909-1996) - Freedom Fighter
and Patriot: Symbolizing the Quintessence of
Bravery
Aruna Asaf Ali, born Aruna Ganguly, was a pivotal figure in
India's struggle for independence, making significant
contributions to the movement through her relentless
activism and bravery. As a prominent female freedom fighter,
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she played a crucial role in the Quit India Movement and the
Salt Satyagraha, earning her the moniker "Heroine of Quit
India Movement" and the "Grand Old Lady of Indian
Independence." This essay will delve into Aruna Asaf Ali's
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life, detailing her early years, involvement in the Indian
Independence Movement, post-independence activities, and
the various awards and recognition she received for her
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efforts. By examining her legacy, we will understand the
impact she made on the women's rights movement and India's journey to
independence.
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II. Early Life and Family
Aruna Asaf Ali's journey began with her upbringing in a liberal and religious
Bengali family, which laid the foundation for her eventual contributions to India's
A. Birth and family background
Born on July 16, 1909, in Kalka, Aruna Ganguly was the daughter of
Upendranath Ganguly and Ambalika Devi. Her father was a restaurant owner
who had migrated from Barisal, Bangladesh, to the United Provinces (present-day
Uttar Pradesh). Both her parents were devout adherents of the Brahmo Samaj, a
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monotheistic reformist movement that originated during the Bengal Renaissance.
B. Education and upbringing
Aruna received a well-rounded education, attending the Sacred Heart Convent in
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Lahore before pursuing higher education at All Saints' College in Nainital.
Following her graduation, she worked as a teacher at Calcutta's Gokhale
Memorial School. Her exposure to the liberal ideals of the Brahmo Samaj and her
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education played a significant role in shaping her future involvement in the
Indian independence movement.
C. Marriage to Asaf Ali
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In 1928, 19-year-old Aruna married Asaf Ali, a prominent member of the Indian
National Congress (INC), in Allahabad. Despite facing opposition from her parents
due to religious and age differences, Aruna's marriage to Asaf Ali introduced her
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to influential political figures of the time, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal

Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajgopalachari, and Maulana Azad, who all attended
their wedding. This union marked the beginning of Aruna Asaf Ali's active
involvement in the struggle for India's independence.
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III. Involvement in Indian Independence Movement

A. Participation in Salt Satyagraha
Aruna Asaf Ali actively participated in the Salt Satyagraha, a key nonviolent
agitation during the struggle for Indian independence. This act demonstrated her
commitment to the cause and the principles of the Indian National Congress
(INC).
B. Arrest and imprisonment
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As a result of her involvement in the Salt Satyagraha, Aruna was arrested and
imprisoned by the colonial authorities. However, she was not released under the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which had promised the release of those detained during the
Salt Satyagraha. Only after strong protests by Mahatma Gandhi and other female
freedom fighters was Aruna eventually released.
C. Role in Quit India Movement
1. Hoisting the Congress flag: On August 8, 1942, the Indian National
Congress passed the Quit India resolution. Despite the arrest of many key
leaders, Aruna Asaf Ali led the remaining party members to Gowalia Tank
Maidan and boldly unfurled the Congress flag, signaling the launch of the
Quit India Movement.
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2. Continuing the movement despite senior leadership arrests: Even with the
absence of senior leadership, Aruna's courage and determination fueled the
ongoing protests and demonstrations throughout the region, proving the
unstoppable force of nationalism.
3. Editing the magazine 'Inquilab' while in hiding: While evading arrest, Aruna
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took on the role of editor for 'Inquilab', a publication of the Congress party.
This allowed her to continue inspiring the youth to fight for freedom
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through constructive revolution rather than passive activism.
4. Evading arrest and eventual warrant lift in 1946: The British government
offered a reward of Rs. 5000 for her capture, but Aruna managed to remain
hidden. Despite Mahatma Gandhi's pleas to surrender, she did not emerge
until 1946, when the arrest warrant in her name was finally lifted.
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IV. Post-Independence Activities

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A. Disillusionment with the Congress Party and joining the Socialist Party
After India gained independence, Aruna Asaf Ali became disillusioned with the
Indian National Congress. As a result, she decided to join the Socialist Party in
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pursuit of her political and social objectives.

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B. Involvement with the Communist Party of India

Aruna's quest for social justice also led her to associate with the Communist
Party of India. Although she never formally joined the party, she supported and
collaborated with it on various occasions.
C. Co-founding the National Federation of Indian Women
A staunch advocate for women's rights, Aruna Asaf Ali played a pivotal role in
co-founding the National Federation of Indian Women. This organization aimed to
promote gender equality and empower women across the nation.
D. Becoming the first Mayor of Delhi
In 1958, Aruna Asaf Ali achieved a significant milestone in her political career by
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becoming the first Mayor of Delhi. During her tenure, she implemented important
civic reforms and worked tirelessly for the betterment of the city.
E. Focusing on newspaper-led protests for social reforms
However, Aruna eventually grew tired of the political infighting and resigned from
her position as Mayor. Instead, she shifted her focus to newspaper-led protests to
rally support for social reforms, further contributing to the betterment of society.
She started a weekly journal 'Link' and newspaper 'Patriot' to attain this
objective.
V. Awards and Recognition
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Aruna Asaf Ali's unwavering commitment to social reform and her significant
contributions to India's independence struggle garnered her various prestigious
awards and recognition throughout her life.
A. In 1964, she was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize, which
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recognizes her efforts in promoting peace and understanding.
B. Her commitment to fostering international understanding was further
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acknowledged in 1991 when she received the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for
International Understanding.
C. Recognizing her exceptional service to the nation, the Indian government
honored her with the Padma Vibhushan in 1992, the second-highest civilian
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award in India.
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D. Finally, in 1997, a year after her death, Aruna Asaf Ali was posthumously
awarded the highest civilian honor, the Bharat Ratna, in recognition of her
lifelong dedication to India's freedom struggle and her numerous contributions to
Indian society.
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VI. Legacy
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Aruna Asaf Ali's contributions to Indian history have left a significant legacy that
continues to inspire generations.
A. Influence on women's rights movement
Aruna played a pivotal role in the struggle for women's rights in India. As a
strong advocate for gender equality, she encouraged women to actively participate
in the Indian Independence Movement and co-founded the National Federation of
Indian Women. Her work in this area has had a lasting impact on the women's
rights movement in the country.
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B. Impact on the Indian Independence Movement
Aruna's unwavering dedication to India's freedom struggle was instrumental in
shaping the course of the movement. Her involvement in the Salt Satyagraha,
Quit India Movement, and continued activism even while in hiding demonstrated
her resolute commitment to the cause. Her actions and fearless leadership
inspired others to join the fight for India's independence.
C. Commemoration through stamps and memorials
In recognition of her contributions to the nation, the Indian government has
honored Aruna Asaf Ali with various forms of commemoration. This includes the
release of postal stamps featuring her image and the establishment of memorials
in her honor. These tributes serve as a reminder of her unwavering spirit and
dedication to the cause of freedom and equality.
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VII. Conclusion
In conclusion, Aruna Asaf Ali's life and work left a lasting impact on the Indian
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Independence Movement and women's rights in India. As an active participant in
various nationalistic campaigns and a dedicated advocate for gender equality, she
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significantly contributed to the nation's struggle for freedom. Her unwavering
dedication and commitment to social reforms continued even after India's
independence. Aruna Asaf Ali remains an inspiration for generations to come,
and her influence and legacy live on through the numerous awards, recognitions,
and memorials that celebrate her invaluable contributions to India's history.
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M.N.Roy (1887-1954) - Radical Humanist
Manabendra Nath Roy (M.N.Roy) was one of the most
learned personality during the freedom struggle and one of
the few philosophers of modern India. He started as a
Marxist but gradually moved towards Radical Humanism
which is considered to be his biggest contribution. He is also
one of India’s more colourful and unusual international
revolutionaries. He was the founder of the Mexican
Communist Party and the Communist Party of India
(Tashkent group). He was a delegate to congress of the
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Communist International and Russia’s aid to China. He was
one of the first leaders who injected Marxism into the
practical politics of India. However, he proved to be a
complete failure in politics.
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Early life and Education
Narendranath Bhattacharya, who later assumed the name Manabendra Nath
Roy, was born 21 March 1887, at Arbelia, West Bengal into a family of priests.
During his childhood, Roy visited maths and ashrams to educate himself. His
father, Dinabandhu Bhattacharya, also taught him Sanskrit and ancient Indian
texts.
He studied Engineering and Chemistry at the National college under Sri
Aurobindo before moving to the Bengal Technical Institute. Much of his
knowledge was gained through self-study.
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Various phases of his life
1st Phase up till 1920:
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● At 14, Roy joined the underground revolutionary organisation Anushilan
Samiti. After it was banned, he helped to organise the Jugantar Group
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under the leadership of Jatin Mukherjee.
● Roy also participated in a series of political dacoities against British rule. In
November 1908, he shot dead Nandalal Banerjee, the police officer who had
arrested revolutionary Khudiram Bose (who was hanged to death).
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● He spent 9 months in jail for the Howrah conspiracy case.
● Roy’s search for arms took him to the USA in 1916. Roy was tracked so
closely by British Intelligence that the day he landed at San Francisco, a
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local newspaper published a report headlined, “Mysterious Alien Reaches

America, Famous Brahmin Revolutionary or Dangerous German Spy.”
● This forced him to flee south to Palo Alto, California. It was here that he
changed his name from Narendranath Bhattacharya and became
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Manabendra Nath Roy.

● He got influenced by radical socialist ideology.
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● When the United States participated in WWI, Roy was arrested for his
anti-colonial leanings. He jumped bail and escaped to Mexico.
● In Mexico, he became a vocal advocate of the socialist state and founded
the Mexican Communist Party in 1917.
2nd Phase (1920 to 1930):
● In 1922, he prepared a detailed programme for the consideration of the
Indian National Congress. In this he proposed nationalization of railways,
mines, and water ways.
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● Inspired by his experiences in Mexico, Roy founded the Communist Party
of India in 1925 along with six other leaders at Tashkent now in
Uzbekistan.
● He undertook a journey to Moscow to attend the second congress of
Comintern (Communist International).
● He criticised Lenin’s thesis on the National and Colonial Question.
● By 1926, he was serving the policy-making bodies of the Communist
International.
● In 1927, he visited China to make the Chinese Communist Party
implement guidelines by the Communist International and he failed.
Following this, he was expelled from the Communist International in
September 1929.
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3rd Phase (1930 to 1940):
● He came back to India in 1930 as a Critical Marxist.
● Roy was sentenced to six years imprisonment in 1931 for his involvement
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in 1924 Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy case.
● While in jail, Roy wrote Prison Manuscripts, a set of nine thick volumes.
These have not been published in totality.
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● After his release in 1936, Roy joined the Indian National Congress. He tried
to radicalize the congress from within towards the socialist goals.
● He left the party later in 1940 as a result of Congress’ reluctance to aid the
British in World War II.
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4th Phase (1940 onwards):

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● He created Radical Democratic Party in 1943.

● He criticised Gandhi and Marx.
● He developed his own philosophy called New Humanism (initially) and
Radical Humanism (later).
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● In 1946, Roy established the Indian Renaissance Institute at Dehradun

in order to develop the Indian Renaissance Movement.
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● Roy died of a heart attack on 25 January 1954.
Roy-Lenin Debate on Colonial Struggle
Lenin:
● Comintern should support nationalist parties like INC in India and
Kuamintang in China.
● Once imperialist powers expelled, then efforts should be made for bringing
communism.
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M.N.Roy:
● Roy was against lenin’s view.
● According to him, these nationalist parties are bourgeoisies parties and
hence the communist should rather focus on building communist parties.
● He advocated the responsibilities to then working class to bring communist
revolution in India.
M.N.Roy’s criticism of Gandhi and Indian National Congress

● Roy criticised Gandhi as leader of bourgeoisies and instrument of the rich
class.
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● He attacked Gandhi’s call for harmony between classes.
● According to Roy, Swaraj of Gandhi equals Swaraj for capitalist class.
● He blamed Gandhi for bringing religion in politics.
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M.N.Roy’s criticism of Marxism
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● According to M.N.Roy, communism had degenerated into nationalism in
the Soviet Union.
● He criticised the economic interpretation of history given by Marx.
● According to Roy
○ Marx rejected the autonomy of the individual.
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○ Neither socialism nor communism but freedom should be the ideal of

civilized society.
○ Concept of revolution was outdated because the military power of the
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state had become great.

○ Revolution should be by consent and guided by the philosophy with
universal appeal.
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M.N.Roy’s Radical Humanism

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● Radical humanism revolves around the individual or man.

● Individual should not be subordinated either to a nation or a class.
● Man has two basic traits:
○ Reason: echoes the harmony of the universe.
○ Want for freedom: as it leads him to a search for knowledge.
● Role of State:
○ Roy was aware of the coercive character of the state.
○ He wants to reshape the state on the basis of the principles of
pluralism, decentralization, and democracy.
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○ The state must exist and discharge its limited functions along with
other equally important autonomous social institutions.
● Moral Man:
○ Politics should not be divorced from ethics.
○ Roy traces morality to rationality in man.
○ He advocates humanist politics.
M.N.Roy’s Partyless Democracy

● Roy criticises party politics because
○ It denies the opportunity for individuals to participate in politics.
○ It subsumes the power in itself.
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○ The right to vote does not ensure political participation.
○ It leads to dishonesty and corruption.
● He formalised the notion of organised democracy and participant
citizenship into a decentralised order, that is,
○ Functions of the state shall be performed by free and voluntary
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associations of enlightened people.
○ State shall become advisory and administrative machinery.
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● The new economic order under the new social setup should focus on:
○ Cooperative economy: economic activity to be done at local, regional,
state and national level through cooperatives.
○ Centralised planning: Planning should be initiated at grassroots level
and so on.
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○ Science and technology: should be used to reconcile problems of

economic development and human urge for freedom.
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M.N.Roy’s Materialism
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● As a materialist, roy deliberated life to be en end in itself.

● The main purpose of life is to live and to live is to have the power and
resources to satisfy the desires that naturally spring in man’s mind.
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● Roy was a Benthamite who addressed Indians to believe in concepts like

self-denial, simplicity and the joy of satisfying one’s desires.
● In broad sense, Roy’s philosophy was in the tradition of materialism.
● Differences between Roy’s materialism and traditional materialism:
○ Roy’s materialism is a reinstatement of traditional materialism in the
light of then contemporary scientific knowledge.
○ According to Roy, "The substratum of the Universe is not matter as
traditionally conceived: but it is physical as against mental or
spiritual. It is a measurable entity. Therefore, to obviate prejudiced
criticism, the philosophy hitherto called materialism may be renamed
Physical Realism".
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● Roy has discussed the nature of philosophy and its relationship with
religion and science in his books.
M.N.Roy’s Literary Works

M.N.Roy: Radical Humanist, India's Message, The Historical Role of Islam, The
Future of Indian Politics, The Communist International, India in Transition,
Reason, Romanticism and Revolution, Revolution and Counter-revolution in
China, Beyond Communism, The Russian Revolution, What do we want: Labour
Party, The Problem of Freedom, Poverty Or Plenty?, Materialism, War and
Revolution: International Civil War, India and War, My Experiences in China,
Fragments of a Prisoner's Diary, From Savagery to Civilisation, The Way to
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Durable Peace, India's Problem and its Solutions, Open Letter to C.R Das and
Program for the Indian National Congress, Science and philosophy, People's plan,
On the congress constitution, National government or people's government.
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Annie Besant (1847-1933) - Theosophical
Visionary: Fostering Indian Self-Rule and
Cultural Revival
Annie Besant was born in London, England. She was a

proponent of free thought, radicalism, fabianism (socialism),
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theosophy, women's rights, and Irish and Indian self rule.
Besant joined the National Secular Society and the Fabian
Society in the 1870s, organisations that fought for freedom of
thought and an end to the Catholic Church's oppression in
England. In 1893, Besant made her first trip to India. She
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later lived there and was active in the Indian independence
movement. In 1916, she established the Indian Home Rule
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League, which she later led as president. She had a
significant role in the Indian National Congress as well.
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Early Life and Education:
● Annie Besant was born Annie Wood to an Irish-origin family in London.
When Besant was five years old, her father died, leaving her family
penniless.
● Her mother's friend paid for her schooling. From an early age, Besant was
instilled with a strong sense of social duty. She had a strong sense of
independence.
● When she was 20, she married a vicar named Frank Besant. They had two
children but formally divorced owing to religious disagreements.
● Besant was a strong proponent of Irish independence.
● She began to rethink her religious views as well. She even criticised the
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Church of England. She was a feminist political and religious activist,
which brought her into conflict with society.
● She was a supporter of intellectual liberty, secularism, women's rights,
birth control, workers' rights, and Fabian socialism. She was mainly
opposed to the church interfering in people's lives.
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● She was an excellent public speaker who travelled frequently.
● In the 1870s, Besant joined the National Secular Society and the Fabian
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Society, both of which advocated for freedom of thought and liberation
from the tyranny of the Catholic Church in England.
● Besant became a Theosophist after meeting Helena Blavatsky in 1889.
● Her desire for social justice and spiritual fulfilment led her to the
Theosophical Society. She became interested in Hinduism and its
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spiritual principles throughout her time as a member of society.
● Annie Besant was the society's president from 1907 to 1933.
A few days after landing in India (1893), she was moved by the ongoing
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fight for freedom from British rule and eventually started to take part in it.
Her Contributions:
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● In 1908, Annie Besant became the President of the Theosophical Society.

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● By 1914, she had been associated with the Indian National Congress.
○ Congress was rendered politically inactive after 1910.
○ When she first joined, the Congress was just a group of people who
met to debate and decide which resolutions to vote on. These
resolutions, which called for greater middle-class Indian
representation in the British government, were relatively mild in
nature. It wasn't yet a significant movement calling for total
independence.
○ During the initial period of World War I, the new element of
reunification of the Congress started with the rise of Annie Besant.
○ When the war broke out and England declared a war against
Germany, she famously said: “England’s need is India’s opportunity”.
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● In 1916, Annie Besant launched the All India Home Rule League along
with Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
○ It was the first Indian political party that advocated self-rule as its
motto.
○ The league worked throughout the year to establish a network of
local branches and organize agitations while the congress met only
once a year.
○ It conducted public speeches, meetings and demonstrations.
○ As a result of her actions, the colonial authorities put her under
house arrest. Other political parties have threatened additional riots
if she is not released. As a result, the government was compelled to
accept small concessions. One of them was that after the war, the
prospect of self-rule would be taken into consideration.
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● Annie Besant was finally freed in September 1917. In December of that
year, she was chosen president of the Indian National Congress for a
one-year tenure.
● Annie Besant spent the rest of her life fighting for India's freedom. She
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would embark on speaking tours throughout India and beyond to increase
awareness of the freedom movement.
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Educational Reforms
● Annie Besant was a vocal proponent of exploring ancient Indian religions,
philosophies, and teachings.
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● By 1918, she had formed the following organisations:

○ Madras Parliament Madanapalle College (now in Andhra
Pradesh),
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○ Adyar Arts League,

○ Bombay Home Rule League,
○ Girls' College in Benares,
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○ Order of the Brothers of Service,

○ Women's Indian Association at Adyar—from which arose the
All-India Women's Conference in Poona (now Pune) in 1927
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● Unfortunately, she disagreed with Gandhi's non-cooperation and civil

disobedience programme, which she considered a danger to the rule of law.
● Despite her respect for Gandhi as a man who lived a life characterised by
honesty and compassion, she stood for constitutional ways of bringing
about democratic change.
● Gandhi's plans were adopted, and the tragedies she foresaw occurred
across India. She kept working for India even though she became
unpopular and lost her political standing.
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Literary Works:
The Political Status of Women (1874); Christianity: Its Evidences, Its Origin, Its
Morality, Its History (1876); The Law of Population (1877); My Path to Atheism
(1878); Marriage, As It Was, As It Is, And As It Should Be: A Plea for Reform
(1878); The Atheistic Platform: 12 Lectures One by Besant (1884);
Autobiographical Sketches (1885); Why I Am a Socialist (1886); Why I Became a
Theosophist (1889); The Seven Principles of Man (1892); Bhagavad Gita
(translated as The Lord's Song) (1895); Karma (1895); In the Outer Court(1895);
The Ancient Wisdom (1897); Dharma (1898); Thought Forms with C. W.
Leadbeater (1901); The Religious Problem in India (1901); Thought Power: Its
Control and Culture (1901); Esoteric Christianity (1905); A Study in
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Consciousness: A contribution to the science of psychology. (1907); Occult
Chemistry with C. W. Leadbeater (1908); An Introduction to Yoga (1908) ;
Australian Lectures (1908); Annie Besant: An Autobiography (1908); The
Religious Problem in India Lectures on Islam, Jainism, Sikhism, Theosophy
(1909); Man and His Bodies (1911); Elementary Lessons on Karma (1912); A
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Study in Karma (1912); Initiation: The Perfecting of Man (1912); Man's Life in
This and Other Worlds (1913); Man: Whence, How and Whither with C. W.
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Leadbeater (1913); The Doctrine of the Heart (1920); The Future of Indian Politics
1922; The Life and Teaching of Muhammad (1932); Memory and Its Nature
(1935); Various writings regarding Helena Blavatsky (1889–1910); Selection of
Pamphlets as follows: The Commonweal (a weekly dealing on Indian national
issues); New India (a daily newspaper which was a powerful mouthpiece for 15
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years advocating Home Rule and revolutionizing Indian journalism).
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Conclusion
Annie Besant remained a Theosophical Society member until her death in 1931.
She died on September 20, 1933, in Adyar, Madras Presidency, at the age of 85.
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She is well-known in India for her contributions to Indian education and as a

proponent of Indian self-rule. She was a strong and outspoken woman who wore
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several hats during her life: social worker, religious freedom activist, and active
participant in the country's independence struggle.
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Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) - Nightingale of
India: Blending Poetry with Patriotism
Sarojini Naidu, also called Nightingale of India (Bharatiya

Kokila), was an Indian independence activist, poet and
politician. She became the second woman president of the
Indian National Congress (INC) and the first Indian woman
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to do so. She was also the first woman to become Governor
of an Indian state after independence. As much as Sarojini
Naidu is known for her literary excellence, so is she famous
for her role in the Indian renaissance movement and her
mission to improve the lives of Indian women. Along with
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Annie Besant, she lectured all over India on the welfare of youth, the dignity of
labour, women’s emancipation and nationalism.
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● Sarojini Naidu was born on February 13,1879, to Dr Aghore Nath
Chattopadhyay and Varada Sundari Devi in Hyderabad.
o Her father was a scientist, philosopher, and educator. He was the
founder of the Nizam College of Hyderabad. He was also the first
member of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Hyderabad.
o Her mother was a poetess in the Bengali language.
● She had two brothers - Virendranath Chattopadhyay and Harindranath
Chattopadhyay and a sister - Sunalini Devi. Sarojini Naidu was the eldest
of all.
● At the age of 12, she entered the University of Madras.
Sarojini Naidu had a bright and intelligent mind. She was a brilliant
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student as well. She topped her matriculation exams at Madras University.
● She had proficiency in multiple languages including English, Bengali,
Urdu, Telugu and Persian.
● Her father wanted her to be a mathematician or scientist but her younger
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self was attracted to poetry.
● Her love for poetry made her write a 1300 lines long poem in English titled
‘The Lady of the Lake’. Her father was highly impressed by this and
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sensing her mastery in expressing emotions with appropriate words, he
encouraged her work.
● With her father's assistance, Naidu wrote the play "Maher Muneer" in the
Persian language.
The play had a profound impact on the Nizam of Hyderabad and impressed
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with this work, he granted her a scholarship to study overseas.
● At the age of 16, Naidu got the opportunity to study at King's College,
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England (1895–98) and later joined Girton College in Cambridge.

● There she met prominent English authors like Arthur Simon and Edmond
Gosse who inspired her to write on themes relevant to India.
● During her stay in England for academics, she met Muthyala
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Govindarajulu Naidu, a South Indian, and a non-Brahmin physician and

fell in love.
After returning to India, she got married to him in 1898. She was 19 years
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old then.
o Sarojini Naidu had an inter-caste marriage which was quite rare and
unacceptable in society at that time. They were married as per the
Brahmo Marriage Act (1872).
● Sarojini Naidu led a happily married life thereafter and had four children.

● Sarojini Naidu joined the Indian National movement when the call against
Partition of Bengal was pitching high, that is, in 1905.
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● She was one of the first women who joined India's freedom struggle. She
was jailed for independence activities thrice (1930–31,1932–33,1942–43).
● Gandhian Movements
o Sarojini Naidu was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and his idea of
Swaraj.
o In 1919, she was the first to join Gandhi in his protest against the
Rowlatt Act.
o She was drawn to Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement and travelled
in east Africa and South Africa in the interest of Indians in 1924.
o She took part actively in the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930
and was arrested along with many other congressmen such as
Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Madan Mohan Malaviya for taking
part in the Salt March.
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o When Gandhi went to London to attend the Second Round table
Conference (1931), she accompanied him there.
o She also participated actively in the Quit India Movement in 1942
and was jailed for 21 months with Gandhi.
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● Indian National Congress (INC)
o While staying in England, she worked as a suffragist when she
developed an inclination toward the Indian National Congress (INC)
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movement for India’s independence from British rule.
o In 1925, she became the president of the Indian National Congress
(INC) at Kanpur.
o She toured North America lecturing and spreading the idea of the
Congress movement, from 1928 to 1929.
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o She also supported Congress' stance and its policies on the Second
World War.
o She organised the ‘National Week’ in 1940, virtually running the
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whole Congress campaign at this stage.

● Unifying Hindus and Muslims
o The main mission of her life was Hindu-Muslim unity and a secular
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India.
o Under her leadership, the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC)
pressed for non-communal elections as opposed to elections along
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communal lines as proposed by the British Parliament.

o Naidu's support for the cause of Hindu-Muslim unity can be seen in
her speaking at meetings of the Muslim League and working with
riot-torn victims in Bombay.
o She also sympathised with Blacks in America and Akalis in India.
o In 1924, she presided over the East African Indian Congress in South
Africa.
o She was against the Partition of India into two states and believed
that the country's future lay in crossing religious boundaries.
However, the fears of Hindu-Muslim unrest proved to be a harsh
truth forcing her to work for Hindu-Muslim unity in other ways.
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Women empowerment
● So crucial was her role in empowering women that her birthday (February
13) is celebrated as National Women’s Day in India.
● She contributed greatly to women's rights in India. She always spoke for
women's empowerment and the need for more women to participate in the
freedom struggle and for their rights.
● Rights of widows: At a time when issues like widow rights and widow
remarriage were controversial subjects in Indian society and politics,
Sarojini Naidu played a key role in restoring the rights of widows in India.
o Her role was instrumental in passing the resolution at the 22nd
session of the Indian National Social Conference (INSC) held in 1908
demanding educational facilities for widows, establishing women’s
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homes, and removing obstacles to the remarriage of widows.
● Right to vote: Sarojini Naidu in collaboration with Annie Besant and
others set up the Women’s Indian Association (WIA) in 1917. The major
objective of this association was to obtain women’s right to vote.
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o She led a women’s voting rights delegation to London to meet the
then secretary of state for India Edwin Montagu in 1917 to plead for
equal rights for women.
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o She was the forerunner in speaking and struggling for women’s
suffrage internationally.
● Right to equality: Naidu presided over the session of the Indian National
Congress (INC) in 1925. She considered her appointment to the presidential
post a “generous tribute to Indian womanhood.”
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o Here, in her speech, she laid stress on the “restoration” of women’s

role in society as in the classical Indian period and the importance of
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“equality for women" to achieve the goal of an independent India.

o She also suggested the creation of a women’s section of the Congress
and advocated the particular need to talk about women’s
empowerment in India which eventually resulted in women being
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appointed as members of legislatures by nomination in 1926.

● Right to representation: Sarojini Naidu founded the All India Women’s
Conference (AIWC) in 1930. Along with Women India Association (WIA), the
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All-India Women’s Conference (AIWC) played a crucial role in the struggle

for women's rights in India.
o These organisations gave opportunities to many talented women to
assert themselves, and several of them also joined political parties
and participated in the nationalist movement.
o She not only objected to the purdah system but also invited women
to abandon the veil. She actively campaigned for the right to divorce.
o During the period 1915-18, she travelled to diverse regions in India
to give speeches on social welfare, women’s empowerment and
nationalism.
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● Right to equal political status for women: At the time when the British
were planning to introduce a new Constitution of India, Naidu along with
Jahan Ara Shahnawaz addressed a letter to the British Prime Minister and
on behalf of “progressive” women of India demanded, “complete and
immediate recognition of their [women] equal political status, in theory, and
practice, by the grant of a full adult franchise or an effective and acceptable
alternative, based on the conception of adult suffrage.”
o They also argued that seeking any kind of preferential treatment
would be a violation of the integrity of the universal demand of Indian
women for absolute equality of political status.
● Thus, Naidu's role in the struggle for women's empowerment in India will
always hold a crucial place for she awakened the women of India.
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Contribution to literature
● Sarojini Naidu was a renowned poetess. She possessed a remarkable
command over the English language and the use of rhetoric and prosody.
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● Her works include Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1912),
The Broken Wing (1917) and others.
Her collection of poems all of which she wrote in English has been
●
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published under the titles The Sceptred Flute (1928) and The Feather of
the Dawn (1961).
● Given the unsurpassable sweetness and beauty of her poems, she is
recognised as the ‘Bul Bul e Hind.’
Naidu's poems covered a vast range of themes such as nature, religion,
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patriotism, women’s freedom, love, womanhood, life, death etc. with an
Indian touch.
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● Although she followed the great English Poetic tradition, her style provided
her poems with some kind of individuality leaving the readers spellbound.
● The Flute Player of Brindaban, To A Buddha Seated on Lotus, Feast
of Youth, The Magic Tree, The Wizard Mask and A Treasury of Poems
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are some other notable works by her.

● Her works had admirers of a great calibre such as Rabindra Nath Tagore
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and Jawaharlal Nehru.

● Naidu’s works were in the English language but the soul of her works was
always Indian.
Other contributions and achievements

● She was awarded the ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ Gold Medal by the Government of
India (British) in 1908 for the work done during the plague epidemic in
India. However, she returned it in protest over the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.
● In 1914, she was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
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● In 1945, she was a part of the Constituent Assembly serving as a member
or representative from Bihar.
● In independent India, she served as the Governor of the state of the United
Provinces (1947-49) which she renamed Uttar Pradesh. She was the first
woman Governor of a state in independent India.
● She presided over the Asian Relations Conference in 1947.
● Mahatma Gandhi nicknamed her the "The Nightingale of India".
● She was one of the most influential women in India in the 20th century.
● She was a great public speaker and was known for her oratory skills. Her
flawless English filled with wit, humour and irony and her grasp of the
subject she spoke on earned praise and admiration everywhere.
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Famous Quotes
● “A country’s greatness lies in its undying ideals of love and sacrifice that
inspire the mothers of the race”.
● “I say it is not your pride that you are a Madrasi, it is not your pride that
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you are a brahmin, it is not your pride that you belong to south India, it is
not your pride that you are a Hindu, that it is your pride that you are an
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Indian”.
● “Oh, we want a new breed of men before India can be cleansed of her
disease”.
● “I am not ready to die because it requires infinitely greater courage to live”.
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Sarojini Naidu died on March 2,1949, due to cardiac arrest at the Government
House in Lucknow.
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Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) - Grand Old
Man of India: Exposing Economic Drain and
Championing Nationalism
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917), also known as the 'Grand Old
Man of India' was an Indian social and political leader,
academician, economist, intellectual, leading nationalist
author, spokesperson and co-founder of the Indian National
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Congress (INC). Although he was one of the sharpest critics of
British economic policies in India, he was the first Indian to
have membership in the British Parliament. Naoroji was a
well-known public figure who gained immense support from all
around the world. Being a Moderate member of the Indian
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National Congress (INC), he fought hard for improving the
conditions of Indians and campaigned for the independence of
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India throughout his political career.
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● Dadabhai Naoroji was born to Naoroji Palanji Dordi and Maneckbai in a
poor Gujarati-speaking priestly Parsi family on 4th September 1825 in
Navsari, Bombay (now Mumbai), Maharashtra.
● He was only four years old when he lost his father. However, his mother
carried out all the responsibilities with great courage.
● He struggled a lot during his childhood and got married to Gulbai at the
age of 11.
● He was educated at the Elphinstone Institute School, Bombay. Being an
outstanding student, he obtained the Clare Scholarship only at the age of
fifteen and began to be considered a scholar.
Soon after his graduation in 1845, he was appointed as an assistant
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●
professor at Elphinstone Institution.
● In 1851, he established the Rahnumae Mazdayasne Sabha (Guides on
the Mazdayasne Path) to restore the sanctity of the Zoroastrian religion.
● He collaborated with Parsi scholar and reformer Kharshedji Rustomji Cama
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(hailed from Bombay) to start the Anglo-Gujarati fortnightly publication,
the Rast Goftar (or The Truth Teller) which aimed at promoting Parsi
social reforms among Western Indian Parsis and voicing the grievances and
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concerns of the poor and middle-class Parsis.
● In 1855, he was appointed as a professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy at the Elphinstone College in Bombay. It was a major
achievement for Naoroji since he was the first Indian to serve in such a
reputed academic position.
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● In the same year, he went to London and opened Cama & Co. where he
joined as a partner. It was the first Indian company to be set up in the
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United Kingdom (UK). He worked there for around three years.

● In 1859, he founded Dadabhai Naoroji & Co., a cotton trading company.
● Dadabhai Naoroji also served as a professor of Gujarati at the University
College London from 1856-65.
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Political Career
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● In 1865, Dadabhai Naoroji launched the London Indian Society to discuss

Indian political, social and literary subjects.
● In 1867, he helped to establish the East India Association to put cross
the Indian point of view before the British public. This organisation after
merging with Indian National Conference in 1885 became the Indian
National Congress (INC).
● In 1874, he was appointed as the Dewan (minister) to the Maharaja of
Baroda. However, he later resigned from the post due to some differences
arising between him and the Maharaja and the Resident.
● In 1875, he was elected a Member of the Municipal Corporation, Bombay.
However, he resigned in 1876 and left for London.
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● In 1883, he was appointed as Justice of the Peace, started a newspaper
called 'Voice of India' and was re-elected to the Bombay Municipal
Corporation.
● In January 1885, he was elected as one of its Vice - Presidents of the
Bombay Presidency Association which was at its nascent stage at that
time. In the same year in August, he joined the Bombay Legislative
Council at the invitation of the Governor, Lord Reay.
● He was also one of the founders of the Indian National Congress (INC)
founded in 1885. He played a crucial role in the INC later on and became
its president thrice.
● Observing the large extent of the Indian population in the British Empire,
he felt the need for representation of this unrepresented section in the
British Parliament. Thus, he attempted to continue his political
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involvement and relocated himself to Britain once again contesting the
elections to the House of Commons several times.
o In 1886, he lost his bid as a Liberal Party candidate for the Holborn
seat in London.
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o However, in 1892, Naoroji was successfully elected to the British
Parliament as the Liberal candidate for the working-class marginal
seat of Central Finsbury in Clerkenwell (now part of London) and
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joined Gladstone’s government. He was the first Asian and Indian to
be elected to the United Kingdom (UK) House of Commons as a
member of the Liberal Party.
o In the 1895 General Elections, Naoroji lost this seat to the
Conservatives.
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o In 1906, Naoroji stood as a candidate for Lambeth North but was

again unsuccessful.
o In 1907, Naoroji left England to retire in Bombay.
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● The story of India’s struggle for independence would be incomplete without

discussing the role of Dadabhai Naoroji in the freedom movement. He was
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one of the significant Indian nationalist leaders in the pre-Gandhian era.

● He became widely known for his unfavourable opinion of the economic
consequences of British rule in India. His “Drain of Wealth” theory was
his most important contribution to India’s independence movement.
● His work Poverty and Un-British Rule in India came up with the “Drain
of Wealth” theory in 1876 and depicted how colonial rulers pillaged the
economic resources of the Indian subcontinent and shattered its industrial
capacity causing “utter exhaustion and destruction”.
● Through his innumerable societies and organisations such as East India
Association, he sought to discuss matters and ideas about India and to
provide representation for Indians to the Government. One of the chief
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objectives of East India Association organisation was to awaken the British
people to a due sense of their responsibilities as rulers of India.
● His call for Swaraj (“self-rule”) and boycott of English goods as a protest
and patronising indigenous products via Swadeshi proved to have a lasting
impact.
● During his tenure in the House of Commons, Naoroji devoted his time to
improving the situation in India and campaigned for Indian independence.
He also advocated the implementation of simultaneous civil service
examinations, which he envisaged as the first step toward Indian
self-government.
● He always voiced the concerns and the grievances of the Indian people and
proclaimed their aims, ideals and aspirations to the world at large.
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Role in the Indian National Congress (INC)
● Naoroji was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress
(INC) and had considerable influence on the organisation and its members.
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● He was elected the president of INC thrice, i.e., in 1886, 1893, and 1906.
● He belonged to the Moderate clan of INC and his oratory skills helped the
organisation move in the right direction whenever it was required.
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● In 1906, when the split of INC seemed to be inevitable on the ground of
disagreement between the Moderates and Extremists, Naoroji’s conciliatory
tactics helped the INC avoid the crisis.
● He mentored numerous future INC leaders, like Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Gandhi.
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Other contributions
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● Dadabhai Naoroji’s immense contribution is not limited to the national

movement only. He worked hard on his part to serve the Indian and
international society as a whole.
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● Believer in parliamentary democracy

o His firm belief in the system of parliamentary democracy can be seen
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in his works and the organisations he set up. His use of the very
data, tools, political structures, concepts, and language of the British
empire to reshape it from within and improve the condition of India is
one such example.
o The organisations such as the Indian National Congress, the East
India Association in London, and the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay
were manifestations of his thoughts and beliefs.
● Social reformer
o He did not believe in caste restrictions. He supported women’s
education, granting of voting rights to women and equal laws for men
and women.
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o He gained the support of the British socialists, labour leaders, Irish
nationalists, suffrage campaigners and Florence Nightingale.
● Liberal thinker and progressive nationalist
o He was a staunch believer in the idea of Swadeshi but he was not
against the use of machines for organising key industries in the
country. He urged Tata to raise Indian capital for his iron and steel
plants.
o He played a vital role in establishing Ahmedabad’s first textile mill.
o He was instrumental in popularising the idea of Indian swaraj across
the British empire and beyond.
● Others
o He was in favour of pensions for the elderly, the Irish home rule and
the abolition of the House of Lords.
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o Although he possessed a liberal view of the world around him, he
expounded on the need for purity in thought, speech and action in
his book ‘The Duties of the Zoroastrians.’
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Literary works and quotes
Literary works
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o Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
o The Manners and Customs of Parsees
o The Parsee Religion
o The European and Asiatic Races
o Poverty of India
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● Quotes
o “Let us always remember that we are all children of our mother
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country. Indeed, I have never worked in any other spirit than that I
am an Indian, and owe a duty to my country and all my countrymen.
Whether I am a Hindu, a Mohammedan, a Parsi, a Christian, or any
other creed, I am above all an Indian. Our country is India; our
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nationality is Indian.”
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Dadabhai Naoroji passed away on 30th June 1917 at Versova in Bombay.
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Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) -
Moderate Voice of Freedom: Pioneering
Constructive Swaraj
Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a noted freedom fighter, liberal
political leader, social reformer and senior leader of the Indian
National Congress (INC) belonging to the 'moderate' group of
nationalists. As much as he is known for his contribution to the
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national movement, so is he famous for being Gandhi's 'political
guru'. Gokhale was a scholar and a statesman who campaigned
for Indian self-rule and social reforms with great effort. His
petitions sought to cultivate a process of dialogue and discussion
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with British authorities to earn the due share of Indians.
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● Gopal Krishna Gokhale was born on 9th May 1866 in a poor Chitpavan
Brahmin family in Kataluk located in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra.
● His father's name was Krishna Rao who served as a clerk and his mother’s
name was Satyabhama.
● Although his family had a humble financial background, his parents
managed to provide Gokhale with an English education.
● Gokhale was married to Savitribai in 1880. After her death, he remarried in
1887. Gokhale did not marry again and his children were looked after by
his relatives.
● After completing his initial education, Gokhale went to the prestigious
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Elphinstone College, Bombay and received his university degree in 1884 at
the age of 18. He was one of the first generations of Indians to receive a
university education.
● He had a brilliant mind and strong intellect which enabled him to gain a
strong command over English political theory and the English language.
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Additionally, his exposure to Western political thought made him a great
admirer of theorists such as John Stuart Mill and Edmund Burke.
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● After graduation, he joined Deccan Education Society, Poona as a life
member.
● His excellence in English helped him secure the position of teacher in the
New English School, Pune.
● He also taught English Literature and Mathematics at Fergusson College,
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Pune from 1885 to 1902. At the same time, he began working as an
associate editor of the newspaper Sudharak.
His membership at the Deccan Education Society introduced him to
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●
Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. M.G. Ranade was a learned social
reformer and is termed to be Gokhale's mentor.
● It was Ranade who took Gokhale close to politics which would have a great
bearing on Indian society and India’s freedom struggle in the forthcoming
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days.
● In 1902, Gokhale resigned from Fergusson College, Pune to join politics.
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● In 1887, Gokhale became the secretary of the famous Poona Sarvajanik
Sabha, the leading political organization in Bombay and began editing its
quarterly journal, called “Sarvajanik”.
● Gokhale joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1889. He belonged
to the 'moderate' faction of the party and supported a non-violent
nationalist movement. He preferred to reform the system under British rule
from within and advocated for more autonomy within it.
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● In 1895, at the age of 29, he was chosen as the secretary to the Indian
National Congress (INC) and in the same year, he was elected to the senate
of Bombay University.
● From 1898 to 1906, Gokhale was a member of the Poona Municipality and
served as its president in 1902 and 1905. Under his leadership, the
municipal government underwent effective reformation and
democratization.
● In 1899, he became a member of the Bombay Legislative Council and then
in 1902, he became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council. His
greatest contributions to the Legislative Council were his budget speeches
from 1902 to 1914.
● His well-informed speeches on budget and social reform packed with data,
evidence and simple logic proved his mastery as a learned critic and his
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frontal attack on the British government by saying that the latter took away
a lot without doing much for the people proved his fearlessness. This
marked him as the most distinguished member of the Council.
● In 1905, he was elected as the president of the INC. He was the youngest
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leader ever to preside over a session (Benaras Session) of INC.
● In the same year, he founded the Servants of India Society intending to
advance the nation’s welfare and the "spiritualization" of politics.
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● He denounced the British act of the Partition of Bengal (1905) as "cruel
wrong" in a quite eloquent and brilliant way.
● He not only argued for greater representation of Indians in elected
assemblies, the judiciary and academia but also fostered discussions on
political, economic, and educational issues that India faced in the
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pre-Independence era.
● He was a tolerant nationalist who offered constructive criticism of British
policies and the same time favouring free speech and free press.
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● Gokhale’s deposition before the Welby Commission (1895) on the financial

condition of India pointed out how the cost of governance in India was
increasing and how the tax hike was doomed to ruin the economy further,
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stating the need for political reform.

● In 1905, he was sent by the Indian National Congress (INC) on a special
mission to England to voice India's constitutional demands before British
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leaders. He held several interviews with Lord Morley, the then secretary of
state for India.
● In 1906, he founded Bharat Sevak Samaj to transform Indian society and
get rid of its social evils.
● In 1908, he was sent to England again in connection with the impending
Morley-Minto constitutional reforms of the British government and it is
believed that he played an instrumental role in drafting the Morley-Minto
reforms (1909).
● In 1912, Gokhale visited South Africa where he met Gandhi and helped
him in fighting for the cause of indentured labourers. There he also met
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Gen. Jan Smuts to assist in securing a satisfactory agreement regarding
the position of Indians.
● Lord Harding called him, “the most dangerous enemy of British rule in the
country”.
Relationship with other leaders

● Justice Mahadev Govinda Ranade
o M. G. Ranade had a remarkable influence on Gokhale's life and
thought process. He had trained him for 15 years in all spheres of
public life and taught him sincerity, devotion to public service, and
tolerance. Gokhale’s vision of promoting the spread of industrial,
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technical and scientific knowledge was something he inherited from
Ranade.
o Ranade's mentorship polished Gokhale's knowledge of economics and
political science which can be seen in his testimony before the Welby
Commission.
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o Both Gokhale and Ranade believed in the 'moderate' ideology for
attaining India’s independence and were firm supporters of carrying
out social reforms in Indian society to enable it to exercise its
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autonomy.
o His association with Ranade and the latter’s influence on his life
earned him the name of Protege Son’ i.e., Manas Putra of Justice
Mahadev Govind Ranade.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
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o When Tilak and his confederates had formed the Deccan Education
Society, Gokhale was invited to teach English, mathematics, and
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political economy.
o In 1891-92, Gokhale and Tilak had their first serious disagreement
over the Age of Consent Bill introduced by the British government
which was aimed at limiting child marriage abuses. Gokhale
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supported the bill while Tilak opposed it on the grounds of the

British interfering with Hindu customs.
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o Tilak belonged to the group of assertive nationalists whereas Gokhale

was a constitutionalist. Gokhale believed in constitutional means and
cooperation with the British government while Tilak believed in
protest, boycott and agitation. Both of them were at the peak of their
political career during the first decade of the 1900s.
o Their differences became more pronounced when the freedom
struggle gained momentum leading to the split in the Indian National
Congress in 1907. The idea of passive resistance first introduced by
Tilak was not supported by Gokhale.
o Although Gokhale and Tilak held divergent views on the methods of
struggle for India’s independence and followed opposing political
ideologies, it did not deter their friendship and mutual respect.
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o Despite being considered political rivals, Tilak in his obituary called
Gokhale "the diamond of India", and "the gem of Maharashtra".
● Gandhi and Jinnah
o Gandhi considered Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and compared him
to the Ganges River. It was Gokhale who trained Gandhi and passed
on the knowledge and understanding of India and the issues
confronting common Indians.
o Gandhi met him for the first time in 1896 in Poona. In 1901, after
spending a month together at the Calcutta session, Gokhale
proposed to Gandhi for the first time that he return to India.
o In 1912, Gokhale went to South Africa on the invitation of Gandhi to
strengthen the latter’s hands in his struggle against the indentured
labour system which he also strongly disapproved of.
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o Gokhale also offered financial help to many of Gandhi’s initiatives,
including the setting up of the Sabarmati Ashram upon Gandhi’s
return to India.
o Gandhi described Gokhale “as pure as crystal, as gentle as a lamb,
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as brave as a lion, and the most perfect man in the political field."
o Mohammed Ali Jinnah also was highly impressed by Gokhale. He
wished to become a “Muslim Gokhale”.
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o He called Gokhale a “fearless critic and opponent” of British
government measures “guided by reason and pure moderation”.
Gokhale as a social reformer

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● Gokhale was more a social reformer than a nationalist. He was deeply

concerned about the social evils faced by the Indian society.
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● He strongly disapproved of the discrimination inherent in the Indian caste

system and supported women’s causes and education for Indians.
● He established the Servants of India Society in 1905 to train the
missionaries for the service of India and to work for the expansion of Indian
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education.
● Through his organisation - Bharat Sevak Samaj, Gokhale tried to eradicate
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untouchability and the caste system in India.

● He was in favour of education for all and favoured Western education for
Indians. He believed that Indians needed industrial and modern
agricultural education. He advocated for free and compulsory primary
education.
o The Servants of India Society organised mobile libraries, founded
schools, and provided night classes for manufacturing workers.
● He considered education as a means for the emancipation of women and
was against all the evils hampering the progress of women in society.
Gokhale supported the first municipal high school for girls, which was
started in Pune. He also supported widow remarriage and offered firm
support to the Age of Consent Bill.
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● He also sympathised with the Indians facing discrimination abroad. He
worked hard and devoted his life to serving the unheard and
underprivileged sections of society which took a toll on his health and
aggravated his health problems later on.
Gokhale breathed his last on February 19, 1915.
Famous works
● The Hitavada (the people’s paper) English weekly newspaper was started
by Gokhale in 1911.
● He was an associate editor of the newspaper Sudharak.
● He also edited the quarterly journal of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, called
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“Sarvajanik”.
● Arctic Home in the Vedas
Famous quotes
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● “No taxation without representation.”
● “What the country needs most at the present moment is a spirit of
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self-sacrifice on the part of our educated young men, and they may take it
from me that they cannot spend their lives in a better cause than raising
the moral and intellectual level of their unhappy low castes and promoting
their well-being.”
● “No Indian could have started the Indian National Congress…if an Indian
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had come forward to start such a movement embracing all Indians, the
officials in India would not have allowed the movement to come into
existence.”
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● “How can we possibly realize our national aspirations, how can our country
ever hope to take her place among the nations of the world, if we allow
large numbers of our countrymen to remain sunk in ignorance, barbarism,
and degradation?”
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Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1883) - Harbinger
of Indian Renaissance: Championing Social
Reformation
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, also known as the ‘Father of Modern
India’ was a renowned Indian socio-religious reformer of the
19th century. He not only desired to eradicate the social evils
prevalent in India but also advocated the introduction of
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Western education in India to awaken the minds of Indians.
Although Roy favoured Western education, he also supported
the cause of freedom and the personal liberty of Indians.
Indian history also remembers Roy for leading the intellectual
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movement of Indians called the Indian Renaissance or the
re-establishment of the glory of Indian culture.
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● Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born on May 22, 1772, in Radhanagar village in
the Hooghly district of British-ruled Bengal to a prosperous Brahmin
family.
● His parents were Ramkanto Roy (Vaishnavite) and Tarinidevi (from a
shivaite background).
● Although very little is known about his early education, it is said that by
the age of 15 only, he had learnt Bengali, Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit.
● At a very early age, he developed unorthodox religious ideas. He was sent to
Patna to receive higher education.
● He was against idol worship and orthodox Hindu rituals and opposed all
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sorts of social bigotry, conservatism and superstitions but his father was
an orthodox Hindu Brahmin. This resulted in differences between Raja
Ram Mohan Roy and his father.
● His differences with his father resulted in Ram Mohan Roy leaving his
home. He wandered around the Himalayas and went to Tibet. He travelled
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widely before returning home.
● After his return, he was married to a girl in the hope of undergoing some
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change. However, all these endeavours went in vain. Roy now went to
Varanasi where he studied Vedas, Upanishads and Hindu philosophy
deeply.
● In 1803, he lost his father and returned to Murshidabad, Bengal. Roy then
supported himself financially by moneylending in Calcutta, managing his
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small estates, and speculating in British East India Company bonds.
● In 1805, he was employed as an assistant by John Digby, a lower company
official who introduced him to Western culture and literature.
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● Till the next few years, i.e., up to 1814 he kept serving in the Revenue
Department of the East India Company also continuing his religious
studies throughout this period.
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As a social reformer
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● In 1815, Roy started his public life with the establishment of the Atmiya
Sabha. The sabha focused on social and religious reforms in society.
● He believed that orthodox religious beliefs and practices combined with
social evils is are the cause of the social deterioration of India and that the
progressive role of the British may help eradicate such evils. Thus, he
sought the British government’s help in several social reform matters,
especially in form of socially progressive legislation.
● Women-centric reforms
○ Roy was a champion of women's rights and thus campaigned for
rights for women, including the right for widows to remarry, and the
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right for women to hold property. He actively opposed the Sati system
and the practice of polygamy.
○ Restoration of property rights
■ Roy believed that the pitiable condition of women in India
could be attributed to the complete denial of their property
rights. Women in India at that time were deprived of their
rights to share the property left by their deceased father or
husband.
■ In 1822, Roy in his book titled Brief Remarks Regarding
Modern Enchroachments on the Ancient Right of Females
pointed out that the ancient Hindu Lawgivers allowed women
to have property rights and how the modern lawmakers were
gradually taking away these rights.
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■ Thus, he demanded that women be given the right to
inheritance and property.
○ Against polygamy
■ Roy believed that women robbed of their property rights were
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dependent on male members of the family and were merely
considered physical objects to satisfy the lust of men. Men
were free to marry as many women as they can.
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■ However, women were not allowed to marry for the second
time. He considered it a violation of the equality of rights of all
sexes. He also brought to light the shameful evil consequences
of men having multiple wives. He thus opposed polygamy
practised by men in those times.
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■ He pleaded for the introduction or enactment of such a law

which would allow a Hindu male to marry a second wife only
after getting a clearance from the magistrate.
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○ Abolition of Sati
■ Roy especially sympathised with the Hindu widows and
believed that the utter helplessness and humiliation of the
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Hindu widow was one of the major reasons that prompted the
inhuman practice of Sati.
■ He used all the means at his disposal to bring a halt to the
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inhuman practice of sati in which a widow was supposed or

often forced to burn herself alive on the funeral pyre of her
husband.
■ In 1818, he wrote his first essay where he argued that women
had an independent existence of their husbands and that
society has no right over their life. He believed that the right to
life of both men and women was equally important.
■ Roy thus fought against the practice of sati through his
writings, speeches, agitation and discussions preparing the
minds of the people in favour of the abolition of sati, by
convincing the rulers that it was their responsibility as civilized
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rulers to put an end to the cruel custom and inquiring into and
trying to eliminate those causes that forced a Hindu widow to
commit Sati.
■ His efforts finally bore fruit with the enactment of Regulation
XVII (Prohibition of Sati) by British East India Governing
Council in 1829 making sati illegal and punishable by courts.
○ Widow remarriage
■ Although Roy was against polygamy, he supported the cause of
women's remarriage under certain circumstances.
■ The widows in India during the 19th century were not allowed
to remarry or turn to religious learning. She led a barren life
which was more painful than the pain she endured as a sati.
■ Roy believed in the rights of women as an individual and thus
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advocated widow remarriage so that they can lead a happy life
even after their spouse’s death.
○ Women’s education
■ Roy also believed that the inferior status of women in society
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was due to keeping them away from knowledge and
opportunities for generations. He thus advocated women’s
education and the introduction of such facilities that would
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facilitate their education.
■ Brahmo Samaj which he founded paid special attention to
women's education in India.
● Against caste system
○ Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed that the caste system fragmented the
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Indian society destroying the homogeneity and integrated nature of

society and weakening it politically.
○ He was also against the discriminatory nature of caste and the
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inequities inherent in the traditional caste hierarchy. He criticised it

considering it to be illogical and supported inter-caste and
inter-racial marriages that would eventually help in breaking the
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barriers of caste division.

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As a religious reformer
● Roy was a learned man. He studied oriental languages like Arabic, Persian
and Sanskrit and attained proficiency in European languages like English,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. His familiarity with varied languages
exposed him to a variety of cultural, philosophical and religious
experiences.
● The ideas of monotheism and anti-idolatry of Islam, deism of Sufism, the
ethical teaching of Christianity, and liberal and rationalist doctrines of the
West had a deep influence on him. His serious study of comparative
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religions made him realise that true Hinduism, true Islam and true
Christianity are not fundamentally different from each other.
● He believed that the universal religion of humanity comprising religious
tolerance and an absence of all the sectarian barriers of a separate religion
can be established by drawing out the best elements of all religions.
● In 1803, he published a Persian treatise called Tuhfat-ul-Muwahidin or ‘A
Gift to Monotheists’ wherein he explained his concept of monotheism.
● Atmiya Sabha, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy also propagated
monotheism and fought against the evil customs and practices in
Hinduism.
● Roy also sought to revive Hindusim which he believed was suffering from
the evils of superstitions, worship of idols, the rigidity of caste, and the
prevalence of meaningless religious rituals.
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● He sought to reinterpret Hinduism and draw the attention of Indians to
ancient Indian religious texts of Hinduism such as Vedas and the
Upanishads that preached monotheism or worship of one God. He believed
that the philosophy of Vedanta was based on this principle of reason.
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● To purify Hinduism and prove that blind faith and superstitious beliefs and
practices had no basis in the pure Hindu religion, he translated the
Upanishads into English and Bengali giving elaborate notes and comments
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and distributing them free of cost among people.
● He also sought to break the superstition around travelling overseas which
was considered to be a sin by the orthodox Hindus by himself travelling
overseas.
● In 1828, he established a new religious society Brahmo Samaj which acted
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as a forum for religious and philosophical contemplation and discussion.

The Samaj laid emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry, and
criticized social evils such as the practice of Sati.
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● Roy was a humanist and wanted to build a society based on tolerance,

sympathy, brotherhood and reason. He visualized the necessity for a
universal religion for mankind.
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● Raja Ram Mohan Roy, being a well-read man realized the importance of
education for Indians especially Western education which was based on
science and reason. He considered education a powerful instrument for
social reform.
● He believed that Western-type education would help India regain her proper
place in the comity of nations. However, he also had great respect for the
infinite sources of knowledge contained in ancient Indian philosophy and
religion.
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● He wanted to equip the new generation with scientific knowledge through
instructions in the useful modern sciences like chemistry, mathematics,
anatomy and natural philosophy.
● In 1817, in collaboration with David Hare, he set up the Hindu College at
Calcutta.
● In 1822, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Anglo-Hindu school.
● In 1826, he set up Vedanta College, offering courses as a synthesis of
Western and Indian learning.
● In 1830, he helped Rev. Alexander Duff in establishing the General
Assembly's Institution (now known as Scottish Church College), by
providing him with the venue vacated by Brahma Sabha and getting the
first batch of students.
He also helped the Bengali language evolve with a modern and elegant
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prose style by contributing to Bengali grammar through translations,
pamphlets and journals.
● He was the first person who advocated for women's education in India.
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● Roy was the father of constitutional agitation in India. He ardently
supported the causes of India’s freedom and human emancipation.
● Roy was a supporter of the impersonal authority of law and opposed all
kinds of arbitrary and despotic power. He believed that a constitutional
government is the best guarantee of human freedom.
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● According to him, freedom was a priceless position of mankind and thus he

was the first to deliver the message of political freedom to India. Although
he considered the British connection necessary for India's social
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emancipation, he was against the unending foreign rule in India.

● He not only supported India’s cause for independence but also celebrated
the establishment of constitutional governments in Spain and Portugal. He
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also strongly supported the demands of the Greeks and the Neapolitans for
liberty.
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On liberty and freedom of the press

● According to Roy, liberty was a priceless possession of mankind and his
idea of liberty was not only confined to one nation or community rather it
was universal.
● Freedom was the strongest passion of his mind and thus he believed in
freedom of body and mind, and also the freedom of action and thought.
This belief was the manifestation of all his efforts against all restrictions
imposed by consideration of race, religion, caste, gender and customs on
human freedoms.
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● He was the pioneer of individual liberty in India. He also gave equal
importance to the right to freedom of opinion and expression which also
includes freedom of creativity of mind and intellect, as well as the freedom
of expressing one's opinions and thoughts through different media.
● He advocated the freedom of the press and considered it necessary for the
sake of the governors and the governed. He believed that a free and
independent press alone could bring forth the best in the government as
well as the people. He was against the restrictions imposed by bureaucracy
and considered them arbitrary and uncalled for following the
circumstances in the country.
● He was a pioneer in the field of Indian journalism. It was because of his
efforts that in 1835 all the restrictions imposed on the press were removed
by Charles Metcalfe.
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● However, he was not against reasonable restrictions on the freedom of the
press considering the necessity of maintaining friendly relations with
neighbouring states and protecting the British rulers from those Indians
who might have been misled by some native hatemongers.
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Other beliefs
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● Law, customs and morality
○ He considered law the command of the sovereign. He believed that
codification of law was important as it would accommodate the
interests of both the ruler and the ruled. He desired the codified laws
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to be e simple, clear and exact with their interpretations being more

impersonal and their application more uniform.
○ He considered the participation of all the factions of society in the
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law-making process crucially important and thus argued that the

British should take into account the views and opinions of the
economic and intellectual elites in India before finalising any law
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related to the country.

○ Apart from this, he also believed that the codification of law should
not overlook the long-standing customs of this country given they are
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reasonable and conducive to the general welfare of the people.

○ He also considered the difference between law, custom and morality
important and hoped that any law to be effective must take into
account the ethical principles prevalent in a given society.
● Judiciary and administration
○ He suggested that the administration could only be effective and
efficient when the officials spoke in the language of the masses.
Additionally, he believed that there should be several channels of
communication to facilitate interaction between the administration
and the masses.
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○ Roy considered an efficient, impartial and independent judiciary as
the supreme guarantee of liberty. He advocated for:
■ Association of the natives in the judicial process.
■ Constant supervision of the judicial proceedings by a vigilant
public opinion.
■ Substitution of English for Persian as the official language to
be used in the courts of law.
■ Appointment of Indian assessors in civil suits, trial by jury.
■ Separation of judicial from executive functions.
■ Constant consultation of the native interests before the
enactment of any law that concerned them.
■ Revival of the age-old Panchayat system of adjudication.
● Role of state and international co-existence
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○ Although he was a liberal thinker, he wished the state to play an
active role in dealing with the social, moral and cultural
responsibilities which were not strictly political.
○ He hoped the state to protect the tenants against the landlords, make
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arrangements for useful and liberal education, eradicate the ugly
practices like Sati and give equal protection to the lives of both males
and females, and make efforts to create a new social order based on
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the principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and social justice.
○ He was the first of his time to have a clear vision of internationalism
and believed in cooperation, tolerance and fellowship. He believed in
an equal effort by all the nations to achieve global unity and a sense
of broad fraternity.
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○ He also believed in the need for a common platform for the frequent
exchange of views and opinions, to eliminate political differences and
to settle international issues.
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In 1831, Raja Ram Mohan Roy travelled to England (the first educated Indian to
do so) as an ambassador of the Mughal emperor, Akbar II. It was Akbar II who
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bestowed upon him the title of ‘Raja’. Raja Ram Mohan Roy died of meningitis on
September 27, 1833, in Bristol, Gloucestershire, England.
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Literary works
● Magazines and newspapers
○ Brahmanical Magazine, the Sambad Kaumudi, and Mirat-ul-Akbar.
● Books
○ Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (1804)
○ Vedanta Gantha (1815)
○ Translation of an abridgement of the Vedanta Sara (1816)
○ Kenopanishads (1816)
○ Ishopanishad (1816)
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○ Kathopanishad (1817)
○ A Conference between the Advocate for, and an Opponent of Practice
of Burning Widows Alive (Bengali and English) (1818)
○ Mundaka Upanishad (1819)
○ A Defence of Hindu Theism (1820)
○ The Precepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
○ Bengali Grammar (1826)
○ The Universal Religion (1829)
○ History of Indian Philosophy (1829)
○ Gaudiya Vyakaran (1833)
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Sri Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) - Spiritual
Revolutionary: Merging Nationalism with
Spiritual Evolution
Sri Aurobindo Ghose was a renowned scholar, philosopher,

journalist, yogi, seer, poet and Indian nationalist. He is also well
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known for his spiritual ideas, especially for propounding the
philosophy of divine life on earth. He was also one of the pioneers of
political awakening in India.
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● Sri Aurobindo was born on the 15th of August 1872, to Sri Krishnadhan
and Swamalata, in a reputed Ghosh family of Konnagar, Calcutta (Kolkata),
West Bengal, India.
● He began his education at Loretto Convent School in Darjeeling at the age
of four. When he was still a boy (seven years old), he was sent to a public
school in England for further schooling.
● After that, Sri Aurobindo went to King’s College, Cambridge where he
gained proficiency in two classical (Greek and Latin) and several modern
European languages (French, German, English, Italian etc.).
● In 1890, he passed the Indian Civil Service Examination (ICS) but his
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failure to stand the compulsory test in horsemanship made him ineligible
to enter the Covenantal Service of the Indian Government.
● After spending fourteen years in England, he returned to India in 1893 and
held several administrative and professorial posts in Baroda (Vadodara)
and Calcutta (Kolkata) till 1906.
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o He served as a professor at Baroda College and was appointed as the
Vice-principal of the State college in Baroda. He also worked in the
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Princely State of Baroda in the service of the Maharaja.
o During this period, he took an active interest in academics and
deeply studied Sanskrit and Bengali literature, philosophy and
political science simultaneously.
o He also joined a revolutionary society and took a leading role in
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secret preparations for an uprising against the British Government in
India.
Sri Aurobindo got married to Mrinalini Devi in April 1901 when he was 29.
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● Sri Aurobindo quit his post in Baroda in 1906 after the Partition of Bengal
and went to Calcutta where he soon became one of the leaders of the
nationalist movement.
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● Sri Aurobindo’s role in the nationalist movement became more visible in

the fight against the Partition of Bengal and his visits to Bengal made him
realise that brutal British rule could not be overthrown by the approach
(petitions, prayers and protests) adopted by ‘moderates’ but radical
approaches (to be adopted by ‘extremists’) were needed.
● His belief in armed secret societies of young men who were determined to
lay down their lives made him help organise secret societies in Bengal like
Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar.
● He was one of the figureheads of the ‘extremist’ Swadeshi Movement in
India. Through his speeches and essays in the English daily Bande
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Mataram and English weekly, Dharma, he spread the idea of nationalism
fearlessly.
● According to him, “Our ideal of Swaraj is absolute autonomy, absolute
self-rule, free from foreign control” and he spread it extensively, openly
advocating the boycott of British goods, British courts and everything
British.
● In 1906, he joined the newly set college of nationalists, the National
Council of Education (later turned into Jadavpur University) sponsored
by Raja Subodh Mallik and the nationalist segment of the gentry of Bengal.
The institution’s curriculum was completely free from the biased and
racially demeaning history, education and culture of the British. Sri
Aurobindo became the first principal of the institution.
Like some other INC leaders, he also advocated and encouraged people to
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adopt the means of passive resistance and non-violence but contributed
quite frequently to radical journals like Karmayogin and others.
● During this time, he dealt with arms and explosives and planned
‘operations’ against British targets for which the British started charging
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him with heinous offences and terrorist attacks.
● Sri Aurobindo was charged for being the mastermind of incidents, such as,
when radicals set explosives to derail the train carrying lieutenant-governor
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Sir Andrew Fraser in December 1907 and Khudiram Bose and Prafulla
Chaki made an attempt on the life of the tyrannical presidency magistrate
Douglas Kingsford in Muzaffarpur (killing British citizens instead) in April
1908.
o The case was widely known as Alipore Bomb Case (also known as
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the Muraripukur conspiracy, or the Manicktola bomb conspiracy)

and officially known as Emperor vs Aurobindo Ghosh and others.
The trial for the case on the charge of waging war against the British
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government was held at Alipore sessions court, Calcutta, between May
1908 and May 1909. Chittaranjan Das (C.R.Das) defended Aurobindo and
with no witness alive, the case collapsed during the trial and Sri Aurobindo
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was acquitted on 6 May 1909.

● Though eventually acquitted, he remained in prison for one year during the
investigation of the crime. During this period of imprisonment, he went
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through several spiritual experiences and realisations due to which he

decided to quit politics.
● He withdrew from politics in 1910 and went into hiding at Chandannagar
since the police were looking for him to prosecute him based on a signed
article titled ‘To My Countrymen’, published in Karmayogin. The British
government was so intolerant of him that Lord Minto wrote about him: "I
can only repeat that he is the most dangerous man we have to reckon
with."
o He eventually shifted to Pondicherry (now Puducherry) which was
then a French colony to avoid further fixing in cases and trials from
the British.
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● He stated that the decision was not driven by a sense of hopelessness
concerning the freedom movement, but instead he felt that others could
successfully lead the movement without his help.
As a yogi and spiritual leader

● Sri Aurobindo began devoting his time to formulating his vision of spiritual
evolution and Integral Yoga after retiring from direct involvement in
political events and he did so for the next forty years of his life.
● Yoga
o Sri Aurobindo had begun his yoga in 1904. However, he was later
helped by some yogis to reach the stage of mastering yoga and
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developing a new way of yogic spirituality, that is, Integral Yoga.
o His idea of Integral Yoga seeks to reconcile Western ideas with the
sublime teachings of Indian philosophy. It combines the Hindu yoga
paths of knowledge, devotion, and karma.
o He believed that a veil of ignorance exists which prevents the mind
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from evolving into the supermind and only the Divine can remove the
veil, but yoga practice can help facilitate this process. Here comes the
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role of Integral yoga that will help prepare humankind for ascent into
the supermind.
● Spirituality
o Sri Aurobindo’s idea of spirituality was based on facts, experience
and personal realisations. It was not devoid of reason but filled with
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it and thus, the American philosopher Ken Wilber has called Sri
Aurobindo “India’s greatest modern philosopher sage”.
o Sri Aurobindo believed that the ultimate goal of human life is not
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merely the liberation of the individual from the chain that fetters him
but to evolve spiritually beyond its current limitations, “to work out
the will of the Divine in the world, to effect a spiritual transformation
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and to bring down the divine nature and a divine life into the mental,
vital and physical nature and life of humanity”.
o This would be the Divine Life on Earth characterized by knowledge,
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truth, substance, and energy of supramental consciousness that he

talked about in his work Life Divine.
o He also developed a theory of evolution and involution outlining a
path of spiritual progress. However, his evolution model was not
based on physical evolution but a spiritual one.
▪ He taught that humanity can evolve beyond its current state to
become a perfect expression of Brahman and it is possible only
when the Spirit descends into Matter (involution) where
spirituality would act as the guiding path.
o At Pondicherry, he established a community of spiritual seekers,
later on, named the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in 1926.
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o The closest collaborator in his yoga was Mirra Richard (née Alfassa),
a French lady, to whom he entrusted the work of guiding the seekers.
She was called “the Mother” at the Ashram and presided over the
Ashram.
Death
Sri Aurobindo passed away on 5th December 1950 at Pondicherry. He was 78
years old then.
Literary works
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Essays on Gita (1922), Life Divine (1939), Ideal and Progress, Isa Upanishad, The
Superman, Evolution, Heraclitus, The Ideal of the Karmayogin, The Brain of
India, The Renaissance in India, Bases of Yoga, The Foundations of Indian
Culture, War and Self-determination, Hymns to the Mystic Fire, Kalidasa,
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Vikramorvasi or The Hero and the Nymph, The Riddle of This World, The
Mother,The Future Poetry, Collected Poems and Plays (1942), The Synthesis of
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Yoga (1948), The Human Cycle (1949), The Ideal of Human Unity (1949), Savitri:
A Legend and a Symbol (1950).
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V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (1872-1936) -
Maritime Pioneer: Steering India’s Naval
Awakening
V.O.Chidambaram Pillai (Vallinayagam Olaganathan

Chidambaram Pillai), [VOC] (1872-1936), also known as
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Kappalottiya Tamilan (The Tamil Helmsman) and
Sekkizuththa Semmal [scholarly gentry who suffered at
the oil press], was a renowned Indian freedom fighter,
lawyer, author, entrepreneur and labour rights activist. He
was a firm believer in the idea of Swadeshi. He made
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sufficient efforts and utilised all available avenues to rouse
the people for the nationalistic cause and make India
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self-dependent. He spent his entire life helping India attain
independence and kept fighting for the nationalistic cause
until his last breath.
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● VOC was born on 5th September 1872 to an eminent lawyer Olaganathan
Pillai and Paramyee Ammai in Ottapidaram, Tirunelveli district of Tamil
Nadu.
● He was the eldest son of his parents and began his early education in
Tuticorin.
● He completed his graduation from Caldwell College, Tuticorin.
● Pillai worked as a clerk at a taluk office for some time and then began
studying law.
● He passed a pleadership (lawyers were called “pleaders’ then) examination
in 1894 and began practising law at the local sub-magistrate's court. After
that in1900, he went to the nearby port town of Tuticorin to do the same.
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● Until 1905, he was engaged in professional and journalistic activities.
● VOC entered politics in 1905 following the partition of Bengal. It was
towards the end of 1905 that VOC visited Madras and was drawn closer to
the Swadeshi movement initiated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat
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Rai.
● He supported the militant wing of the Indian National Congress (INC) led by
Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He participated in the Surat Session of the Indian
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National Congress held in 1907.
● He was also drawn towards Ramakrishna Mission and came into contact
with Subramania Bharati and the Mandayam family.
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Contribution to national movement

● The rise of militancy in India after the partition of Bengal and the initiation
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of the Swadeshi movement combined with the boycott of foreign goods

attracted Pillai towards the freedom struggle.
● Between 1906-08 during the Swadeshi movement, he dominated the
national movement in Tamil Nadu.
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● Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company

○ Tuticorin has been always one of the important ports in Tamil Nadu
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after Madras and many merchants engaged in active trade with

Ceylon (Sri Lanka) during the British era.
○ However, during those days passenger shipping as well as cargo
services were monopolised by European shipping companies.
○ The British Indian Steam Navigation Company Ltd. (BISNCo) was one
such, the only company maintaining a regular steamer service
between Tuticorin and Colombo. The BISNCo officials treated their
Indian patrons unfairly and offensively.
○ Inspired by the Swadeshi movement, VOC mobilised the support of
merchants and industrialists in Tuticorin and Tirunelveli for the idea
of establishing a Swadeshi merchant shipping outfit. The result was
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the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNCo), the first
indigenous Indian shipping enterprise.
○ The company was formally established on October 16, 1906. He
purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe for the
company and commenced regular services between Tuticorin and
Colombo against the opposition of the British traders and the
Imperial Government.
○ The effort earned him the name "Kappalottiya Tamilan” (The Tamil
Helmsman).
○ Soon, the company became a huge success but to keep it afloat and
combat BISNCo’s infinitely greater resources and imperial backing,
wide public support was required.
○ It was the time when Pillai won the active support of another fiery
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Tamil orator, Subramania Siva. they were aided by several
Tirunelveli-based lawyers, who formed an organisation called the
Swadeshi Sangam, or ‘National Volunteers’.
● Tuticorin Coral Mills strike
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○ To widen the base of the Swadeshi movement and fight against the
poor working conditions of workers at Tuticorin Coral Mills managed
by British Tuticorin agents, A. & F. Harvey, Pillai took up the
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workers’ cause and supported their strike organised on 27 February
1908.
○ The workers’ demands included a reduction in the number of
working hours and a pay increase.
○ Pillai had been interested in labour welfare for a long time and thus
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he easily developed sympathetic feelings for the workers and began

supporting them. His support for workers brought him into
increasing conflict with the British Raj.
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○ In the first week of March 1908, a series of stirring speeches by VOC,

Siva and Padmanabha Iyengar electrified the people of Tuticorin. The
nationalist leaders, with strong support from the people of Tuticorin,
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resolved to take out a mammoth procession on the morning of 9th

March 1908 in Tirunelveli to celebrate the release of Bipin Chandra
Pal from jail and hoist the flag of Swaraj.
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○ The infuriated Britishers arrested VOC, Subramania, and Iyengar on

12 March 1908. This resulted in unprecedented violence in
Tirunelveli and Tuticorin for two days quelled only by the stationing
of a punitive police force.
○ VOC was charged with sedition and awarded rigorous imprisonment.
● Others
○ To encourage swadeshi business and boycott British-made goods he
established “Swadeshi Stores” to sell locally-made products.
○ Chidambaram also established many institutions like Swadeshi
Prachar Sabha, Dharmasanga Nesavu Salai, National Godown,
Madras Agro-Industrial Society Ltd and Desabimana Sangam.
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Prison life and afterwards
● He was sent to Coimbatore Central Prison and Kannanoor jail where he
suffered a lot at the hands of his jailors. He was not treated as a ‘political
prisoner’ but as a criminal and had to undergo brutal physical work.
● At first, he was assigned the task of operating a jute-cleaning machine
which had to be operated with one's bare hands resulting in VOC's palm
skin peeling off and bleeding.
● To substitute this task, he was then forced to draw and pull an oil press
that is normally drawn by oxen.
● While in prison, V O Chidambaram Pillai continued with his Swadeshi
activities through legal petitions.
By the time VOC was released in 1912, his shipping company had been
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taken over by the British.
● He was also deprived of his title of barrister and reduced to a very
impoverished state. He also had to sell all his law books to survive but his
poverty did not deter him from pursuing the nationalist cause.
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● After attending the 1920 meeting of the Indian National Congress (INC) at
Calcutta, he turned his attention to literary pursuits and spent his last
days in abject poverty.
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● He also withdrew from the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1920, citing
ideological differences with Mahatma Gandhi.
● He focused his efforts on establishing labour unions in Madras. He
re-joined the Congress party in 1927 and presided over the third political
conference held at Salem noticing a remarkable change in the policies of
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Congress.
● However, after the Salem conference, Chidambaram again severed his
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contact with Congress.

● In 1929, he moved to Thoothukudi, where he spent his time writing and
publishing Tamil books.
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Death
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VOC breathed his last on 18 November 1936 at the Indian National Congress
(INC) office in Tuticorin.
Literary works
● VOC was an erudite scholar as can be seen in his literary pursuits.
● After his release from prison in 1912, he completed his autobiography in
Tamil verse which he started in prison.
● He also wrote a commentary on the Thirukural.
● He compiled ancient works of Tamil grammar, Tholkappiam.
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● He translated James Allen’s books as well which earned him an
indisputable reputation.
● He also authored some novels.
● Some of his Tamil works include “Meyyaram" and "Meyyarivu".
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Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) -
Philosopher-President: Bridging Eastern and
Western Thought
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was an illustrious Indian
philosopher, academician and statesman who served as the
first Vice-President and the second President of India from
1962 to 1967. He was a brilliant student from a young age and
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went on to become one of the most influential figures in Indian
history. Radhakrishnan was a renowned scholar of Hinduism,
Indian philosophy, and comparative religion, and his works
have been translated into numerous languages. He was a
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prominent advocate of religious tolerance, peace and
non-violence, and he was influential in shaping the educational
system of modern India. His birth anniversary is celebrated as
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Teachers’ Day in India.
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Radhakrishnan was born in Thiruttani, Madras Presidency, British India on 5
September 1888. His father, Sarvepalli Veeraswami, was a subordinate revenue
official in the service of a local zamindar (landlord). His mother, Sitamma, was a
devout housewife. Radhakrishnan was educated in Thiruttani, Kumbakonam,
and Tirupati, and attended Christian College in Madras for his undergraduate
degree. After completing his B.A. in philosophy and English literature, he went on
to pursue an M.A. in philosophy from the same college.
Radhakrishnan’s academic career was illustrious, and he was awarded the
prestigious titles of “Sir” and “Doctor” of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in 1916. He was
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appointed professor of philosophy at the Madras Presidency College in 1918, and
then professor of philosophy at the Calcutta University from 1921 to 1923.
During this time, he wrote several books, including The Principal Upanishads,
Eastern and Western Religion, Indian Philosophy, and The Bhagavad Gita.
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Career and Achievements
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Radhakrishnan was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Andhra University in 1931 and
served in this position for five years. During his tenure, he established several
educational institutions and wrote several books, including An Idealist View of
Life and The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy. In 1936, he was
appointed Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at the University of
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Oxford.
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Radhakrishnan was widely recognized for his scholarship, and he was awarded
honorary doctorates from several universities, including Oxford, Cambridge, Yale,
and Harvard. He was also invited to deliver lectures at major universities around
the world, including Harvard and the University of Chicago.
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Radhakrishnan was active in Indian politics and served as the Ambassador of

India to the Soviet Union from 1949 to 1952. He was also a member of the
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Constituent Assembly of India and the UNESCO Executive Board. He was

appointed Vice-President of India in 1952, and in 1962 he became the second
President of India, serving until 1967.
Philosophy
Radhakrishnan was a great philosopher and thinker, and his works have been
widely studied and admired. His philosophy was based on Advaita Vedanta,
which is a form of Hinduism that emphasizes the essential unity of all existence.
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He believed that all religions are fundamentally the same, and that truth is
relative and not absolute.
His thesis for his MA degree was titled, ‘The Ethics of the Vedanta & its
Metaphysical Presuppositions’. In this paper, he defended Vedanta against the
charge that it lacked ethicality. He defended Hinduism against “uninformed
Western criticism” and played a major role in the formation of contemporary
Hindu identity. He was deeply influenced by Swami Vivekananda.
Literary Works
Radhakrishnan’s literary works were quite impressive. His book, ‘The Philosophy
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of Rabindranath Tagore’, attracted global attention to Indian philosophy. His
other works include Indian Philosophy (1923-27), The Philosophy of the
Upanishads (1924), An Idealist View of Life (1932), Eastern Religions and Western
Thought (1939), East and West: Some Reflections (1955), The Hindu View of Life
(1926), Kalki, or the Future of Civilization (1929), Religion and Society (1947), The
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Bhagavadgītā: with an introductory essay, The Dhammapada (1950), 194 pages,
Oxford University Press, The Principal Upanishads (1953), Recovery of Faith
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(1956), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy (1957), and The Brahma Sutra: The
Philosophy of Spiritual Life.
Awards and Honours

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● Radhakrishnan held several important positions and was awarded many

honours.
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● He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award in 1954.
● He received a knighthood in 1931.
● However, after India’s independence, he stopped using his title ‘Sir’ and
used the prefix ‘Dr.
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● He was also given honorary membership of the British Royal Order of Merit
in 1963.
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● He was elected chairman of UNESCO’s executive board in 1948.

● He was one of the founders of Helpage India, a renowned NGO for elderly
underprivileged in India.
● He also had formed the Krishnarpan Charity Trust along with Ghanshyam
Das Birla and some other social workers.
● He was the first Indian to hold a chair at the University of Oxford as a
Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics (1936-1952).
● In 1930, he was appointed Haskell lecturer in Comparative Religion at the
University of Chicago.
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Death
Radhakrishnan died at his home in Madras (now Chennai) on 17 April 1975 at
the age of 86. He had been in ill health for some time leading up to his death. His
death was widely mourned in India, and he was accorded a state funeral.
Legacy
Radhakrishnan is remembered as one of India’s most iconic figures in modern
history. His works remain influential, and his philosophy of tolerance, peace, and
non-violence has been widely adopted in India and around the world. He is also
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remembered for his contribution to the educational system of modern India, and
for his efforts in promoting religious tolerance and understanding.
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Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1931) - Firebrand
Orator: Fostering the Spirit of Swadeshi
Known as the 'Father of Revolutionary Thoughts' in India,

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932) was a renowned orator (Burke of
India), nationalist, politician, journalist and author. He was the
Pal of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio and believed in the idea of assertive
(radical) nationalism. He also made efforts on his part to fight
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certain social evils prevailing in India.
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● Bipin Chandra Pal was born on 7 November 1858 at Poil village in the
Sylhet district of present-day Bangladesh in a fairly wealthy Hindu
Vaishnava family.
● His parents were Ramchandra Pal and Smt. Narayanee. His father was a
Persian scholar and small landowner.
● Bipin Chandra Pal in his early childhood grew up learning Bengali and
Persian. He began his formal education at the age of nine when he was
admitted to the lowest grade of an English school in Sylhet.
● After that, he attended two missionary schools and later passed the
entrance examination of Calcutta University from Sylhet Government High
School in 1874.
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● In 1875, he entered Presidency College in Calcutta.
● Bipin Chandra was an avid reader and possessed refined literary taste. He
was fond of Bengali literature and some English authors.
● In 1879, he started his career as a headmaster at a high school in Cuttack.
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● He also took up journalism seriously and started Bengali weekly
Paridarshak in Sylhet in 1880. He also served as the assistant editor of
Bengal Public Opinion and the Tribune (Lahore).
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● Between 1890-91, he served as the librarian and secretary of the Calcutta
Public Library.
Political career
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● Bipin Chandra came in contact with many eminent people during his
college days. They included Shri Keshab Chandra Sen, Shri Shivanath
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Sastri, Shri Bijay Krishna Goswami and others.

● All these people imbued in him the idea of freedom, individualism,
patriotism and spirituality.
Bipin Chandra joined the Indian National Congress (INC) as a delegate from
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Sylhet in its second session held at Calcutta in 1886.
● He strongly supported the resolution for the repeal of the Arms Act, 1887
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at the third session of INC held in Madras.

● In the fourth session of INC, he supported the resolution for setting up a
commission to enquire into the industrial condition and technical
education in the country.
● In 1898, Bipin Chandra went to England for theological studies on a
scholarship granted by the British and Foreign Unitarian Association.
However, he gave up the scholarship and began working for the cause of
India’s independence.
● In 1900, he returned to India and plunged into the freedom movement.
● Initially, Bipin Chandra was influenced by Surendra Nath Banerjee and
accepted him as his ‘guru’. He was originally considered a moderate in the
early days. However, his favour later tilted toward the idea of assertive
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nationalism promoted by Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
Aurobindo Ghose. He also worked in collaboration with them to further the
cause of India’s independence.
● Although Bipin Chandra Pal had similar ideas to Gandhi regarding the
nature of the republic India should be after it gets independence in terms
of federalism and local autonomy, he was a critic of Gandhi and the latter’s
approaches and methods of freedom struggle.
o He was against the idea of non-violence preached by Gandhi and
believed that Gandhi’s methods were rooted in “magic” instead of
“logic”.
o Pal was among the senior Congress leaders who opposed Gandhi’s
resolution on non-cooperation over the fact that it didn’t address
self-government.
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o He vehemently opposed the various lines of activities undertaken or
suggested by Gandhi towards the Non-Cooperation Movement. He
clearly expressed his disagreement with pan-Islamism that religion is
above the state, an idea supported by Khilafat Movement
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(Non-Cooperation Movement was associated with the Khilafat
Movement).
o He believed in the idea of an economic boycott that would strike at
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the very root of the British economy and pave way for the success of
the Non-Cooperation Movement.
● He visited England several times and put forward the demands of Indians
in various ways on numerous platforms.
● In 1921, he presided over the Bengal Provincial Conference held at Barisal.
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● Later on, due to differences with other INC leaders, he retired from active
politics and kept expressing his views and opinions through his writings.
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● It was the partition of Bengal in 1905 that shook Bipin Chandra to the core
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and he began making concerted efforts to oppose it.

● Through his writings such as New India (journal), and a nationalist daily
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called Bande Mataram, he tried to create social and political awareness

among Indians.
● Bipin Chandra undertook a memorable tour of Bengal, Assam, Uttar
Pradesh and Madras in 1907 to spread the doctrines of passive resistance,
a boycott of English goods, severance of association with a foreign
government in the country and the idea of national education.
● When the British arrested Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal
went to England and joined India House there.
● The British considered him their enemy and imprisoned him for six months
for his refusal to give evidence against Aurobindo Ghose in the Bande
Mataram sedition case.
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● Bipin Chandra strongly advocated the idea of complete independence long
before the INC accepted it as its goal.
● He was deeply influenced by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) and
described it as marking the birth of the new world. Sri Aurobindo Ghose
rightly called him one of the “mightiest prophets of nationalism”.
● Bipin Chandra during his three years (1908-1911) stay in England
developed a new political thought called the Empire-idea. He pleaded for
the reconstitution of the British empire into a federal empire where India,
Great Britain and other self-governing colonies would cooperate and
collaborate as free and equal partners.
● He later joined the Home Rule Movement of Annie Besant and Bal
Gangadhar Tilak.
After the First World War, he visited England as a member of the Congress
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deputation led by Tilak to place India’s political demand before the Joint
Parliamentary Committee.
● After 1920, he retired from active politics but kept expressing his
nationalist thoughts through his writings till his death.
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Contribution as a journalist and author
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● Bipin Chandra Pal, being a good journalist and orator, used his profession
to spread patriotic feelings, humanity and social awareness through his
articles, speeches and other write-ups.
● He published numerous journals, weekly and books to spread the idea of
nationalism and Swaraj. His subjects of writing included social, political
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and speculative philosophy, literature and literary criticism, comparative

religion, social history and biographical sketches.
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● Newspapers, journals and magazines:

o He was the editor of the ‘Democrat’, the ‘Independent’, ‘the Hindu
Review’ (1913), ‘Samhati’ (Bengali journal) and many other
journals.
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o Newspapers: “Paridarsak” (1886-Bengali weekly), “New India”:

(1901-English weekly) and “Bande Mataram” (1906-Bengali
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daily) and “Swaraj” (magazine).

● Books
o “Indian Nationalism”, “Nationality and Empire”, “Swaraj and
the Present Situation”, “The Basis of Social Reform”, “The Soul
of India”, “The New Spirit”, “Studies in Hinduism”, and “The
New Economic Menace of India”.
● Others
o Biography of Queen Victoria in Bengali.
o “Memories of My Life and Times” (1932).
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As a social reformer
● Bipin Chandra possessed an independent spirit and this made him raise
his voice against social evils very early in his life.
● He was a follower of Brahmo Samaj and was influenced by its values. He
married an inter-caste widow after the death of his first wife.
● He was also an ardent proponent of gender equality. He also supported the
Age of Consent Bill (1891).
● He was also concerned about the poor and downtrodden which can be seen
in his support for the cause of Assam tea-garden labourers in the late 19th
century.
o In his various works, he spoke in favour of labourers. In his book,
“The New Economic Menace of India”, he demanded increased
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wages and shorter hours of work for Indian labourers.
o He not only gave the Bengali labour journal “Samhati” its name but
also contributed to it by writing articles in it.
● He was concerned about the education of Indians and reorganizing it on
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national lines. He joined the movement for national education in Bengal
and was associated with the National Council of education since its
inception. He also advocated education for Muslims and women in India.
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● He was a secular and rational thinker. He did not believe in Tilak’s idea of
Hindu nationalism but preached a “composite patriotism” that better suited
India for it is a country with diversity.
o His writings between 1912-1920 were mostly concerned with
achieving a confederation of the different regions and different
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communities in India.
● He did a lot of work for Swadeshi, poverty alleviation and education
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Death
Bipin Chandra passed away on 20th May 1932 while leading a lonely life in his
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last years in Calcutta.

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Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) - Freedom Fighter
and Patriarch: Laying Foundations for a
Nehruvian Legacy
Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) was a lawyer, politician and

one of the well-known leaders of India's freedom
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movement. He also served as a member of the Indian
National Congress (INC) and became its president twice.
He was an important figure in India's freedom struggle
and is mainly known for being the father of the first prime
minister of independent India, Jawahar Lal Nehru.
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Motilal's political philosophy was derived from his long
association with the Indian National Congress (INC); it had
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been influenced by Gokhale and Gandhi who advocated
parliamentary democracy, equality before the law, and
freedom from the evils of caste and creed.
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184
● Motilal Nehru was born on 6th May 1861 in Agra, Uttar Pradesh in a
Kashmiri Brahmin family. His ancestors were Kaul Brahmins and residents
of Kashmir.
● Motilal’s parents were Ganga Dhar Nehru and Jeorani. His father served as
a Kotwal in Delhi during Bahadur Shah Zafar's reign but when the
Revolution of 1857 took place, he left Delhi and moved to Agra where
Motilal was born.
○ Motilal’s father died three months before his birth at the age of 34.
● Motilal had two brothers, Bansi Dhar and Nand Lal, and two sisters Patrani
and Maharani.
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● Motilal spent his childhood in Khetri, Rajasthan where his elder brother
Nandlal worked as Diwan.
● He received his education in Arabic, Persian and English and completed his
schooling at Government High School, Kanpur.
He later joined Muir Central College, Allahabad (now Prayagaj) but did not
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●
completely appear for the final year B.A. examinations. Later he appeared
for the Law entrance examination and topped the list.
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● In 1883, he set up himself as a lawyer at Kanpur under the aegis of Pandit
Prithinath, a senior lawyer and a friend of the family.
● Motilal was married when he was in his teens but his wife did not survive.
Later on, he was married to Swarup Rani who gave birth to Jawahar Lal
Nehru (second child).
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● In 1886, Motilal decided to move to Allahabad (seat of the High Court) after
completing his three years apprenticeship at the district courts of Kanpur.
However, the sudden demise of his brother Nand Lal dealt a severe blow to
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●
Motilal and at the age of 25 only, he had to serve as the sole breadwinner of
a large family.
● Motilal soon became a successful lawyer and was earning well in his early
thirties and forties and was among the richest Indians later in his life.
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● He visited Europe in 1899, 1900, 1905 and 1909. Motilal lived a

Westernized life with great splendour and pomp.
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● After returning from England in 1899, he did not perform the ‘purification
ceremony’ usually performed to avoid a social boycott.
● Motilal was a civil lawyer and reached the pinnacle of his legal career by
gaining the approval to appear at the bar of the Judicial Committee in the
Privy Council of Great Britain in 1909.
○ He was regarded as one of the brilliant lawyers in the late 1800s.
● In 1900, Motilal shifted to a residential property in Allahabad which he
named Anand Bhawan.
Beginning of political career
185
● Motilal was twenty-seven years old when he attended the Allahabad
Congress session in 1888 as a delegate.
● In 1889 (Bombay session of INC) and 1891 (Nagpur session of INC), he was
elected as a member of the ‘Subjects Committee’.
● In 1892 (Allahabad session), he was the secretary of the Reception
Committee. After that, Motilal kept away from politics for a few years.
● It was during 1905-1907 (the clash between the Moderate and Extremist
factions of the INC) that Motilal makes a full-fledged entry into politics.
● Motilal presided over the first Provincial Conference of Moderates in the
United Provinces opened in Allahabad in 1907 and here he voiced the need
for supplementing the effort of the Indian National Congress (INC) with
'small Congresses' in every province, to reiterate the national demands and
to ventilate local grievances.
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● Motilal was in the favour of the approach adopted by the Moderates
because it was the only politics he had known and learnt by attending the
early sessions of INC added with the fitting in of the constitutional methods
of agitation in his legal training and background.
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○ Motilal also highly revered and admired Gokhale who was a
Moderate.
● In 1909, Motilal presided over the third United Provinces Social Conference
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at Agra.

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● Motilal was one of the Moderates who acknowledged the British

contribution to India and wanted to keep the methods of agitation
constitutional.
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● However, the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 disappointed Motilal not only

for their slow and halting measure of constitutional proposals but also for
the divide it tried to create between the Hindus-Muslims.
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● Despite the disappointment from reforms, Motilal contested a seat in the

enlarged provincial council in 1909 under the 'reformed' constitution and
was elected where he played the role of a fearless critic of the official
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policies and asked the British government the most uncomfortable

questions.
● He criticized the financial arrangements with the Government of India
(British) and small allocations for sanitation and education.
● Motilal had become a militant advocate of social reform, an active political
agitator and a member of the provincial legislature itself.
● He soon turned into a journalist and was the first chairman of the Board of
Directors of the Leader. Through the Leader, Motilal continued to voice
national and local grievances.
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● Motilal was enraged when Annie Besant was arrested for the Home Rule
Movement and joined the movement in 1917. He was elected the president
at a meeting of the Allahabad Home Rule League.
○ The Pioneer newspaper conferred him the title ‘Brigadier General of
the Home Rule League’.
● In his later years, Motilal acknowledged the limitations of constitutional
agitation and drew himself away from the "Moderates".
● When Montagu-Chelmsford Report was published in 1918, many Moderate
leaders supported it but Motilal opposed a resolution in the provincial
council welcoming the Report.
● Given Motilal's gradually developed radical tendencies and his belief to put
forward the government's criticism in a straightforward way, he launched a
daily newspaper the Independent on February 5, 1919.
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○ He was elected as the president of the INC session in Amritsar in the
same year (1919).
● When the INC boycotted the commission appointed by the British
government to enquire into the Jallianwala Bagh incident and appointed its
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own Congress Inquiry Committee, Motilal was appointed as one of the
members of the committee along with M.K.Gandhi, C.R.Das, M.R. Jayakar
and Abbas Tayabji.
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● Immediately after the Calcutta session of the Congress (1920), Motilal
resigned from the UP Council.
● Following Mahatma Gandhi’s call for the Non-Cooperation movement, he
gave up his legal practice. He renounced his luxurious Western lifestyle,
gave away his Western clothes and articles and started wearing khadi.
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○ He was also arrested for participating in the Non-Cooperation

Movement in 1921 along with his son.
○ When Gandhi suspended the Non-Cooperation movement, he openly
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criticized the suspension of civil resistance in 1922.
Swaraj Party
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In 1922, there was a deadlock in Congress regarding the issue of council

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entry. Motilal and C.R. Das advocated Congress support for council entry
(Pro-changers) while the No-changers opposed changes in the programme
of non-cooperation as framed by Gandhi before his arrest.
● Immediately after this deadlock, Motilal along with Deshbandhu
Chittranjan Das and their supporters formed the Congress-Khilafat
Swaraj Party in 1923. It was recognised as the legislative wing of Congress
(INC).
● C.R. Das was elected president and Motilal was one of the secretaries.
Motilal played a decisive role in organizing and leading the Swaraj Party.
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● The party was supposed to remain a part of INC and follow the programme
of non-cooperation but decided to follow an independent line on the issue
of council entry.
● The primary aim of the party was to destabilise the British Raj through
anti-government agitation within the chambers of the Central Legislative
Assembly.
● Motilal effectively became the Leader of the Opposition in the Central
Legislative Assembly and vociferously opposed and exposed the decisions of
the government.
● However, the party was disbanded by 1927 as it was unable to achieve its
objectives.
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The Nehru Report
● In 1927, the British government appointed the Simon Commission to
review the working of the Government of India Act 1919 and propose
constitutional reforms. The Commission had no single Indian member
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which angered leaders of the nationalist movement.
● The British in response acknowledged the discontent but did not change
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the composition of the Commission and instead asked Indians to prove that
they could draw up a constitution themselves.
○ A similar challenge was made in 1925 by Lord Birkenhead, the then
Secretary of State for India, in the House of Lords.
● In response to these challenges, the Madras session of the INC, held in
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December 1927, directed the Congress Working Committee to draft a

‘Swaraj’ Constitution (Nehru Report 1928) in consultation with other
parties.
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● In 1928, a committee was constituted to draft the Constitution. The body

came to be known as the Nehru Committee. This included Motilal Nehru
(Chairman), Sir Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Subash Chandra Bose.
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M.R. Jayakar and Annie Besant joined the Committee later.

○ Jawaharlal Nehru, Motilal Nehru' son, was appointed the secretary to
the Committee.
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● The Committee was supposed to look into the issues mainly, the position of
the minorities, especially of the Muslim minority in independent India,
communalism and the issue of dominion status.
● The Report written in a legal style comprised 22 chapters and 87 articles,
claimed dominion status for India and included sections on fundamental
rights, and reservation for Muslims in legislatures, among others.
● The Report was rejected by the British.
Life afterwards and death
188
● In 1928, Motilal Nehru presided over the INC Calcutta session.
● Motilal continued his struggle against British rule by participating in the
Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930.
● In the same year (1930), Motilal Nehru gave the old building of Anand
Bhawan to the Congress Party to use as its headquarters during the
freedom movement.
● Despite his poor health, Motilal participated in the Civil Disobedience
movement and travelled to Jambusar, Gujarat, to support Gandhi’s Salt
Satyagraha.
● He was jailed for a couple of months and was released in light of his poor
health.
● Given his poor health condition, Motilal Nehru died on 6th February 1931.
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189
Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925) - Early
Nationalist Leader: Advocating for Civil
Rights and Self-Government
Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925) also called

Rashtarguru was a renowned Indian nationalist, political
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leader, public speaker, orator, teacher and writer. He was
one of the founding members of the Indian National
Congress (INC) and was one of the senior leaders of the
organization. He belonged to the Moderate clan of INC and
was one of the earliest leaders to fight for the cause of
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Indians under British rule and put forward their demands.
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190
● Surendranath Banerjee was born on 10 November 1848 in Calcutta into a
distinguished family of Kulin Brahmin Hindus.
● His father's name was Dr Durga Charan Banerjee. He practised as a
physician. Banerjee was the second son of his parents.
● Surendranath received his school education at a Parental Academic
Institution which was attended chiefly by Anglo-Indian boys and at the
Hindu College.
● In 1868, he graduated from the University of Calcutta (Doveton College)
with a degree in English literature.
● In the same year, he travelled to England to appear for the Indian Civil
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Service examinations.
● He succeeded in the examination in 1869 but due to a dispute over his
exact age, he was declared disqualified.
● After clearing legal disputes in court regarding the matter, he appeared for
the examination again in 1871 and qualified for it.
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○ He was then appointed as Assistant Magistrate in Sylhet (now in
Bangladesh).
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● However, in 1874, he was dismissed from the service for a minor and
inadvertent procedural error.
● Owing to his dismissal from the service, he was not even admitted to the
bar.
○ According to Banerjee, he was discriminated against for being an
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Indian and he went to England to protest against this decision but
was unsuccessful.
During his stay in England, Banerjee studied Burke and many other liberal
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philosophers.
Political career
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● In 1875, Banerjee returned to India and set up his career as a Professor in

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English.
● Banerjee soon embarked on a political career to organize Indian public
opinion, redress wrongs and protect rights, and give Indians a serious role
in the administration of their country and be a voice in the counsels of
their government.
● In July 1876, he founded the Indian National Association, the first Indian
political organisation of its kind that presented the idea of India as a
political unit.
● In 1878, he founded the English-language newspaper, The Bengalee,
through which he espoused liberal causes for nearly half a century and was
soon arrested for publishing certain remarks.
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● After his release from prison, he initiated a movement for the creation of a
"National Fund '' which was established at a meeting on July 17, 1883, to
secure and expose the cause of political freedom in India through
constitutional means.
● At the same time, the Indian National Association kept expanding
considerably, and hundreds of delegates from across India came to attend
its annual conferences in Calcutta.
● In 1885, Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in Bombay wherein
Banerjee played a prominent role.
● Banerjee merged his organisation Indian Association with the INC, owing to
their common objectives and memberships.
● Banerjee was a believer in moderate means of political agitation, meetings,
petitions, and legislative action. He served as the President of INC in 1895
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and 1902.
● He reached the climax of his political career in 1906 and then set in the
decline of his political career. The clash between the Moderates and
Extremists led to a decline of the Moderates of which Surendranath was
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the main pillar.
● It was because of the declining popularity of Moderate Indian politicians
that Banerjee's strata and popularity in Indian politics suffered a downfall.
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● Banerjee was not in support of the idea of civil disobedience as proposed
and advocated by Gandhi and criticised it.
● Banerjee supported the 1909 Minto-Morley reforms, which were resented
and ridiculed as insufficient and meaningless by nationalist politicians and
the vast majority of the Indian public.
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● In 1913, he was elected to both the Bengal and imperial legislative

councils.
He also supported the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 as
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●
substantially fulfilling Congress's demands, resulting in Banerjee facing
political isolation.
● He was elected to the reformed Legislative Council of Bengal in 1921 and
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knighted in the same year for his political support of the Empire.
● His acceptance of the portfolio as a Minister in the Bengal government was
not received well by nationalists and much of the public.
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● It resulted in Banerjee losing the election to the Bengal Legislative

Assembly in 1923 and the end of his political career.
Major contributions
● As a nationalist
○ Through his organization, the Indian Association he set the stage
for a more practical demonstration of the newly awakened sense of
political unity in India.
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○ He also used the organization to voice the grievances of Indians and
intellectuals regarding the issue of age-limit for Indian students
appearing for Indian Civil Service exams.
○ He was one of the most important public leaders to protest against
the partition of the Bengal province in 1905. It was because he was
at the forefront of organizing protests and petitions that extensive
public support across Bengal and India eventually compelled the
British to reverse the bifurcation in 1912.
○ Banerjee was an important figure in the Swadeshi movement,
advocating goods manufactured in India against foreign products.
○ Banerjee’s newspaper, The Bengalee, spread and wrote about liberal
causes and nationalist viewpoints.
As a teacher
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●
○ Banerjee as a teacher took full advantage of his profession to infuse
the spirit of newly born nationalistic sentiments in the minds of his
students.
○ His eloquent public speeches on nationalist and liberal political
E
subjects, as well as Indian history, such as 'Indian unity', 'life and
thought of Mazzini' and 'the history of Shivaji and the Sikhs' led to a
political regeneration.
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○ Banerjee played an important role in re-directing the Bengali youth's
interest and energy to national regeneration and nationalistic cause.
○ He founded Ripon College, later renamed Surendranath College in
Calcutta.
● As a social reformer
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○ Banerjee advocated widow remarriage and raising the marriageable

age of girls.
○ He also raised his voice against the racial discrimination practised by
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the British through his speeches all over the country.

○ The Indian Association started by Banerjee tried to bring Hindus
and Muslims together for political action.
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Achievements
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● Banerjee was the second Indian to pass the prestigious Indian Civil Service
examinations.
● He is regarded as the pioneer leader of Indian politics for being the first one
to lead the path of Indian political empowerment.
● His strong grasp of the English language, his eloquence and his skills as an
orator and debater made him an outstanding public speaker and a master
parliamentarian.
● He received a knighthood from the British in 1921.
● He is known as the "uncrowned king of Bengal" for his popularity in the
fight against the British through the Swadeshi movement.
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● He was also respected by his British opponents and was referred to as
"Surrender Not" Banerjee in his later years.
● He was a true advocate of democracy. While serving as a minister in the
Bengal government, Banerjee made the Calcutta Municipal Corporation a
more democratic body.
Death and literary work

● Surendranath Banerjee breathed his last in Barrackpore on August 6,
1925.
Literary work: A Nation In Making (1925)
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Rukhmabai (1864 –1955) - Trailblazer for
Women’s Rights: Defying Tradition for
Reform
Rukhmabai (1864-1955) was the first practising female doctor in
India. She was the main force behind the passage of the Age of
Consent Bill,1891. She fought against child marriage and has her
name listed as one of the renowned faces bringing about social
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reforms in India.
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S
IA
195
● Rukhmabai Bhimrao Raut was born on November 22, 1864, in Mumbai,
Maharashtra.
● She was the only daughter of Janardhan Pandurang and Jayantibhai.
○ Rukhmabai's mother was a victim of child marriage. She was married
at the age of 14 and gave birth to Rukhmabai at 15, and became a
widow at 17 when Rukhmabai was only two years old.
○ Her mother later married Dr Sakharam Arjun who had lost his wife
and had three sons from his first marriage. He was an eminent
physician, professor and founding member of the Bombay Natural
History Society.
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● Adhering to prevailing customs and social pressure, Rukhmabai was
married off when she was 11 to Dadaji Bhikaji, who was Sakharam’s
cousin and was 19 then.
○ Before her second marriage, Jayantibai transferred the property she
had inherited from her late husband to Rukhmabai when the latter
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was only eight years old, making her very wealthy in her own right.
● Her mother’s second marriage had a considerable effect on Rukhmabai’s
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life. Dr Sakharam Arjun was an exceptional, liberal man who strongly
believed in the importance of female education. Rukhmabai continued her
studies after her marriage.
● Dadaji Bhikaji was an improvident and uneducated youth with no
prospects and no signs of interest in pursuing an education.
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● Despite being married, Rukhmabai and Dadaji never lived together and she
continued to stay with her mother and step-father even after marriage.
Bhikaji lived a dissolute life by all accounts and later insisted Rukhmabai
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●
join him and begin their marital life.
○ The decision was perhaps motivated by monetary intent as
Rukhmabai had inherited a lot of wealth from her father.
Rukhmabai refused to move in with him stating that she was married to
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●
him as a child and thus had no say in the marriage and they lacked
compatibility.
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● She continued to live with her stepfather and pursued her education, going
against the norms of society.
○ Her stepfather supported her in this decision.
● In 1884, Dadaji sent a legal notice to Sakharam through his lawyers,
asking him to stop preventing Rukhmabai from living with him.
● Eventually, the matter went to court and was finally resolved in 1887.
● During this period, Rukhmabai evolved into an intelligent young woman.
She would read books borrowed from the Free Church Mission Library.
○ She would attend Prarthana Samaj and Arya Mahila Samaj meetings
with her mother, interact with Europeans and other social reformers
that her father knew and so on.
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Struggle for rights and dignity
● In 1885, Bhikaji sought “restitution of conjugal rights (RCR)” where the
hearing and judgement were presided over by Justice Robert Hill Pinhey.
● The prevailing legal provisions at the time of Rukhmabai’s case offered two
types of matrimonial suits for obtaining conjugal rights recognized under
the law. These were:
○ Under the Indian Limitation Act 1877, a suit for RCR (Restitution of
conjugal rights) could be brought by either party, but the suit for
“the recovery of a wife” was only available to men and both these
suits had to be brought within two years of the spouse’s refusal to
cohabit.
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○ Section 260 of the revised Code of Civil Procedure 1882 prescribed
prison (up to six months) or the attachment of property if either
partner defied the law.
● Rukhmabai defended the suit and submitted three main reasons for her
refusal to do so. These were: Bhikaji's inability to provide for proper
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maintenance and residence for the couple, his ill health, and the character
of the people with whom he lived.
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● However, her refusal of her husband was an act of resistance, challenging
the very convention of child marriage.
○ Rukhmabai’s two letters to the editor in the daily The Times of India
under the pseudonym “A Hindu Lady” are evidence of this assertion.
○ In these letters, Rukhmabai proved herself as not only a resolute
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rebel but also an accomplished non-conformist and rationalist who
challenged social conventions with arguments about gender abuses
in Hindu society.
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○ She also made impassioned pleas against child marriage, widowhood,

illiteracy, and domestic cruelty.
○ She also stressed how early marriage restricted the young bride’s
access to education and her mental and physical freedom.
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○ She urged the government to raise the minimum age of marriage to

fifteen for girls and twenty for men.
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● The British precedents could not be implied in this case, as British law was
meant to be applied in the case of consenting adults.
● Justice Pinhey found this limitation in British law and found no previous
cases of such nature in Hindu law and argued that to compel Rukhmabai
to consummate her marriage against her wishes would be “a barbarous, a
cruel, a revolting thing to do”.
● Hence his judgement on the case stated that Rukhmabai had been wed as
an innocent child, had no say in the matter and now couldn’t be forced.
● The judgement stirred widespread protests and agitations across the
country, especially by orthodox Hindus since a majority of Hindu marriages
at that time were arranged and performed while the bride was still a child.
○ Many Hindus argued that the law did not respect Hindu rituals and
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customs.
○ However, some praised reformative the step.
● Soon after Pinhey gave the decree, Bhikaji filed an appeal. The case came
up for retrial in the year 1886.
● In 1887, Rukhmabai was ordered to live with her husband or spend six
months in jail. She was also asked to pay Bhikaji’s costs for the original
hearing.
● In the meantime, Indian reformers and British feminists began
approaching their governments on behalf of Rukhmabai, eventually
petitioning Queen Victoria to dismiss the case against her.
● Rukhmabai decided not to return to Dadaji and to continue her education.
She agreed to face the maximum penalty rather than accept the verdict
given.
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● The verdict was subsequently overruled by Queen Victoria. Bhikaji
accepted monetary compensation of two thousand rupees and agreed to
never execute the decree for restitution of conjugal rights awarded against
her and dissolve the marriage. He soon remarried.
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● Rukhmabai legally separated from her husband in 1888 and moved to
England to study medicine.
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Age of Consent Act, 1891
● Rukhmabai’s prolonged and persistent struggle for her rights and fight
against the patriarchal law initiated processes of social and legal change in
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India.
● The case was widely discussed and debated producing strong responses
from all sections of society.
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● It was a feminist movement of its kind because it unified Hindu, Muslim,

Christian and Parsi Indian women as well as British feminists. It got a lot of
attention in Britain where women’s magazines covered it.
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● The case also gave rise to debates and agitations against child marriage in
the next decade and initiated the Age of Consent movement in India, which
eventually led to the increase of the minimum age of marriage to twelve for
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girls through the Age of Consent Act, 1891.
Career
● After the case closed, Rukhmabai decided to study medicine and moved to
England. In 1889, she joined the London School of Medicine for Women.
● She was supported by Dr Edith Pechey of Bombay’s Cama Hospital,
activists, and fellow Indians in England to complete her course at the
London School of Medicine for Women.
● After completing her degree in medicine, Rukhmabai returned to India in
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1894 to serve as a medical practitioner.
● Rukhmabai was aware of the poor state of women’s healthcare in India and
the lack of medical practitioners and health awareness. She realized the
need for women doctors in India and medical facilities for women
especially.
● She joined a hospital in Surat, declining an offer from Women’s Medical
Service to join a state hospital in Rajkot run for women.
● Rukhmabai served as the chief medical officer for almost thirty-five years in
Surat and Rajkot.
● She was supported by Eva McLaren, Walter McLaren and the Countess of
Dufferin’s Fund for supplying medical aid to women in India.
● During the same period, she kept voicing her concerns against social evils
like child marriage and the prevalent practice of ‘purdah’.
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Death
She passed away in 1955 when she was ninety-one years old while battling
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●
lung cancer.
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Literary works and quotes
● Literary works
○ ‘Indian Child Marriage (an Appeal to the British Government)’.
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○ ‘Purdah – the Need for its Abolition’.

● Quotes
○ “I am not afraid; I will not give up in any circumstances.”
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○ “I am one of those unfortunate Hindu women whose hard lot it is to

suffer the unnameable miseries entailed by the custom of early
marriage. This wicked practice has destroyed the happiness of my
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life, it comes between me and the thing which I prize above all
others-study and mental cultivation.”
○ “Marriage does not interpose any insuperable obstacle in the course
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of their (men's) studies. They can marry not only a second wife, on
the death of the first, but have the right of marrying any number of
wives at one and the same time, or any time they please.”
○ “Within our reach lies every path we ever dream of taking. Within our
power lies every step we ever dream of making. Within our range lies
every joy we ever dream of seeing. Within ourselves lies everything we
ever dream of being.”
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Romesh Chunder Dutt (R C Dutt)
(1848-1909) - Economic Historian: Unveiling
the Economic History of India
Romesh Chandra Dutt, popularly known as R.C.Dutt

(1848-1909), was a civil servant, politician, economic historian,
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political and economic thinker and writer. He is known for his
deep analysis of the economic history of India under British rule.
Dutt was a visionary and predicted that autocratic British rule in
India would eventually lead to its downfall which finally proved
to be true.
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● R.C. Dutt was born on 13 August 1848 in the well-known Dutt family of
Ramnagar, Calcutta.
● His parents were Ishanchandra and Thakamani Dutt. They belonged to one
of the Calcutta families who had prospered through their commercial
associations with the British East India Company. His family was also
famous for its academic and literary attainments.
● Dutt completed his early education in Bengali schools in Calcutta and the
districts.
● In December 1864, Dutt passed the Entrance Examination.
● In 1866, he passed the First Arts examination of the University of Calcutta
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from the Presidency College standing second in order of merit. He won a
scholarship for achieving this feat.
● While he was still pursuing B.A., he left for England in 1868 with
Surendranath Banerjee and Bihari Lal Gupta.
In London, he entered the University College and appeared for the Indian
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Civil Service examination and qualified.
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Career as a civil servant
● In 1871, Dutt began his career as an administrator in Indian Civil Service
and Indian public life.
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● Initially, he was appointed as Assistant Magistrate, Alipore. Later, he served
as Relief Officer in Meherpur (Nadia) and then in Dakhin Shahbazpur
(Bakerganj), as District Magistrate in Bankura, Balasore, Bakerganj,
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Pabna, Mymensingh, Burdwan, Dinajpur and Midnapore.

● The last position he held in his career was as the Divisional Commissioner
of Orissa which was considered the highest position ever reached by an
Indian till that time.
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● In 1897, he resigned from the service when he was 49 years old. He still
had 9 more years to serve.
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● The reason for his resignation was his dissatisfaction with the British
government while trusting him and having confidence in him. His juniors
were being promoted to higher posts but Dutt was not reaching any heights
because of his identity as an Indian.
● However, his work as a civil servant evoked praise from all quarters,
including Lieutenant Governors and Governor - Generals.
● Dutt was reputed for being a first-rate orator and fearless who was not
afraid to express his independent views even when they differed with the
authority he was serving.
● Dutt had the desire to utilise his power and abilities for the benefit of his
country in some other ways which included active participation in politics,
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writings, and persistent efforts to create public opinion in India and
England in favour of ‘reforming’ the government of India.
● After retiring as a civil servant, Dutt devoted his time to creating awareness
among Indians about their country and its economic conditions.
Life as an author
● While serving as a civil servant under the British government, Dutt
indulged in writing on a wide range of subjects.
● His first publication was 'Three Years in Europe', which appeared in
1872.
In 1875, he published his first book on the economic problems of
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cultivators called 'Peasantry of Bengal'. In this book, he discussed the
issue of raiyats and advocated for their cause, urging the government to fix
their rent rate.
● In 1877, he published his history of Bengali literature entitled Bengali
Literature.
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○ To contribute more to Bengali literature, he further wrote four
historical novels: Banga Bijeta (Conqueror of Bengal), Madhabi
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Kankan (Bracelet of Flowers), Rajput Jiban Sandhya (Evening of
Rajput Life), and Maharastra Prabhat (Dawn of Maharashtrian
Life). These were published in 1879.
■ Banga Bijeta (Conqueror of Bengal) and Madhabi Kankan
(Bracelet of Flowers) tell the story of the conquest of Bengal
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by Akbar.
■ Rajput Jiban Sandhya (Evening of Rajput Life) is based on
the heroic struggle of Rana Pratap Singh.
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■ Maharastra Prabhat (Dawn of Maharashtrian Life) tells the

story of the rise of Maratha's power under the leadership of
Shivaji.
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● He also wrote novels based on social issues. These were Samaj (1885) and
Sangsar (1893).
○ Samaj advocated widow remarriage and Sangsar inter-caste
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marriage.
● In 1894, he published his Lays of Ancient India in English verse and
History of Civilisation in Ancient India.
● He also translated the Rig Veda to Bangla in 1885, and the Ramayana
and Mahabharata into English verse in 1898 and 1899 respectively.
● Criticism of British rule
○ Dutt published three such works that dealt with the economic effects
of British colonial rule in India.
○ These were England and India (1897), Famines in India (1900)
and the two volumes of the Economic History of India (1901-03).
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■ In England and India (1897), he discusses several features of
British rule in India, which he developed in greater detail in his
subsequent publications.
■ Famines in India (1900), begins with a brief history of
famines in India from 1770 to the end of the nineteenth
century and contains five 'Open Letters' to the Governor
General and the Viceroy, Lord Curzon. It contains a
strongly-argued thesis about the over-assessment of land
revenue and contains a plea for the extension of the Permanent
Settlement to the Ryotwari area and also for the permanent
fixation of rents payable by the Ryots to the intermediaries.
■ The Economic History of India (1901-03) was the most
famous work by Dutt.
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■ Its first volume, the ‘Economic History of India
(1757-1857)’ was published early in 1901 in England
and the second volume, the ‘Economic History of India
in the Victorian Age’ appeared in 1902.
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■ The books deal with the aspects of the economic
administration of the British government, the
de-industrialization of India through unfair competition
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with machine-made goods of England, neglect of
industrial and agricultural development, high rate of
revenue, the consequent impoverishment of the
peasantry, the outbreak of famines, the drain of
resources through the payment of 'Home charges',
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financing of expensive wars beyond Indian borders for

British imperial interests etc.
■ This was his most remarkable work and his criticisms of
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British policies in this work were most influential.

○ Since 1898, Dutt regularly wrote letters to the Editor of The
Manchester Guardian on Indian matters, particularly famine and
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tariffs. A collection of these letters was published in 1900.

○ He also wrote several works on history, economics and translations
of Indian Classics for the 'Temple Classics' series.
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Political career
● Dutt was elected as the first President of Bangiya Sahitya Parishad, the
premier literary association of Bengal, set up in 1894.
● In 1897, Dutt was appointed Professor of Indian History at University
College, London. Thus, he shared his time between London and India.
● In 1899, Dutt joined active politics. This year, he was invited to preside
over the fifteenth session of the Indian National Congress (INC) held in
Lucknow.
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● Although Dutt possessed radical views regarding the economic impact of
British rule in India, his political views were similar to that of Moderate
leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Suredranath Banerjee, WC Banerjee,
Justice Ranade - who believed that British rule was essential for the
betterment of the country.
● He was interested in persuading and pressurising the British government
to carry out necessary reforms such as bringing about gradual institutional
changes and allowing greater participation of Indians in all branches of
administration but did not contemplate independence for India.
● Thus, through his criticisms of the economic policies of the British
government contributed to the growth of political radicalism (or
'Extremism'), he did not himself practice radical politics.
After the publication of his Economic History Dutt returned to India. In
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August 1904, he became the Revenue Minister of Baroda. However, he
visited England several times during his career.
● In 1905, he presided over the industrial exhibition held in Benares in
connection with the twenty-first session of the Indian National Congress.
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Life aftermath and death
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● In 1908, he was appointed as a member of the Royal Decentralisation
Commission.
● After the work of this Commission was over, Dutt returned to Baroda and
took charge of the state as its Diwan.
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● While serving in this capacity, he expired on 30 November 1909 when he

was 61.
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Chittaranjan Das (C R Das) (1870-1925) -
Patriot and Leader: Steering Swaraj and
Sacrificing Self for National Good
Chittaranjan Das, popularly known as C.R. Das, also called

Deshbandhu or ‘friend of the nation’, was a freedom fighter,
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politician, political leader and co-founder of the Swaraj Party.
He believed in extremist ideology and supported the beliefs of
the Lal-Bal-Pal trio. He also served as the president of the Indian
National Congress (INC) for a session. Das was one of the most
dynamic political leaders of twentieth-century Bengal and was
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known for his strong personality, struggle, sacrifice, selflessness,
dedication and devotion.
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● C.R. Das was born on 5th November 1870 in Calcutta (now Kolkata) to an
upper-middle-class Vaidya family.
● His family belonged to Vikrampura located in the Munshiganj district of
West Bengal (now Bangladesh).
● His parents were Bhuban Mohan Das and Nistarini Devi. His father served
as a solicitor of the Calcutta High Court and was known for his intellectual
and journalistic pursuits.
● He received his early education at the London Missionary Society's
Institution at Bhawanipur (Calcutta) which he had joined in 1876.
● He passed the Entrance Examination in 1886 and completed graduation
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from Presidency College in 1890. In the same year, he left for England to
appear for the Indian Civil Service, which was dominated by the British.
● Das could not qualify for the civil service examination and decided to join
the legal profession. Das joined The Honourable Society of the Inner
Temple to practice law in London, England.
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● In 1893, he was called to the English Bar. In 1894, he returned to India
and enrolled himself as a Barrister at the Calcutta High Court.
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● In 1897, Das married Basanti devi, daughter of Barada Nath Halder,
Dewan of Bijni Estate in Assam. She was an extraordinary woman and
became a matriarch figure in the freedom movement. Netaji Subhas
Chandra Bose regarded her as 'Ma' or 'mother'.
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Legal career
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● Das started practising as a barrister at Calcutta High Court from 1894

onwards.
● In his legal profession, Das defended Indians who were accused of political
offences.
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● He defended many freedom fighters such as Brahmabandhab Upadhyay

and Bhupendranath Datta who were charged with sedition.
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● It was the trial of Sri Aurobindo Ghose in 1908 that brought C.R. Das into
the limelight. Das' brilliant defence of Sri Aurobindo in the Alipore Bomb
Case helped the latter finally be acquitted.
○ He handled the case meticulously and concluded it with an address
in the Calcutta High Court with a passionate appeal that helped in
Sri Aurobindo's acquittal.
○ The success, in this case, helped Das come to the forefront of
professional and political platforms.
● He also acted as the defence counsel in the Dhaka Conspiracy Case,
initiated in 1910-11.
● Das was an expert in both civil and criminal law which helped him build a
lucrative career within a short period.
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Political journey
● C.R. Das joined politics in the early twentieth century. His political career
lasted for merely six years but even in that short period, he left his mark
which is remembered forever.
● C.R. Das from a young age was a patriot. During his college days, he was a
member of the student wing of the Indian Association where famous
nationalist leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, and Ananda Mohan Basu
used to give speeches.
● He was associated with revolutionary organizations like the Anushilan
Samiti. When Prathamanath Mitra, the president of Anushilan Samiti was
preaching the idea of patriotism among the youths, C.R. Das also took the
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membership.
● He was a co-worker of Surendranath Banerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghose. He was also a supporter of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio and
supported both Bipin Chandra Pal and Sri Aurobindo Ghose in publishing
the English weekly Bande Matram.
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● He utilised the issue of the Partition of Bengal (1905) for expanding
revolutionary activities in Bengal.
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● In 1906, C.R. Das joined the Indian National Congress (INC) but took no
active part in it initially.
● However, C.R. Das began his full-fledged political career in 1917 and came
to the forefront of nationalist politics then.
● He played a significant role in the controversy over the election of Mrs
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Annie Besant as president of the Indian National Congress for its Calcutta
Session in 1917 and worked hard to get her appointed as the president of
INC.
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● He presided over the Bengal Provincial Conference held at Bhawanipur in

1917.
● C.R. Das believed in the idea of 'Swadeshi' and rejected the notion of
development as promoted by Western powers.
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● In the Calcutta session, he put forward a plan for village reconstruction

that suggested reforms such as the establishment of local self-government,
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cooperative credit societies and revival of the cottage industry.

● In 1918, both at the Congress special session in Bombay and the Annual
Session in Delhi, Das opposed the scheme of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
considering it completely inadequate and disappointing.
● He denounced the Reforms for it aimed at installing a dual government
system or dyarchy in the country. He demanded provincial autonomy
despite vehement opposition from Mrs Annie Besant and others.
● In 1919, C.R. Das went to Punjab as a non-official Jallianwala Bagh
Enquiry Committee member. At the Amritsar Session 1919 of the Indian
National Congress (presided over by Motilal Nehru), he was the first to
advocate obstruction while opposing the idea of cooperation with the
British government in the implementation of the 1919 Reforms.
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● In 1920, Das supported the Non-Cooperation movement that started in
the same year and sacrificed all his luxuries and supported the cause of
‘khadi’. Though Das disagreed with Gandhi’s resolution on non-cooperation
initially, for he believed in the policy of obstruction from within the
legislatures, he later supported the movement wholeheartedly and
renounced his lucrative practice at the Bar.
● Das took a leading part in the boycott of the visit of the Prince of Wales to
Calcutta in 1921. He was also concerned about the large-scale exodus of
the coolies from the Assam tea gardens and the strike of the Assam-Bengal
railway employees.
● C.R. Das during the Non-Cooperation movement initiated a ban on British
clothes in Bengal.
In 1921, Das organised and volunteered for the Congress Volunteer Corps
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because the All-India Congress Committee had asked for the recruitment of
ten million national volunteers to accelerate the movement of
non-cooperation.
● This participation on a mass scale due to Das' efforts eventually turned the
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Non-Cooperation Movement into a mass movement following which the
British government began retaliating in adverse ways.
● He was jailed along with his wife and son for six months for participating in
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the movement in 1921. In the same year, he was elected as the president of
the Ahmedabad Congress but could not preside over it since he was
arrested before the session.
● When Gandhi called off the Non- Cooperation Movement in 1922, C.R. Das
strongly criticised it calling it a grave mistake for it demoralised the
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political workers to a great extent.

● C.R. Das was elected president at the Gaya session of the INC in December
1922 but resigned from the post later on the issue of the Council-Entry
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programme, i.e., non-cooperation from within the councils.

● Gandhi’s calling off the movement of non-cooperation made Das endeavour
to give a new orientation to Indian politics, which was, through his
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Council-Entry programme, i.e., ‘Non-cooperation from within the Councils’.

● He was vehemently opposed to the INC’s principle of boycotting the
legislatures. He held that entry and presence into the legislatures were
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needed to offer uniform, continuous and consistent obstruction to the

government.
● However, his idea met strong opposition from Gandhi and the
“No-changers”. At the Gaya Congress, C. Rajagopalachari led the
Council-Entry opposition and Das’ motion could not get through.
● Following the rejection of his idea, at the Gaya session, Das resigned from
the presidency of the Indian National Congress and laid the foundation of
the Swaraj Party.
● He presided over the All-India Trade Union Congress held at Lahore and
Calcutta in 1923 and 1924 respectively. He also presided over the Bengal
Provincial Conference held at Faridpur (now in Bangladesh) in 1925.
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Swaraj Party
● After the events at the Gaya session of INC, Das organized the Swaraj Party
initially known as the Congress-Swaraj-Khilafat Party within the Congress
in collaboration with Motilal Nehru, the Ali brothers, Ajmal Khan, V.J.
Patel, Lala Lajpat Rai and others.
○ C.R. Das was elected as the president of the party.
● The newly-founded party aimed to contest the elections to Central
Legislative Assembly in 1923 and derail British rule through
anti-government activities within the council chambers.
● The Swarajists won more than 40 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly
in 1923, but their numbers were never quite enough to prevent the British
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from passing the legislation they desired or believed was needed to
maintain internal order in India.
● The party was gaining gradual mass support and hence, to prevent a split
and keep Congress intact, a compromise was eventually reached between
Swaraj Party and INC.
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○ The resolution on Council entry was finally passed by the Special
session of the Delhi Congress.
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● In the 1923 election to the Bengal Legislative Council, the Swaraj Party
achieved a remarkable victory.
● As a leader of the new party, he devoted his energies to bringing about
Hindu-Muslim amity and unity since he understood that it was difficult to
attain freedom without the collective support of both communities.
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● He and the Swaraj Party offered to give Hindu-Muslim collaboration a
concrete shape with an agreement, signed by leaders of the two
communities in Bengal, which came to be known as the Bengal Pact.
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○ Unfortunately, the Pact was opposed by many of the Congress

leaders of Bengal including many Bengali middle-class Hindus, such
as SN Banerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal and others.
○ Despite being rejected by the Indian National Congress, he succeeded
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in getting the terms of the Pact ratified by the Bengal Provincial

Congress Conference, held at Sirajganj in June 1924.
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● Swaraj Party gained huge popularity in Bengal and different other parts of
India. In 1924, the Swaraj party won the elections of Calcutta Corporation
and C.R.Das became the first elected mayor and was re-elected for the next
term also.
● Following the death of Das in 1925, the party was eventually disbanded by
1927.
Other contributions
● Contribution to literature
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○ Das studied Rabindranath Tagore and was an admirer of Keats,
Shelly and Browning. He was also deeply influenced by Vaishnava
poets. At the early age of sixteen, Das began writing Bengali poetry.
Das was a distinguished Bengali poet and has an abiding place in
Bengali literature.
○ During the volatile period of the Swadeshi movement, C.R. Das wrote
two volumes of his poem ‘Malancha’ and ‘Mala’ and published
them.
○ Some of his other published poems are Sagar Sangit (The Song of
the Sea), 1913, and Antaryami (The All-Perceiver) published in
1914, Kishor-Kishori (The Youth) published in 1915.
○ In 1913, when Sri Aurobindo was in self-imposed exile in
Pondicherry and needed financial help, Chittranjan Das offered him
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Rs. 1000 in exchange for a translation of his Book of Poems called
Sagar-Sangit. The translation was eventually published in 1923.
○ He founded a high-class literary journal called Narayan and edited it
for five years. It also contained some of his poems. He was also
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closely associated with New India and Bande Mataram.
○ He founded the weekly Forward, the organ of the Swaraj Party in
1923 establishing new standards in journalism and greatly
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influencing public opinion.
○ He also founded the Municipal Gazette, the official organ of the
Calcutta Corporation in 1924.
● Social contribution
○ Das believed in non-violent and constitutional methods for the
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realisation of the dream of national independence.

○ In the economic sphere, he stressed the need for constructive work in
villages.
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○ He supported the idea of national education in a vernacular medium

and felt that all the masses should be properly educated to
participate in the nationalist movement.
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○ In the religious and social spheres, he was a liberal. He supported

women's emancipation, the spread of female education, and widow
re-marriage and advocated inter-caste marriage.
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○ When Das served as the Mayor of Calcutta, the program of work for
the Corporation included free primary education, free medical relief
to the poor, a better supply of filtered water, better sanitation
facilities, housing for the poor, development of suburban areas,
improved transportation facilities and greater efficiency in
administration at cheaper cost.
○ A few years before his death in 1925, he gifted his house and the
adjoining lands to the nation to be used for the betterment of the
lives of women through the institution of a medical school and
hospital for women.
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○ His house turned into a political institution where consultation,
organization and discussions on propaganda took place.
Death and legacy

● Death
○ Deshbandhu Chitta Ranjan Das passed away on June 16, 1925, in
Darjeeling at the age of 55 suffering from poor health conditions.
● Legacy
○ Observing his huge sacrifice for the nation, the people of India were
deeply moved and lovingly called him Deshbandhu, the friend of
the nation.
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○ Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose considered Das his guru and was one of
the greatest of his political disciples.
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Ananda Mohan Bose (1847-1906) -
Educational Reformer and Nationalist:
Fostering Intellectual Awakening
Ananda Mohan Bose (1847-1906) was a nationalist leader, social

reformer, educationist, lawyer, politician and Brahmo Samaj leader.
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He was India's first wrangler. He co-founded the Indian Association
and later became one of the senior leaders of the Indian National
Congress (INC).
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● Ananda Mohan Bose was born on 23 September 1847 in Jaisiddhi, a
remote village in the Mymensingh district of undivided Bengal (now in
Bangladesh) in an upper-middle-class family.
● His parents were Padmalochan Bose and Umakishori Devi.
● He completed his early education at Hardinge School and passed out
Entrance from the Mymensingh Zilla School in 1862 securing the ninth
position in the merit list at the tender age of 15.
● He passed FA and BA from Presidency College and topped the list at both
examinations.
● Bose married Swarnaprabha Bose (sister of Jagadish Chandra Bose), and
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they both converted to Brahmoism in 1869.
● His outstanding performance in successive examinations helped him earn
the Premchand Roychand Studentship scholarship of the University of
Calcutta in 1870. This scholarship enabled Bose to go to England for
higher studies in the same year.
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● In England, Das entered Christ Church College, Cambridge to study Higher
Mathematics. He secured first class in tripos and thus became the first
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Indian wrangler.
● While in Britain, Bose also studied to become a barrister and he was called
to Bar in 1874.
● In the same year, he returned to India, joined the Calcutta High Court and
won distinction in his career.
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● During his stay in England, Bose became friends with Surendranath
Banerjee whom he had first met in 1871.
After his return, Bose plunged into his public career alongside
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Surendranath Banerjee and Sivanath Sastri. He also came under the
influence of Devendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen, for whom he
had the highest regard.
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Political contribution
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● After his return to India, Bose took an active interest in the social and
political life, especially of Bengal with much zeal and enthusiasm.
● Bose considered Surendranath Banerjee his political mentor. The two were
associated with political enterprises right from the 1870s to the early
1900s.
● When Surendranath Banerjee was unfairly dismissed from the Indian Civil
Service in 1874, Bose tried to help him.
● With Surendranath as his mentor and through his organizational ability,
Ananda Mohan set up several pioneering institutions.
● Ananda Mohan Bose set up the Calcutta Students Association in 1875. It
was the earliest attempt made to organize students for constructive
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political work and to give status to it, Bose himself became its first
president.
○ The idea behind establishing this organisation was Bose’s belief that
the students in the colonial setting were the most conscious section
of the community and they must play a productive role in the social
and political developments of the country, therefore they needed to
have an organisation of their own.
● Bose along with Surendranath formed the Indian National Association in
1876 to campaign for raising the minimum age for Indian candidates in the
Indian Civil Service.
○ It was the first political organization at an all-India level to institute a
vigorous agitation for the rights and privileges of Indian citizens.
Bose also organized a National Conference, a precursor of the Indian
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●
National Congress (INC) in 1883 under the aegis of the Indian Association.
● When the Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885, Bose
became a member and was also elected the President of the INC in its
Madras session (14th session) held in 1898.
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● Bose was a ‘moderate’ and favoured constitutional methods in pursuing
political ends. He was a man of progressive thoughts and thus was the first
to advocate for large-scale technical education and industrialisation.
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● When the University of Calcutta got the privilege to elect a member of the
Bengal Legislative Council under the India Act 1858, Bose was the first to
be representative to the Council.
● Bose strongly opposed the British move to divide Bengal in 1905 and is
especially remembered for his address to a large gathering right from
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sickbed on 16 October 1905 at a public meeting organised in Calcutta to

protest against the partition of Bengal.
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Sadharan Brahmo Samaj

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● Bose had a religious bent of mind from early life and had adopted the
Brahmo faith along with his wife a year before leaving for England.
After his return to India, Bose joined the religious and social reform
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movement launched by the Brahmo Samaj which was then led by Keshab
Chandra Sen.
● However, in 1878, there arose differences in the organisation over several
issues which resulted in Anand Mohan Bose along with Shibnath Shastri,
Shib Chandra Deb, Umesh Chandra Dutta, Bijoykrishna Goswami,
Dwarkanath Bandyopadhyay establishing a new Brahmo Samaj called
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj on 15 May 1878.
● This was the third phase of the Brahmo Movement and Bose was elected
the first President of the newly formed organisation.
● Ananda Mohan built a democratic structure for managing the affairs of the
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj and advancing the movement.
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● He served as the president of the organisation for thirteen years and
established several Brahmo institutions, including a spacious building
complex for the Samaj in Calcutta.
○ Bose with the help of his closest associate Pandit Shivnath Shastri
introduced a moral instruction course called Students Weekly
Service for the physical and moral training of students of the
Brahmo institutions.
● Under his enlightened direction, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, not only
became a church and a congregation but also an active centre for the
spread of education and social upliftment.
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● Ananda Mohan Bose made significant contributions as an educator and
social reformer.
● He desired to formulate a programme that would eradicate illiteracy from
society.
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● He also focussed on the need for female education.
● Following his vision, he established the Banga Mahila Vidyalaya in
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Calcutta in 1876. Later, he merged the Vidyalaya with the Bethune School
to achieve better results in the organisation of female education.
● He also founded the City College in Calcutta in 1879. A section of this
college was also opened at his residence in his hometown, Mymensingh
which is now known as City Collegiate School.
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○ The City College was later renamed Ananda Mohan College in his
honour.
Given Bose's bright academic career and deep interest in education, he was
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included as a member of the Indian Education Commission (Hunter
Commission) of 1882.
● Due to his most persistent efforts, the Calcutta University Act of
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Incorporation was so amended as to convert it from merely an examining

body to both an examining and teaching institution.
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Life aftermath and death

● Ananda Mohan Bose returned to England in 1897 to enrol his two sons
into university.
● He undertook a tour of England delivering speeches about the Brahmo
Samaj.
● He presided over an anti-partition meeting on 16 October 1905 right from
the sickbed and addressed the mammoth gathering.
● Soon after, Ananda Mohan Bose breathed his last on 20 August 1906.
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Achievements
● Ananda Mohan Bose was nominated as a member of the Bengal
Legislative Council, a member of the Calcutta University Senate and a
Fellow of the University.
● Ananda Mohan was called ‘Saint Bose’ by his friends and admirers for his
truthfulness and nobility of character. Sister Nivedita called him, “a
forerunner of a new Knighthood of Civil Order.”
● He was known for his integrity and public commitment, true to the spirits
of the great Bengal Renaissance.
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Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928) - Social
Reformer: Envisioning a Casteless and
Equitable Society
Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928), was an anti-casteist social

reformer, spiritual leader, philosopher, and educationist. He is
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known for his fight against the caste-ridden social set-up in
Kerala. He coined the famous quote - ‘One caste, one religion,
one god for all’ and preached the noble ideal of the ‘oneness
of mankind’. He devoted most of his life to promoting social
equality and emphasised the need for education and spiritual
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growth for the upliftment of the downtrodden.
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● Sree Narayana Guru was born on August 22, 1856, in an Ezhava family in
Chempazhanthy village near Thiruvananthapuram in the erstwhile state of
Travancore, in British India now Kerala.
● His parents were Madan Asan and Kuttiyamma. Sree Narayana had three
sisters. His family was a farmer’s family called ‘Vyallvaram’. Narayana’s
father and his family were much revered by the villagers because they also
had a sound economic status.
His father was a farmer, and teacher and was proficient in Sanskrit,
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●
Astrology and Ayurveda. His mother was full of intelligence and kindness.
His uncle Krishnan Vaidyan was a reputed Ayurvedic physician.
● Narayana Guru’s father named him Narayanan but he affectionately called
him Nanu, a short name for Narayanan.
Narayana received his early education under the ‘Gurukula model’. At the
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age of five, he was admitted to a neighbouring school under
ChempazhanthiMootha Pillai. He also continued his education at home
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with his father and uncle. He was taught the basics of the Tamil and
Sanskrit languages and traditional subjects such as Siddharupam,
Balaprobhodhanam and Amarakosam.
● At the age of 15, he lost his mother. After that, he spent most of his time
assisting his father in tutoring, and his uncle in the practice of Ayurveda,
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while devoting the rest of his time to devotional practices.

● When Narayana turned 21, he went to central Travancore to learn from
Raman Pillai Asan, a Sanskrit scholar who taught him the Sanskrit
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language, literary criticism, the Vedas, Upanishads, and the literature and
logical rhetoric of Sanskrit.
● In 1881, he returned to his village when his father was seriously ill. He
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started a village school for the children of his neighbourhood. As he was a

teacher, the villagers and children respectfully addressed him as "Nanu
Asan". The term ‘Asan’-a, a Malayalam word derived from Sanskrit, means
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‘Acharyan’–a teacher.
○ He continued his spiritual pursuits and writing poems and hymns
and lecturing villagers on philosophy and moral values
simultaneously.
● After a year, in 1882, Narayana Guru married Kaliamma, the daughter of a
traditional doctor in his village. His wife passed away after a few years.
● However, he soon realized that the life of a householder was not his mission
in life and decided to leave home.
Transformation into a spiritual leader
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● He then travelled through Kerala and Tamil Nadu and in the process met
Chattampi Swamikal, a social and religious reformer, who introduced Guru
to Ayyavu Swamikal from whom he learned meditation and yoga.
● Under Thycattu Ayyaavu, a 'Hatha yogi', Narayana Guru mastered various
yogic practices including Hatha Yoga. These scholastic experiences and
exposures etched a lasting and supreme impact on the later life and
philosophy of Narayana Guru.
● Then, Narayan Guru moved to the wilderness of Maruthwamala where he
established a hermitage and lived a secluded life immersed in meditative
thought and yoga.
○ Here, for eight years he lived an austere life and subjected himself to
extreme sustenance rituals.
This secluded life culminated in the attaining of enlightenment by Sree
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●
Narayana Guru.
● In 1888, Narayan Guru reached Aruvippuram, a village located in the
southern district of Thiruvananthapuram, wandering as a spiritual
wanderer.
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● He settled there for some time when visitors from near and far started
visiting him for spiritual as well as physical rejuvenation.
● He felt the necessity of constructing a temple there for the regular worship
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of Lord Shiva. Therefore, he picked up a rock from the Neyyar River and
consecrated it as Lord Shiva (Aruvipuram Pratishta).
Fight against inequality

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● After the consecration of Shiva Lingam at Aruvippuram, people started

worshipping it with flowers, camphor, and incense sticks. The Brahmins
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soon came to know about it and reached the spot agitating and questioning
Narayan Guru’s right to install an idol.
○ As per tradition, only Brahmins were allowed to install idols in those
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days. Guru was the first non-Brahmin in Kerala to consecrate a

Shiva idol.
○ When questioned, Narayan Guru replied that the idol he had
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installed was not a Brahmin Shiva but an Ezhava Shiva.

● Soon after, he consecrated many such Shiva idols and temples across
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
● In 1903, the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) was
established in Aruvippuram with Narayana Guru as the Founder and
President. The organisation continues to this day with a strong presence
across the state of Kerala.
● In 1904, Guru gave up his life as a wanderer and decided to settle down in
Sivagiri at Varkala, twenty miles north of Thiruvananthapuram to continue
his spiritual practices.
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● In Sivagiri, at Varkala, he established a Sanskrit school for children from
lower strata of society. In this school, poor boys and orphans were given
free education regardless of their caste.
● He also emphasized the need for modern education and learning English,
saying it was the way to enlightenment and liberation.
● He went on to build temples in different places – Thrissur, Kannur,
Anchuthengu, Tellicherry, Calicut, and Mangalore. In 1912, he built the
Sharada Devi Temple at Sivagiri.
● In 1913, he founded the Advaita Ashram at Aluva which was dedicated to
the principle – “Om Sahodaryam Sarvatra (all men are equal in the
eyes of God)”.
● Between 1918 and 1923 he visited Sri Lanka many times. The Sri Lankans’
practice of Buddhism and its values of equality impressed him a lot.
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● After his return to India, Guru also emphasised society's adoption of
various modes to progress, such as education for all, village industries,
indigenous craftsmanship-trade, handicrafts etc.
● Narayana Guru taught equality but felt that inequalities should not be
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exploited to carry out conversions and therefore generate strife in society.
● In 1921, a Conference of the Universal Brotherhood was held at Aluva and
in 1924 a conference of all religions was held there. It was reported to be
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the first such event in India.
○ The 1924 conference was an effort to counter the religious
conversions the Ezhava community was susceptible to.
○ Narayana Guru stressed the need for a Brahma Vidyalaya for a
comparative study of different religious faiths.
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● He propagated the ideals of compassion and religious tolerance. He also

used his knowledge to weed out superstitions and promote cleanliness,
equality and enterprise.
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● In 1925, Narayana Guru supported the famous Vaikom Satyagraha

movement, which demanded entry for lower caste people into the Shiva
temple at Vaikom and all temples in Kerala.
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His philosophy
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● Sree Narayana Guru became one of the greatest proponents and

re-evaluators of Advaita Vedanta, the principle of non-duality put forward
by Adi Shankara.
● He was also an egalitarian who advocated social equality and universal
brotherhood. He worked hard as a social educationist and condemned
discrimination in the name of caste, creed and religion. He considered
education as the means to uplift his/her quality of life.
● His philosophy emphasised the consistency between the true existence of
the “common reality” on Earth and one Divine behind the creation and
sustenance of the Universe, dismissing any concepts of illusory worlds.
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● Narayana Guru’s philosophy was in many respects ahead of its time and
focused on futuristic world order. People like Gandhi, Rabindranath
Tagore, Ramana Maharshi, and many social reformers and spiritual leaders
met him and expressed their shared beliefs and respect toward him.
Death
● In 1928, there was a severe deterioration in Guru’s health and he remained
bedridden for some months.
● On 20 September 1928, at the age of 73, Narayan Guru breathed his last at
Sarada Mutt.
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Literary works
His works were written in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil.
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● In Malayalam
○ Advaitha Deepika
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○ Anukamba Dasakam
○ Arivu
○ Athma Vilasam
○ Atmopadesa Åšatakam
○ Bhadrakaalyashtakam
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○ Chijanda Chinthakam
○ Daiva Chinthanam - 1 & 2
○ Daiva Dasakam
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○ Jathi LakshanamJathi Nirnayam

○ Jeevakarunya Panchakam
○ Shiva Shathakam
○ Swanubavageethi
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● In Sanskrit
○ Asramam
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○ Bhadrakaliashtakam
○ Brahmavidya Panchakam
○ Charama Slokangal
○ Chidambarashtakam
○ Darsana Mala
○ Dharmam
○ Genani Navamanjari
○ Guhashtakam
○ Homa Manthram
○ Municharya Panchakam
○ Nirvruthi Panchakam
○ Slokathrayi
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○ Sree Vasudeva Ashtakam
○ Vedantha Suthram
○ Vinayaka Ashtakam
● In Tamil
○ Thevarappathinkangal
● Translations
○ Isavasyo Upanishad
○ Ozhivil Odukkam
○ Thirukural
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Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (1879-1973) -
Rationalist Revolutionary: Championing
Social Justice and Equality
Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (1879-1973) also known as

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy Naicker or Thanthai Periyar was
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a radical social reformer and politician. He was the founder
of the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is
known as the 'Father of the Dravidian Movement'. He
fought against caste and gender discrimination and
inequalities in Tamil Nadu bravely and is remembered as one
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of India's social reform heroes.
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● E.V. Ramaswami Naicker was born in a Kannada family on 17 September
1879 at Erode town in the then Coimbatore district of Madras Presidency
(now Tamil Nadu).
● He belonged to a prosperous Balija merchant family. His parents were
Venkatappa Nayakar (or Venkata) and Chinna Thayammal alias
Muthammal. He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two
sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy.
● Ramasamy did not receive any formal education. However, in 1885, at the
age of 6, he was sent to a small primary school usually run at a house -pial
in those days. His school life lasted till he turned 10. In 1891, he joined his
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father's business at 12.
● His father was an ardent follower of the Hindu religion and belonged to the
Vaishnavite sect. Ramasamy used to hear Tamil Vaishnav religious Gurus
talk on mythologies at his house, enjoying their hospitality.
○ However, Ramasamy questioned the contradictions in the Hindu
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religion and grew up as a rebel and rationalist who defied all caste
rules and regulations.
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○ As Periyar grew, he felt that people used religion only as a mask to
deceive innocent people and therefore took it as one of his duties in
life to warn people against superstitions and priests.
● In 1898, when he was 19, he married Nagammal, a thirteen-year-old girl.
She was orthodox in her beliefs and practices. Ramasamy reformed her
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wife's views and sowed rationalist ideas into her mind.
○ His first wife, Nagammai, died in 1933. Ramasamy re-married in
1948. His second wife’s name was Maniammai.
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● In 1900, Ramasamy became the father of a girl child who survived only for
5 months and after that, he had no children.
● In 1904, he renounced family life following his father's harsh recrimination.
In the same year, he visited Benares (Kashi) to visit the revered Shiva
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temple of Kashi Vishwanath. He was 25 years old then. It was a turning
point in his life.
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○ Here he witnessed immoral activities such as begging and floating

dead bodies in the Ganges, immoral trafficking in prostitution,
cheating, looting, the hypocrisy of Brahmins etc.
○ Ramasamy's personal experience in Kashi when he was refused a
meal at a choultry that exclusively fed Brahmins and was built by a
wealthy non-Brahmin from South India dealt a blow to Periyar's
regard for Hinduism.
■ The prevalence of such discriminatory traits of Hinduism at the
holiest sites of Hinduism, the most “sacred town” disgusted
him and changed his views turning him into an atheist.
○ Consequently, rethinking his renunciation, he returned to his family
life to join his father's business at Erode.
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Public life and social service
● E.V.R. succeeded as a businessman and soon became a wealthy
well-known trader. He had enormous influence over other traders in the
bazaar street of Erode. He mediated and solved many disputes among
businessmen with neutrality and uprightness.
● From 1905 onwards, E.V.R. entered public life and proved himself an
efficient organiser and executor of various relief measures.
● In 1915 when there was an outbreak of plague in Erode, he organised relief
work with the help of his friends and distributed food and money to the
impoverished families. He carried the dead bodies on his back to the
cremation ground when the close kin and family members refused to do
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fearing catching the deadly contagious disease.
● He served on various temple committees. In 1917, he was elected as the
Chairman of the Erode Municipality. During his term which lasted till
1919, he executed the Cauvery water scheme which ensured a regular
supply of drinking water to the citizens of Erode and earned their
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admiration.
● His executive efficiency and unshakable honesty fetched the awards of
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many posts in various public institutions. Periyar was made Honorary
Magistrate by the British Government.
● He held many honorary positions like the President, Secretary,
Vice-President etc., in various public institutions such as - the District
Board, Taluk Board, Urban Bank, Religious Davasthanam (Trust), Public
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Library, War Recruitment Committee, Association of Agriculturists,
Association of Merchants, Mahajana School Committee and others.
In 1919, Periyar joined the Indian National Congress (INC) resigning from
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●
the Chairmanship of Erode Municipality. The decision was influenced by
Mr P. Varadharajulu Naidu and Mr C. Rajagopalachariyar who persuaded
Periyar to join the National Congress party led by M.K. Gandhi.
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Role in the national movement

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● E.V.R.’s participation in national politics was minimal till the 1920s. He

had participated in a protest meeting in 1916 organised against the
government's action against the Home Rule organ, New India but
maintained regular political contact with important nationalist leaders from
1917 onwards.
● E.V.R. took an increasing interest in the activities of the Madras
Presidency Association (MPA) founded in 1917 to represent and
safeguard the non-Brahmin interests in the INC and repudiate the claims
of the Justice Party to be the sole representative of the non-Brahmin
community in the Madras Presidency.
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○ He served as one of its Vice-Presidents, participated in all its
deliberations and helped to conduct its second annual conference at
Erode in October 1919.
○ As an active member of MPA, he became familiar with the
programmes and policies of the Indian National Congress (INC), its
plans for the freedom movement in India especially its efforts to raise
the condition of the masses and do away with untouchability and
prohibition.
● Non-Cooperation movement
○ E.V.R. participated wholeheartedly in the Non-Cooperation movement
and the campaigns against foreign cloth and in favour of the use of
khadi.
○ He considered Gandhi as his leader and being a true disciple
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executed every word of Gandhi into deed. When Gandhi gave the call
for non-cooperation, Periyar resigned from all the 29 public positions
he held and gave up the family trade and closed the business which
was earning well.
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○ He also defied the prohibitory order of section 144, promulgated at
Erode for the first time and courted arrest.
○ When Gandhi urged everyone to wear khadi, Periyar immediately
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shed away all his costly foreign clothes and began to wear Khadi even
forcing his family members to do so. Thereafter, he implicitly
enforced simplicity in every aspect of his life journey.
● In 1921, when Gandhi was requested and insisted by Periyar’s wife
Nagammal and his sister Kannammal to launch an agitation for drawing a
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policy for the prohibition of liquors, Gandhi announced that the Congress
party men should undertake picketing in front of toddy shops throughout
the country for urging the British Government to implement the policy of
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liquor prohibition.
○ To accomplish Gandhi’s command, Periyar cut and uprooted more
than 500 coconut trees. At Erode, Periyar led the agitators and
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picketed before the toddy - shop. He was arrested and sentenced to

undergo imprisonment for one month.
○ The movement was further led by his wife Nagammal and sister
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Kannammal supported by women volunteers.

● In 1922, Periyar was elected the President of the Madras Presidency
Congress Committee (MPCC) during the Tirupur session, where he
advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education. He
also completely endorsed Gandhi’s calls for a boycott of legislatures and
local taluk board elections.
● In 1924, was awarded a jail sentence for his earlier propagation of Khadi
cloth and a boycott of foreign goods imported by British Rule.
● He resigned from INC in 1925 following the defeat of his resolution,
introduced to demand communal reservation for 50% of the non-brahmins
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in government jobs and education. The resolution had been stalled by
conservative Brahmins.
Struggle for social justice

● Despite being a member of the Congress party, Periyar appreciated the
measures of the Justice Party government for implementing the policy of
communal reservation in education and employment through a government
order in 1924.
● Vaikom Satyagraha
○ Vaikom was in the princely state of Travancore. People of low social
status were not permitted to use the road near the temple in that
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place. As anti-caste feelings were growing, Vaikom was chosen as a
suitable place for an organised Satyagraha in 1924.
○ To protest against prevalent social inequality in society and to
maintain the right of untouchables to use the roads and the temples,
the Congress members in Travancore launched a Satyagraha with
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Gandhiji's permission. However, they were soon arrested.
○ Their arrest intimidated E.V.R. and he as the then President of the
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Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC), decided to take over the
leadership of the Satyagraha.
○ Under his guidance, the movement gained momentum. EVR arrived
in Travancore and made fiery speeches against the Gods and
Brahmins.
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○ Fearing clashes and unrest in society, the Government arrested him

within 6 days of his arrival and issued a warrant for him to leave. His
defiance of the order resulted in his further arrest and imprisonment
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for six months.

○ Eventually, the streets were thrown open to the untouchables and he
earned the title Vaikom Veeran or ‘Hero of Vaikom’, from his
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followers who participated in the Satyagraha.

● Gurukul controversy
○ At the National Training School hostel called ‘Gurukulam’ at
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Cheranmaadhevi near Thirunelveli, non-Brahmin boys were forced to

eat apart from the Brahmins but the hostel-attached institution was
funded by Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC) and also by
Dravidian philanthropists.
○ This infuriated Periyar and he resigned from the post of Secretary of
the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. However, soon he was elected
as the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC) and
presided over the provincial conference of the Congress party held at
Tiruvannamalai in November - 1924.
○ At the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC) meeting in
Trichinopoly, a compromise resolution was agreed upon by which the
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committee recommended that all organisations partaking in the
national movement should shun all gradations of merit based on
birth. Ramaswamy Naicker himself agreed with the resolution.
○ The refusal of the Brahmins to take a firm stand on this question led
to a failure in settling the issue.
● Issue of communal representation
○ On communal representation, E.V.R. held the view that it was the
only way out to lift the non-Brahmins from their low strata in society.
○ In 1925, at the Kanchipuram Conference of the TNCC in November,
E.V.R. sought to get a mandate from the Tamil Nadu Congress on the
question of communal representation.
○ This body accepted the demand for communal representation 'in
principle', but refused to let it take a 'statutory shape' on several
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occasions. This enraged Periyar and he left Congress taking a vow to
destroy that Brahmin Raj in the party by all means.
● Against Varnashrama
○ Periyar held strong views against the four-fold division of caste
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hierarchy in Indian society but Gandhi expressed his firm belief in
this system.
○ Naicker met Gandhi in September 1927 intending to modify Gandhi's
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stand on varnashrama dharma because he believed that it would
only strengthen the orthodox Hindu position on the question of
untouchability and child marriage against which Gandhi himself was
fighting.
○ He expressed his belief that India could achieve true freedom only
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with the destruction of Indian National Congress (INC), Hinduism

and Brahminism.
■ He spoke about the destruction of INC because he had
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observed and felt that the party had been dominated by

Brahmins who were in the national organisation only to further
their political interests rather than to strive for the
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independence of the nation.

● Self-Respect Movement
○ Soon after leaving INC, E.V.R. founded the Self-Respect Movement in
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December 1925.
○ The goal was to preserve the self-respect of Dravidians, their race,
language, and culture which he believed had been degraded by the
Brahminical dominance of their caste system and superstition of the
Hindu religion.
○ In 1927, with the active support of Periyar, Mr S. Muthaiya
(Mudaliar), a Minister in Dr P. Subbarayan’s independent
government implemented the communal reservation scheme of the
Justice Party.
○ Propagation of the philosophy of Self-Respect became the full-time
activity of Periyar from 1925 onwards. A Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu
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started in 1925, while the English journal Revolt started in 1928
carried on propaganda among the English-educated people.
○ Through this movement, Periyar introduced a new rationalist
marriage system called ‘Self-Respect Marriage’ which would not
include Brahmins uttering Sanskrit mantras and would be devoid of
prevalent rituals.
■ The system secularised marriage through this matrimonial
arrangement since it allowed people belonging to any religion to
follow this arrangement.
○ Besides this new wedding system, Periyar also encouraged intercaste
marriages and widow marriages.
○ From 1929 to 1932, he visited different countries like Malaya, Egypt,
Greece, Turkey, the Soviet Union, Germany, England, Spain, France
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and Portugal, Russia and Ceylon to strengthen the movement
politically and socially.
○ The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about
a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society.
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○ In 1929, E. V. Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste title
Naicker from his name at the First Provincial Self-Respect Conference
of Chengalpattu.
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● In 1931, he actively supported the Bill for the abolition of the Devadasi
system (setting apart young girls from a particular community playing
musical instruments in Hindu temples as dancing girls) in the Madras
Legislative Council despite stout opposition by the caste-fanatic Brahmin
leaders.
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● In 1951, the Constitution of India was amended for the first time by the
Nehru Government and sub-clause (4) was added to Article 15 to admit the
provisions of the Communal Government Order to preserve the rights and
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equal opportunities of Backward classes in India. It was done to prevent a

formidable opposition engineered by Periyar.
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Fight for Dravidian culture and language

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● In 1937, when C. Rajagopalachari became the Prime Minister of the Madras

Presidency, he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in
schools which resulted in a series of anti-Hindi agitations.
● E.V.R. declared that to defeat the dominance of Hindi over Tamil and the
Dravidian race, the only solution would be ‘A separate Sovereign State’ i.e.,
‘Tamil Nadu for Tamils’.
● Tamil nationalists, the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam, and
E.V. Ramasamy organised anti-Hindi protests in 1938. E.V.R. was arrested
and imprisoned for 2 years.
● In November 1938, the title “Periyar” was conferred on him by Tamil Nadu
Women Conference held in Madras.
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● Since 1935, Periyar had begun supporting the Justice Party. In December
1938, he was elected President of the Justice Party even when he was in
Bellary Jail (Andhra).
● In 1940, when C. Rajagopalachari resigned, Periyar was invited by the
Governor of Madras to form an alternative Ministry since he was elected
the leader of the Justice Party. However, E.V.R. rejected the offer to
completely focus on social reformation.
● In the same year, he raised the demand for a separate Dravida Nadu to
save the Dravidian race and Tamil language from the dominance of Hindi
and North Indian Hindu capitalists at the Thiruvarur Conference.
● In 1944, the name of the Justice Party was changed to ‘Dravidar
Kazhagam’ to signify purely a social revolutionary movement for the
emancipation of the Dravidian race oppressed by Brahmins.
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Principles and legacy
Periyar believed in the principles of rationalism, socialism, and self-respect.
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●
He advocated for women’s rights and social reform, and the eradication of
caste differences and discrimination. He was against Brahamanism in
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Hinduism and had later become an atheist.
● He strongly believed in the idea of preserving Tamil culture and language.
Periyar hailed the Thirukkural as a valuable scripture and praised
Thiruvalluvar for his secular work. He supported the idea of a separate
Dravidian state. It was the concept of Dravida Nadu was later modified to
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Tamil Nadu.
● It was due to his efforts that Temple Entry Acts of 1924, 1931, and 1950
were created for non-Brahmins and Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the temple
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language in Tamil Nadu, while Dalits finally became eligible for the
priesthood in the 1970s.
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Later years and death

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● In his later years. Periyar continued his struggle against social inequality.
In 1956, he organised a procession to the Marina for which he was
arrested. In 1958, he participated in the All India Official Language
Conference in Bangalore.
● Periyar’s last meeting was at Thiagaraya Nagar, Chennai on 19 December
1973 where he declared a call for action to gain social equality and a
dignified way of life.
● On 24 December 1973, Periyar died at the age of 94.
Literary works
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● ‘Kudi Arasu’ - Tamil Weekly, 1925.
● “Revolt” - English magazine, 1928.
● ‘‘Family Planning” (Birth Control), 1930.
● “Why were Women Enslaved”.
● “Puratchi” (Revolution), magazine,1933.
● “Pagutharivu” (Rationalism), Tamil weekly, 1934.
● “Viduthalai” started as a Tamil Daily in 1937.
● Reform of the Alphabet in the Tamil language.
● “Ponmozhigal” (Golden sayings).
● “The World to Come”.
● “Ramayana: A True Reading”.
● “Unmai” (Truth), Tamil bi-monthly, first started by Periyar.
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Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) - Religious
Reformer: Advocating for a Universal
Religion
Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) was an Indian intellectual,

philosopher and socio-religious reformer. He was one of the
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well-known leaders of Brahmo Samaj. He endeavoured to
establish a universal religion. His identity constantly kept
changing from a scientist of faith to an exponent of
Neo-Vaishnavism and Mother goddess, from revolutionary social
reformer to restrained theoretician, from ardent
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constitutionalist to defender of authoritarianism, from an
advocate of nationalism to a champion of ‘providential’ British
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rule.
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● Keshab Chandra Sen was born on November 19, 1838, into an affluent
Vaishnava family in Calcutta (now Kolkata).
● He was the son of Peary Mohan Sen and the grandson of Dewan Ram
Kamal Sen.
○ His grandfather was the first Indian secretary of the Asiatic Society,
the compiler of the earliest English-Bengali Dictionary (two volumes
published in 1830 and 1834), and one of the founders of the Hindu
College, Calcutta School-Book Society and Sanskrit College.
● Keshab Chandra's family was a 'modernist' family while being highly
religious at the same time. For belonging to a religious family, he was
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surrounded by religious influences since his childhood.
● Keshab Chandra was a student of the Hindu College and was well
educated. From an early part of his life, he showed an aptitude for
influencing other people's minds.
○ At the age of 17, in 1855 he established "The British India Society".
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● In 1856, he married Jagonmohini Sen and graduated from Hindu College,
Calcutta.
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● He had a deep inclination towards the Unitarian theological and social
gospels propounded in the writings of Theodore Parker, FW Newman, RW
Emerson, Miss Francis Cobbe and others.
○ Under the influence of CHA Dall, the American Unitarian Missionary,
he was convinced of the validity of the Unitarian social ideology and
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established the 'Goodwill Fraternity', a Unitarian religious society
for the students, where he was the main speaker.
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Role in Brahmo Samaj

Soon he came in contact with Debendranath Tagore, the leader of the
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Brāhmo Samāj and propounder of Brahmo Samaj ideals.
● In 1857, he joined Brahmo Samaj, influenced and fascinated by monotheist
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Vedantism.
● By 1858, he became the central figure of the organisation. He was a
brilliant orator and organiser and was a prominent leader of the
organisation.
● He earned fame as an orator on religious themes and as an organizer of
branches of the Brahmo Samaj throughout India. Around 31 branches of
the Samaj were established between 1857 and 1866.
● Keshab gave new life to Brahmo Samaj introducing new ideas and activities
in it between 1858 and 1862.
● In 1859, he set up the Brahmo School where weekly lectures were
delivered and were greatly popular with the rising generation.
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● In 1860, he organized Sangat Sabha, a society of fellow believers to
promote mutual spiritual intercourse among its members. In the same
year, he began publishing tracts which was the trumpet call of the new
Brahmoism and the first chapter was called, "Young Bengal, this is for
you".
● In 1861, he started The Indian Mirror, an organ of the Brahma Samaj
through which he spread anti-sectarian, universal religious ideas.
● He introduced regular and systematic missionary work in the Samaj. After
being appointed the Acharya (Preceptor) in 1862, he focused on the
extension of missionary work voluntarily. He was also conferred with the
title of Brahmananda - meaning ‘one whose delight is God’ by
Devendranath Tagore.
As the Acharya of the Samaj, Keshab insisted on giving up some Hindu
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customs and practices such as the caste system, untouchability, child
marriage, and polygamy and became the champion of widow and
inter-caste marriages.
● Under his leadership, many young Brahmos gave up the practice of
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wearing the paita (sacred thread). It was during his leadership that the first
Brahma widow and inter-caste marriages took place in August 1862 and
1864 respectively.
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Formation of Brahmo Samaj of India
● By the early 1860s, there arose a sense of conflict among the Brahmo
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Samaj members. Debendranath Tagore did not approve of any radical

change in Samaj keeping in view the national sentiment and the greater
Hindu Samaj.
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○ Keshab accused Debendranath of Indianising Brahmaism, making it

another Hindu sect. The problem of 'national identity' became
paramount in the altercation between Debendranath Tagore and
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Keshab Chandra Sen.

● The younger members were unhappy with the 'authoritarian' attitude of
Debendranath. To counter the Tattwabodhini Patrika, the young started the
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Dharmatattwa.
● To challenge Debendranath’s authority, the young members formed the
Pratinidhi Sabha (representative assembly) in 1864 led by Keshab
Chandra Sen. The group struggling for religious independence and
progress in the Brahma Samaj, demanded democratic and constitutional
control over the Samaj affairs.
● The older members insisted that it was a movement within Hinduism and
did not involve a break with traditional values and customs while Keshab
Chandra argued that the Samaj was outside Hinduism and was meant to
unite all people in a universal brotherhood.
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● In 1865, Keshub delivered a lecture on the Struggle for Religious
Independence where he condemned the high-handed feelings of the
Calcutta (Adi) Brahmo Samaj and a representation was sent to
Debendranath signed by Keshub, P C Mozoomdar and others.
● Tagore did not yield and the formal break between them took place on 15
November 1866. Keshab named this Samaj- 'Bharatbarsiya Brahma
Samaj' (Brahma Samaj of India) while the old one came to be known as
Adi (original) Samaj.
● After the breakup, the Adi Brahmo Samaj quietly retreated to its position of
Hindu monotheism - and Debendranath remained silent and never replied
to any of the accusations.
● The tenets of the newly-formed body were as follows:
○ The wide universe is the temple of God.
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○ Wisdom is the pure land of pilgrimage.
○ Truth is the everlasting scripture.
○ Faith is the root of all religions.
○ Love is the true spiritual culture.
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○ The destruction of selfishness is true asceticism.
● Keshab's Samaj became immensely popular among the young generation.
By 1868, all 65 branches of the Samaj in Eastern India joined the new
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Samaj and the number rose to 101 by 1872 throughout India.
Promotion of ‘universalism'
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● In 1868, Keshab Chandra laid the foundation of the Tabernacle of New

Dispensation, his new church, which was consecrated in 1869.
It was built by blending in it the architectural features of a Hindu temple, a
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Muslim Mosque and a Christian church. Keshab preached ‘universalism' in
his new temple.
● Many misjudged this effort as Keshab's drift towards Christianity. However,
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Keshab in his lecture on 'Jesus Christ: Europe and Asia' in May 1866 had
carefully distinguished between 'Christ's message of universal harmony'
and the institutionalised, missionary-preached Europeanised Christianity
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of the 19th century.

○ He never succumbed to European cultural imperialism.
● In 1870, he visited England and spent the next six months there. He met
many renowned personalities such as John Stuart Mill, William Gladstone
and Queen Victoria.
○ He emphasized the positives of Christianity as well as the merits of
the British conquest of India. At the same time, he was the first one
to suggest that the West must also learn from India.
● However, his views regarding Christianity changed perhaps. In England,
Christianity appeared to him too sectarian and narrow, too muscular and
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hard, and Christian life in England was more materialistic and outward
than spiritual and inward.
Marriage controversy
● In 1878, Brahmos received the information that Keshab Chandra Sen was
giving the hands of his eldest daughter Suniti, who was a minor, in
marriage to the Maharaja of Cooch Behar.
● This issue became a subject of controversy because the marriage was in
contravention of the Native (Brahma) Marriage Act,1872. The Act proposed
the minimum age of marriage to be 14 and Suniti was yet a minor.
Moreover, the Native (Brahma) Marriage Act, 1872 was introduced and
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enacted due to the efforts of Keshab Chandra Sen. It was seen as Keshab
Chandra violating the principles he had laid down.
● It was also observed that the marriage would involve all the essential
features of Hindu marriage which were in sharp contrast to the Native
(Brahma) Marriage Act, 1872.
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● This led to the rise in the dissenting voices in the organisation resulting in
the formation of the Samadarshi (liberal) group in 1874 and Samadarshi
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Sabha in 1877 under Shibnath Shastri which demanded constitutional
rights. The dissenting group started a paper called Samadarshi to voice
their opinion.
● However, Keshab Chandra Sen did not yield and justified his daughter's
marriage as 'providential'. This led to the progressive splinter group
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forming the Sadharan Brahma Samaj on 15 May 1875 on a constitutional

basis.
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Quest for a universal religion

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● The search for a universal religion was a matter of quest for Keshab
Chandra Sen throughout his career as a religious reformer.
In 1881, Keshab officially instituted Nava Bidhan (New Dispensation), a
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new syncretistic religion based on the union of East and West. In this new
religion, he wished to combine the 'pantheism' and 'mysticism' of Asia with
the 'positivism and science' of Europe.
○ It was a synthesis of Hindu Tantrism, bhakti, and Christian rituals,
with an emphasis on divine revelation.
○ The basic idea of Nava Bidhan was eclectic. It proclaimed 'the
harmony of all scriptures and prophets and dispensations'.
According to Keshab, it was a religion of Catholicism that embraces
all space and all times.
● In 1883, Keshab compiled Nava Sanghita as a 'comprehensive law and
guide to daily religious life' of his Samaj.
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● Another theme of his preachings during this period was that the image of
the mother was a better symbol of the divine than the image of the father
since a mother is "tenderhearted and indulgent."
● The central idea behind all these experiments was the quest for a universal
religion.
● In his last public lecture, 'Asia's Message to Europe', on 20 January 1883,
he reiterated the need for the New Dispensation based on 'scientific unity'
to end sectarian and national strife and bring 'harmony' between Indian
nationalists and British imperialists.
● However, the New Dispensation did not attain much popularity given the
internal discord and Keshab's failing health, which hampered its activities.
After Keshab's death, it became defunct for lack of a guiding spirit behind
it.
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Other social reforms
Women empowerment
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● The issue of women's emancipation and social reform for their betterment
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was one of the primary concerns of Keshab Chandra Sen.
● To improve the educational status of women, women’s education became a
vital agenda of Keshab-controlled Brahma Bandhu Sabha (1863).
● He also actively supported the educational efforts of the organisers of the
Bamabodhini Sabha and Bamabodhini Patrika (both founded in 1863) and
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guided Bama Hitaisini Sabha (1871) to improve the moral and material
condition of women.
● The Native (Brahma) Marriage Act III of 1872 was enacted all due to the
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efforts of Keshab Chandra Sen. The progressive Act sanctioned reforms

such as inter-caste and widow marriage, prohibition of child marriage,
bigamy, and polygamy and allowed separation and divorce.
● In 1879, he established Arya Nari Samaj.
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Death
● In 1883, Keshab Chandra’s health began failing, and he breathed his last
on 8th January 1884.
Literary works
● 'Indian Mirror' as a fortnightly in 1861, became a daily in 1871.
● ‘The Indian Mirror’, 1862, a weekly journal, discussed social and moral
subjects.
● “The Brahma Samaj Vindicated”, 1863.
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● Sulabha Samachar (Cheap News).
● “Nava Samhita”, 1883.
● Bengali translation of Koran and Hadis.
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Dadoba and Atmaram Pandurang - Pioneers
of Social and Religious Reform: Fostering the
Prarthana Samaj Movement
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Atmaram Pandurang and Dadoba Pandurang were two brothers who contributed
significantly to social reforms in India. Dadoba Pandurang (Tarkhadkar) (1814–
1882) was Bombay's renowned social reformer, writer, and linguist. His brother
Atmaram Pandurang Turkhadekar (1823-1898) was a social reformer, physician,
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the founder of Prarthana Samaj and one of the two Indian co-founders of the
Bombay Natural History Society.
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Dadoba Pandurang
Early life, education, and career
● Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar was born on 9th May 1814 in Bombay. He
originally belonged to the village of Tarkhad near Vasai, Palgarh (formerly
Thane district) from where he got his surname Tarkhadkar.
● His parents were Pandurang Yahswant Tarkhadkar and Yashodabai. He
had two brothers, Bhaskar Rao and Atmaram Pandurang. His father was
an ardent Vitthal devotee and therefore, he had a religious atmosphere at
his house. Dadoba’s father started teaching him at home.
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● Dadoba received his primary education at Pantoji’s school. He learned
English at the Bombay Native Education Society school established in
1822.
● Pandurang received West Scholarship and studied at what became the
Elphinstone and he learned several languages including Portuguese,
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Persian, and Sanskrit.
● In 1828, at the age of 14, Dadoba got married to Krishnabai, the only
daughter of Jagannath Pandurang, when he was still studying.
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● Dadoba studied Sanskrit and English grammar in depth. In 1836, he wrote
Marathi grammar called Maharastra Bhasheche Vyakaran by organizing
the form of the Marathi language with independent knowledge. He was still
studying at that time.
In 1837, he began working as an English teacher to Nawab of Jarawa state
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in Malwa. In 1840, he joined the Elphinstone Institute as an assistant
English teacher. Later, he was appointed as an Executive Teacher in an
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English School established in Surat.

● Meanwhile, he worked on Gujarati Roman script and Gujarati translation
into English.
● In 1846, he was appointed to the post of Director of the Training College
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after the death of Bal Shastri Jambhekar and was gradually promoted.
● In 1852, he was selected for the post of Deputy Collector and Magistrate at
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Ahmednagar.
● As a government civil servant, he performed well in various positions of
responsibility. While at Jawara, he put down the revolt of the Bhils led by
Pataji Naik, a rebel leader of the Bhils in 1847 with great skill. Considering
his overall achievements, the government gave him the title of 'Rao
Bahadur'.
● While carrying out his work in various positions, Dadoba Pandurang
equally managed to contribute to social reforms. He participated in politics
and fought for social and religious causes.
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● Manavdharma Sabha
○ On 22nd June 1844, Dadoba Pandurang and Durgaram Mansaram
founded the 'Manavdharma Sabha' in Surat.
○ The organization focused on social and religious reforms.
○ Vishwadharma and Buddhipramanya were two major concepts of
Manavdharmasabha.
○ Some of the basic principles of the organization included the right of
every individual to have freedom of thought, no caste-based
discrimination, and the oneness and formlessness of God.
● Paramhansa Sabha
○ Along with Sir Ramchandra Balkrishna Jaykar, Bhikobadada
Chavan, Laxman Shastri Halbe, Atmaram Pandurang, Moroba
Vinoba, Madan Srikrishna and others, Dadoba Pandurang
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established ‘Paramhansa Sabha’ in 1848.
○ It aimed at attacking caste-based disparities and reforming religious
affairs.
○ The philosophy of this organization included opposition to idolatry
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and caste discrimination. It advocated widow remarriage, the
education of women, and the promotion of monotheism and a sense
of universal brotherhood.
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○ Ram Balkrishna was the first and last president of Paramahansa
Sabha. The work of this meeting was conducted secretly.
○ Due to the lack of organisational skills among the leaders of the
organization, the organization collapsed within 10 years. In 1860, the
Paramahansa Sabha came to an end.
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○ The Prarthana Samaj established in 1867 and the Satyashodhak

Samaj established in Pune in 1873, are said to be revivals of the
Paramhansa Sabha in new circumstances and a new form.
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● Gyanprasarak Sabha
○ It was established in 1848 at Elphinstone College in Bombay by some
of its students. Dadoba served as its president.
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○ The main objectives of the organisation were to spread knowledge

and create social awareness among Indians. Social and religious
topics were also given due priority.
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● He also founded the Sahakari Book Society which focused on the benefits
of educating widows. He was also associated with the University of
Bombay, Punarivavotejak Sabha, Bombay Association
Contribution as an author and linguist
● Dadoba Pandurang was a man with a literary vision. He wrote several
books on Marathi grammar and Marathi literary criticism. He earned the
name, ‘Panini of Marathi language'.
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● His work Kekavali - Yashoda Pandurangi with Commentary (1835)
which has prefaces in English and Marathi was the beginning of Marathi
criticism.
● His autobiography is the first autobiography of the High English Age. It
depicts the religious, social, educational, and political conditions of the
time in plain and simple language.
● His other works include:
○ A Grammar of the Marathi Language (several editions).
○ Religious Commentary (1843).
○ A Short Grammar (1850).
○ Dharmavivechan, Vidhyashrumarjan (1857).
○ Preface to English Grammar (1860).
○ 'A Hindu Gentleman's Reflections Respecting the Works of
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Emanuel Swedenborg' (1878).
○ Paramahamsika Brahmadharma (1880).
○ A Supplement to the Grammar of the Maharashtrian Language
(1881).
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○ Shishubodh (published in 1884).
○ Dadoba Pandurang wrote an article in the Sanskrit language
on remarriage, based on the novel 'Yamuna Tourism' written by
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Baba Padmanji.
○ Book of Marathi Nakashas.
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Later life and death
● Dadoba held the posts of teacher, superintendent, and deputy collector in
government jobs. After retirement, he briefly worked as an Oriental
translator.
● Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar died on 17th October 1882.
Atmaram Pandurang
Early life, education, and career
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● Atmaram was born in 1823 to Pandurang Yashwant and Yashodabai.
Pandurang belonged to a highly educated and influential family and his
acquaintances included reformists from across the country.
● He went to the Elphinstone Institution where he learned Mathematics
under Bal Gangadhar Shastri Jambhekar.
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● Later he entered the newly opened Grant Medical College and was among
the first batch of students.
After completing his diploma at Grant Medical College, he worked in
●
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Bhiwandi running a smallpox vaccination campaign. He was a doctor and
had opened a hospital in Bhiwandi.
● He later helped frame section 14 of the Infectious Diseases Act (1868). He
was a Fellow of the University of Bombay and helped establish the
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Bhandarkar Open Library.
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● Atmaram Pandurang was a theistic reformer who opposed many Hindu

traditions including child marriage.
He believed in raising the age of marriage for girls and openly supported the
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idea that the minimum age for marriage of girls should be twenty, much to
the disapproval of the contemporary orthodox Hindu society.
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● Prarthana Samaj (Prayer Society)

○ Atmaram Pandurang, along with M.G. Ranade, Chandravarkar and
others, established the Prarthana Samaj (Prayer Society) on 31
March 1867 at his house in Bombay.
○ Acharya Keshab Chandra Sen was the inspiration behind this idea of
establishing a social reform organisation. The organisation initially
drew its membership from two western Indian secret societies.
Paramahamsa Sabha was its immediate predecessor.
○ The society aimed at opposing the caste system, introducing and
promoting widow remarriage, encouraging female education, and
ending child marriage.
○ The organisation differed from Brahmo Samaj in some basic terms.
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■ The members of the Prarthana Samaj considered themselves
Hindus while the Brahmos were attracted to Christian ideals.
■ Additionally, its theistic worship in the bhakti poetry of the
Maharashtrian Vārkarī Panth, especially that of Tukārām, and
in taking a less uncompromising attitude in its reforms made it
differ from Brahmo Samaj.
■ Unlike Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj never required
members to give up caste, idol worship or traditional religious
sacraments.
○ Prarthana Samaj focused on social reformation among Hindus such
as organising joint meals, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage,
and untouchability etc.
Prarthana Samaj attracted many social reformers, including Justice
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○
Mahadev Govind Ranade, the paṇḍit and Indologist, Sir Ramkrishna
Gopal Bhandarkar and helped establish many other organisations.
Later life and death
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● Atmaram Pandurang served briefly as sheriff of Bombay in 1879.
● On 26th April 1898, he died of a lung infection after visiting Lonavala. He
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was survived by his wife Radhabai.
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Madame HP Blavatsky (1831-91) - Mystic and
Co-Founder of Theosophy: Bridging Eastern
and Western Esoteric Traditions
Helena Petrovna Blavatskaya popularly known as Madame

Blavatsky (1831-91) was a writer, poet, philosopher, traveller,
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brilliant pianist, fine artist, linguist, spiritualist, occultist of the
West and co-founder of the Theosophical Society. She was often
called a 'sphinx' given her incomprehensible nature, activities, and
knowledge. She desired to promote theosophy and had
considerable influence over modern spiritual thought. She
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presented ancient wisdom to the modern age.
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Early life and introduction to spiritualism
● Helena Petrovna von Hahn was born at Ekaterinoslav (now Dnipropetrovsk,
Ukraine) in an aristocratic family on 12 August 1831.
● Her parents were Colonel Peter von Hahn (descendant of well-known
German earls) and Helena de Fadeyeva (descendant of the prince’s kin of
Rurich), a renowned novelist.
● Her grandmother Princess Helena Dolgorukova was a noted botanist and
writer. After the death of her mother in 1842, Helena was raised by her
maternal grandparents (her grandfather was the Civil Governor).
● As a child, Helena was gifted. She displayed remarkable psychic activity,
artistic and literary talents, and intellectual accomplishments. Her psychic
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powers puzzled her family and friends.
● She was sympathetic and compassionate towards the weak. Helena as a
young lady was a rebel who fought against the rules and prejudices of
society’s upper class. She spoke the truth boldly.
At the age of 17, Helena Hahn married Nikifor V. Blavatsky, a Russian
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military officer, and a provincial vice-governor but they separated after a
few months.
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● Her marriage showed her rebellious independence. It did not mean much to
her and in a few months, she escaped and travelled widely in Turkey,
Egypt, and Greece, on money supplied by her father.
● She later became interested in occultism and spiritualism.
● In 1851, at the age of 20, Helena met the guru in London whom she said
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she had known through her psycho-spiritual visions from childhood.
● After that, she travelled extensively throughout Asia, Europe, and the
United States; and spent several years in India and Tibet studying under
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Hindu gurus and assimilating the concepts at the core of the Society: the
universal brotherhood of humanity; the study of ancient and modern
religions, philosophies and sciences; investigation of the unexplained laws
of nature and the psychical powers latent in men.
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● In 1873, she went to New York City where she met and became a close
friend of Henry Steel Olcott (H.S. Olcott).
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The Theosophical Society

● In September 1875, Madame Blavatsky, along with H.S. Olcott, WQ Judge
and several others, founded the Theosophical Society in New York.
● Theosophy was an esoteric late nineteenth-century movement that
combined aspects of mystical and magical beliefs with bits and pieces of
eastern philosophies bound up in Hindu and Buddhist teachings.
● It is a philosophy combining mysticism and spiritualism (with heavy
influences from Buddhist and Hindu thought) with metaphysics.
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● Theosophy aims to examine the roots of divinity, mankind, and the
universe.
● The society described itself as "an unsectarian body of seekers after Truth,
who endeavour to promote Brotherhood and strive to serve humanity”. "The
Society was fashioned as a 'brotherhood' promoting unity.
● In the late 1800s, Madame Blavatsky moved to India and established the
organization's international headquarters, with Colonel Olcott in Bombay in
February 1879.
● In 1882, the headquarters of the Society were established in Adyar, near
Madras (now Chennai) in India. By 1891, 127 Branches had already been
chartered in India.
● The Theosophical Society was another influential movement which
reformed and revived the ancient glory of Hinduism.
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● The essence of theosophy was God's knowledge. In the Indian context, it
meant the knowledge of the Absolute.
● The theosophical culture was an essential part of Hinduism's resurgence in
India and generated a certain degree of social unity. The movement
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resurrected and reinforced confidence in Hindus' ancient teachings and
ideologies.
● It also did much work in reviving the study of Sanskrit and the publication
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of ancient works.
● The founders started their first Theosophical journal, The Theosophist,
with H.P. Blavatsky as editor.
● The Theosophical Society experienced rapid growth, and some very
remarkable people were attracted to it, both in India and abroad.
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● Annie Besant popularized the trend in India. The theosophists focused on

caste abolition, untouchability, and the theory of assimilation.
It also attempted to empower the oppressed and excluded in society
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through conventional schooling, founding a variety of educational societies
and spreading awareness about the need for modern education.
● The Theosophical Society had a part in the country’s freedom struggle,
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including the formation of the Indian National Congress.

● The Theosophical Society paved the way for national education by starting
schools across the country.
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● The Theosophical Society, spreading teachings of love and unity, acted as

an integrating force in this multilingual, multi-racial and religious nation.
The controversy
● Initially, the British Government suspected Blavatsky and Olcott of being
Russian spies. The colonial authorities feared that they might destabilize
British rule because they praised local religions.
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● However, it was the interest of Alfred Percy Sinnett in Theosophy, then
Editor of the Government-run paper, The Pioneer of Allahabad, which
helped in clearing the suspicion after one and half years.
● By then, Madame Blavatsky had become popular for her spirituality and
wisdom.
● However, this halted in 1885, when the Society for Psychical Research in
Cambridge declared her a fraud.
○ It was based on an investigation of Blavatsky and motivated by
stories of her sensational seances replete with spiritual visions.
● Despite being labelled a fraud, Blavatsky's influence remained and her
imprint on what later became the New Age movement is undeniable.
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Literary works
● In 1877, Madame Blavatsky published her first monumental work, “Isis
Unveiled”.
The articles that she wrote for the journal, The Theosophist were
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republished in the “Collected Writings” series from 1879 to 1887.
● In 1888, her second work “The Secret Doctrine” was published in two
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large volumes in October–December. The third volume was published
posthumously.
● In 1889, Madam Blavatsky published “The Key to Theosophy” and the
devotional, mystical masterpiece called “The Voice of the Silence”,
containing selected excerpts translated from an Eastern scripture, The
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Book of the Golden Precepts.

● Her other works include “Theosophical Dictionary”, "From the caves
and debris of Hindustan”, and articles from the journals Lucifer and
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others.
Death and legacy

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In July 1890, Madame Blavatsky established the European Headquarters

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of the Theosophical Society at St John’s Wood, London.
● She died on 8 May 1891 in London. This date is commemorated as White
Lotus Day.
● Her extensive writing on spiritual and occult literature entitled her to be
known as ‘the Light Bringer.’
● Theosophy played a central role in bringing Asian religious traditions to
western cultures earning Madame Blavatsky the name, ‘the godmother of
the New Age movement.’
● She has been the greatest modern occultist in the history of Western
civilization.
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Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905) - Spiritual
Revivalist: Anchoring the Brahmo Samaj’s
Philosophical Insights
Debendranath Tagore was a prominent 19th-century Indian

philosopher and religious reformer, known for his pivotal role in
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the Brahmo Samaj. Born into the influential Tagore family, his
work significantly contributed to the Bengal Renaissance and he is
remembered for his efforts in spiritual, social, and educational
reforms in India.
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Personal Background
● Born: May 15, 1817, in Calcutta, Bengal, British India
● Died: January 19, 1905, in Calcutta, Bengal, British India
● Nationality: Indian
● Father: Prince Dwarakanath Tagore
● Mother: Digambari Devi
● Spouse: Saradasundari Devi
● Children: 15, including prominent figures like Dwijendranath Tagore,
Satyendranath Tagore, Hemendranath Tagore, Jyotirindranath Tagore, and
Rabindranath Tagore (the 14th child)
● Tagore Family: Associated with Jorasanko Thakur Bari in North-western
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Kolkata, later converted into the Rabindra Bharati University campus
○ Boasting a history spanning over 300 years
○ Significant influence during the Bengal Renaissance
○ Contributions in business, social and religious reformation,
literature, art, and music
Education and Early Influences

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Formative Years
● Early education at home (1820-1827)
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● Later attended the Anglo Hindu College, which was founded by Raja
Rammohan Roy, in 1829
Managed his father's property and business
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● Developed interests in philosophy and religion
● Underwent a profound transformation after his grandfather's death in 1838
● Engaged in extensive studies, including the Mahabharata, Upanishads, and
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Eastern-Western philosophy
● Cultivated a deep desire for spirituality
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Tattwabodhini Sabha and Literary Pursuits

● Established the Tattwara Jani Sabha in 1839, later renamed Tattwabodhini
Sabha
● Introduced the Bengali translation of Katha Upanishad in 1840
● Pioneered the first method of Brahmopasana in 1844
● Published translations of the Rig Veda in the Tattwabodhini magazine
starting from 1848
● Founded the Brahmo Dharma library in 1869
● Authored the book "Atmattvavidya" in 1850
● Served as the secretary of Tattwabodhini Sabha in 1853
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● Established the Brahma Vidyalaya in 1859
● Initiated the discontinuation of traditional pooja-parvanadi rituals
● Introduced new festivals like Magh Utsav, New Year celebrations, and
Diksha Din
● Founded the Santiniketan ashram in Birbhum in 1867
● Also played a role in founding the Bethune Society of Hindu Charitable
Institution
Religious and Philosophical Journey

● Debendranath Tagore joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1842
By 1848, he emerged as a leader and became synonymous with Brahmoism
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● Established the Brahmo religion in 1848
● Took charge of the Tattwabodhini Sabha in the same year
● Launched the Tattwabodhini Magazine in 1843, with Akshay Kumar Datta
as the editor
○ Published Upanishads with Debendranath's scholarship and Bengali
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translations
● Translated the Rig Veda, contributing to the magazine's content
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● His library, Brahmo Dharma, became a center for religious studies in 1869
● Advocated and propagated his philosophical ideas through his book
"Atmattvavidya" in 1850
● Established the Brahma Vidyalaya in 1859 to promote religious education
● Brought about significant changes in religious practices, emphasizing
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rationality and morality

● Introduced the concept of Brahmopasana, a form of spiritual worship
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Political Involvement
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● Active member of the British Indian Association from 1851, where he

served as secretary
Advocated for waiving chowkidari tax for poor villagers
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● Voiced his support for India's autonomy
● Opposed regressive practices like child marriage and polygamy
● Championed the cause of widow marriage
● Bestowed with the title "Protector of National Religion" by Radhakanta Dev
in 1867
● Honored with the title "Maharshi" by the Brahmo Samaj
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Literary Works
● Not limited to religious and philosophical writings, Debendranath Tagore
also made significant literary contributions
● Some of his notable works include:
○ "Brahma Dharmo Grantho" (1851)
○ "Atmatatto Bdya" (1852)
○ "Brahma Dharmer Mot O Biswas" (1860)
○ "Kalikata Bramha Samajer Baktrita" (1862)
○ "Gyan O Dharmer Unnati" (1893)
○ "Porolo O Mukti" (1895)
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Impact and Legacy
● Debendranath Tagore stands as a central figure in the Bengal Renaissance,
significantly influencing the intellectual and cultural climate of the time
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● His contributions to the Brahmo Samaj were profound:
○ Expansion of the Brahmo Samaj across India
○ Encouragement of women's participation in religious activities
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○ Promotion of education and social reforms, including the abolition of
the caste system
● He inspired countless personalities, including Rabindranath Tagore, Swami
Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi
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● His pioneering role in religious and social reform laid the groundwork for
the Indian renaissance, contributing to the development of a modern,
progressive Indian society
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● He championed values of rationality, morality, and social justice

throughout his life
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Philosophy and Beliefs

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Educational Endeavors
● Apart from his writings, Debendranath Tagore was an educator who taught
Sanskrit, Persian, English, and Western philosophy
● He shared a close friendship with Keshab Chunder Sen, another prominent
figure in the Brahmo Samaj
Advocacies and Belief System
● Advocated against regressive practices like suttee (widow self-immolation)
● Worked tirelessly to raise the Indian literacy rate
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● Although more conservative than Keshab Chunder Sen, he remained rooted
in Hindu traditions and did not drift towards Christianity
● Rejecting the Vedas, he believed that no single set of writings could provide
comprehensive guidance for human activity
Shantiniketan: The Abode of Peace
● In 1863, Debendranath Tagore founded Shantiniketan, which means
"Abode of Peace," in rural Bengal
● This institution later evolved into an international university under the
stewardship of his son, Rabindranath Tagore
● Debendranath Tagore earned the title of "Maharishi," signifying his stature
as a Great Sage
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Debendranath Tagore's life and work continue to inspire generations, and his
legacy remains an integral part of India's cultural and intellectual heritage. His
contributions to religious and social reform, literature, and philosophy continue
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to resonate in the modern world, making him a true luminary of his time.
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Badruddin Tyabji (1844-1906) - Judicial
Pioneer: Bridging Law and National Unity
Badruddin Tyabji was an influential Indian lawyer,

activist, and politician during the British Raj, who played a
pivotal role in India's freedom movement. Born into a
prominent Sulaimani Bohra family, he was the first Indian
to practice as a barrister in the High Court of Bombay and
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served as the third President of the Indian National
Congress. As one of the founding members of the Congress
and its first Muslim president, Tyabji was instrumental in
fostering Hindu-Muslim unity and promoting national
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integration. In addition to his political accomplishments,
he made significant contributions to education and social
reform, including the founding of the Anjuman-i-Islam
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College in Bombay and advocating for women's emancipation.
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I. Early Life and Education
Family Background
● Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian and the Sulaimani Bohra community
○ Badruddin Tyabji was born to Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian, a member
of the Sulaimani Bohra community, which played a significant role in
shaping his early life.
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● Influence of his elder brother, Camruddin Tyabji
○ Camruddin Tyabji, the first Indian solicitor admitted in England and
Wales, greatly inspired Badruddin to pursue higher education and a
career in law.
Education
● Learning Urdu and Persian at Dada Makhra's Madrassa
○ Before embarking on his formal education, Tyabji learned Urdu and
Persian languages at Dada Makhra's Madrassa.
Elphinstone Institution (now Elphinstone College) in Bombay
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○ Tyabji furthered his education by attending the prestigious

Elphinstone Institution in Bombay, where he received a strong
foundation for his future academic pursuits.
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● Newbury High Park College in London
○ At the age of 16, Badruddin enrolled at Newbury High Park College in
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London, continuing his education abroad and exposing himself to
different cultural experiences.
● University of London and Middle Temple
After completing his studies at Newbury High Park College, Tyabji
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pursued higher education at the University of London and Middle
Temple, where he honed his legal skills and prepared for a career as
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a barrister.
II. Career
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Return to India and Legal Career

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1. Badruddin Tyabji became the first Indian barrister in the Bombay High
Court after returning to India.
2. He was elected to the Bombay Municipal Corporation and later to the
Bombay Legislative Council.
Involvement with the Indian National Congress
1. Tyabji was a founding member and the first Muslim president of the Indian
National Congress.
2. He worked tirelessly to gain support from both Hindus and Muslims for the
Congress.
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3. His primary focus was on uniting the Muslim community within the
broader Indian independence movement.
4. Alongside Pherozeshah Mehta and Kashinath Trimbak Telang, Tyabji
established the Bombay Presidency Association, which played a crucial role
in championing Indian interests during the British Raj.
III. Social and Educational Contributions

A significant aspect of Badruddin Tyabji's life was his dedication to social and
educational upliftment. He made numerous contributions in these areas, some of
which are discussed below.
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A. Founding the Anjuman-i-Islam College in Bombay
In 1874, Tyabji founded the Anjuman-i-Islam College in Bombay, which aimed to
provide education to the Muslim community in the city. The institution started
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with a single school, and over time, it has expanded to include more than eighty
institutions, ranging from pre-primary schools to graduate and postgraduate level
colleges. Through this initiative, Tyabji sought to improve access to education
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and empower the Muslim community.
B. Establishment of the Islam Club and the Islam Gymkhana
In an effort to promote social interaction among the city's Muslims, Tyabji was
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instrumental in founding both the Islam Club and the Islam Gymkhana. These
organizations served as platforms for Muslims to engage with one another,
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fostering a sense of community and unity. By establishing these institutions,

Tyabji aimed to strengthen the social fabric of the Muslim community in Bombay.
C. Promoting Women's Emancipation and Opposition to the
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Zenana System
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Tyabji was also a staunch advocate for women's emancipation and was vocal in
his opposition to the zenana system. He believed that women should have equal
opportunities for education and personal growth. In his own family, he ensured
that all of his daughters received an education in Bombay. Moreover, in 1904, he
sent two of his daughters to boarding school in Haslemere, England. Through
these actions, Tyabji demonstrated his commitment to breaking down gender
barriers and promoting equality for women.
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IV. Later Life and Achievements
A. Appointment as Judge and Chief Justice of the Bombay High

Court
● First Muslim judge and third Indian appointed to the Bombay High Court
● First Indian Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court
B. Continued Involvement with the Indian National Congress and
Indian Parliamentary Committee in England
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● Worked towards uniting Hindus and Muslims within the Congress
● Formed the Indian Parliamentary Committee in England with Dadabhai
Naoroji and WC Bonnerjee
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VI. Death and Legacy
A. Death in London in 1906

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● Badruddin Tyabji passed away suddenly on August 19, 1906, in London,
England.
● He was on a furlough at the time and succumbed to a heart attack.
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B. Impact on Indian Politics and the Freedom Movement

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● As the first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress, Tyabji

played a significant role in fostering cross-communal cooperation and
promoting unity among Hindus and Muslims.
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● His moderate stance and focus on common goals for all communities in
India helped set a foundation for the Indian freedom movement.
Tyabji's work with the Bombay Presidency Association and the Indian
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Parliamentary Committee in England further contributed to the
advancement of Indian interests during the British Raj.
C. Legacy through Family Members and Descendants
● The Tyabji family continued to play an active role in Indian politics and
society.
○ His nephew, Abbas Tyabji, and grandsons, such as Saif Tyabji, Azim
Tyabji, Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee, and Badruddin Tyabji, made significant
contributions in their respective fields.
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● His great-granddaughter, Laila Tyabji, is a notable figure in Indian arts and
crafts, working to preserve traditional techniques and promote their use in
contemporary designs.
● Badruddin Tyabji's legacy as a champion of unity, moderation, and
education is remembered through his numerous contributions to the
Indian political landscape and the lasting impact of his family.
Badruddin Tyabji, the first Muslim president of the Indian National Congress,
played a pivotal role in shaping Indian politics during the British Raj. His
unwavering commitment to cross-communal cooperation and focus on common
goals for all communities set a strong example for others to follow. Tyabji's
contributions to education, social reform, and women's emancipation helped pave
the way for a more inclusive and progressive society. His impact on the freedom
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movement and legacy through his family and descendants continue to inspire
generations to work towards a united, diverse, and harmonious India.
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Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823-1892) - Social
Reformer: Advocating Rationality and Social
Responsibility
Gopal Hari Deshmukh, popularly known by his pseudonym
Lokhitawadi, was a trailblazing social reformer, thinker, and judge
from Maharashtra, who lived in the 19th century. His profound
influence on societal norms and practices in Maharashtra and his
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tireless advocacy for progressive values, including women's
education, the abolition of child marriage, and the eradication of
dowry, marked him as a revolutionary figure of his time. Through
his prolific writings, under the collective title 'Shatapatre', and his
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various influential roles in the British Indian judicial system,
Deshmukh left an indelible mark on the social fabric of Maharashtra, paving the
way for future reformist views.
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Gopal Hari Deshmukh, who would later come to be known by his pseudonym
Lokhitawadi, was born on February 18, 1823, in the village of Pavas in
Ratnagiri. Born into a Chitpavan Brahmin family, Deshmukh belonged to a
family of tax collectors originally carrying the surname Shidhaye. This family
name later changed to Deshmukh when his ancestor Vishwanath was appointed
the deshmukhi or controller of twelve villages, a position of significant
responsibility and status.
Deshmukh's early education took place in Pune's Budhwar Wada, where he
attended a government-run Marathi-language school. He demonstrated a keen
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interest in learning and knowledge from a young age, secretly studying the
English language in parallel to his formal education. This clandestine study bore
fruit when, around the age of 18, he transferred to an English-medium school, a
move that marked a significant milestone in his educational journey and
broadened his academic horizons.
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Upon completing his education, Deshmukh embarked on his professional career
in the British Raj. In 1844, he secured a position as a translator, a role that
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allowed him to utilise his English language skills and gave him valuable exposure
to the workings of the colonial government. This early experience in government
service laid the foundation for his later career in the judiciary and set him on the
path to becoming a transformative social reformer.
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III. Career as a Judge and Official

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Deshmukh's career in the British Indian justice system was marked by a steady
rise through the ranks, demonstrating his competency and dedication to the law.
He initially passed the exam to become a munsif, a judge, just two years after
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beginning his professional journey as a translator. By 1852, he had ascended to

the role of judge in Wai, Satara, further showcasing his commitment to his
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profession.
In 1853, his professional ascent continued when he was appointed the sadar
amin, or head judge, in Satara. However, it's crucial to note that despite these
esteemed positions, Indian judges like Deshmukh were still limited within the
British-Indian justice system, unable to try Europeans.
Deshmukh's responsibilities expanded beyond the courtroom when he was
appointed the district sub-assistant inam commissioner of Pune in 1855. In
1861, he was assigned a critical task to create a precis of the different laws of
Hindus and Muslims, showcasing his deep understanding of the legal and social
complexities of the time.
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His role as a judge took him to various cities including Satara, Ahmedabad,
Surat, Ahmednagar, Mumbai, Thane, and Nashik. He also spent a year in 1884 in
Ratlam, where he served as a diwan or minister, a testament to his versatility
and adaptability.
After an illustrious career that saw him occupying many high positions in the
government judiciary, Deshmukh finally retired in 1879. Despite the end of his
formal service, his impact on the legal field and his dedication to social reform
continued to resonate for years to come.
IV. Deshmukh as a Social Reformer and Writer
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Deshmukh's Influential Writings and Alter Ego
● Gopal Hari Deshmukh earned fame in the literary world through his
writings, collectively known as Shatapatre.
● Some of his notable works include "Panipat War," "Kalyog," "Jatibhed," and
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"Lankecha Itihas".
● It was during this time that he adopted the pseudonym Lokhitawadi, a
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moniker that resonated deeply with his philosophy of universal well-being.
Impact and Popularity of Shatapatre
● The Shatapatre essays were exceptionally popular and significant during
their time, sparking debates and discussions around the issues they
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addressed.
● The revolutionary ideas expressed in these writings deeply impacted future
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reformist views in Maharashtra, significantly influencing the course of

social reform in the region.
Diverse Themes in Deshmukh's Writings
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● Lokhitawadi wrote extensively on a wide array of topics, reflecting his broad

interests and intellectual prowess.
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● These topics ranged from political views, literacy, and ethics to societal
reform, showcasing his deep concern for the societal issues of his time.
● His writings were marked by a profound understanding of these issues and
a clear vision of the changes necessary for societal progress.
Criticism of British Economics and Historical Comparison
● Notably, Deshmukh was a vocal critic of British economics, highlighting its
detrimental impact on Indian society and economy.
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● He went as far as to draw comparisons between the British and the Muslim
invaders of India, a bold statement that reflected his fearless and critical
perspective.
Engagement with the Indian Intellectual Community
● Deshmukh was deeply engaged with the Indian intellectual community and
was known for his open debates and disputes.
● Notably, he had profound discussions and disagreements with
contemporaries like Vishnushastri Chiplunkar.
● These engagements further stimulated intellectual discussions and
enriched the social discourse of the time.
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V. Contributions to Society and Advocacy
Gopal Hari Deshmukh's Contributions to Educational Resources
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● Gopal Hari Deshmukh was an ardent promoter of libraries. He was
instrumental in the establishment of the Poona Native General Library, a
significant resource center that facilitated wider access to knowledge for the
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local population.
● Furthermore, he played a key role in the foundation of newspapers like
Dnyanprakash and Induprakash, thus promoting literacy and encouraging
discourse on contemporary issues.
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Deshmukh's Support for Progressive Societies

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● Deshmukh extended his support to various progressive societies of his

time. He backed the Gujarati Prarthana Samaj, an organization that
aimed to reform society based on the principles of theistic belief.
● He also supported the Gujarati Remarriage Society, demonstrating his
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progressive stance on women's rights and societal norms.

Advocacy Against Social Evils
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● Deshmukh took a firm stance against prevalent social evils of his era. He
vehemently opposed practices like child marriage, untouchability, and
dowry.
● He also criticized harmful aspects of Hindu religious orthodoxy that
contributed to social discrimination and inequality.
Deshmukh's Advocacy for Women's Empowerment
● Deshmukh was a passionate advocate for women's education and
empowerment. Through his writings and public discourse, he championed
the cause of women's rights and their integral role in society. This aspect of
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his advocacy marked him as a forward-thinking reformer, significantly
ahead of his time.
VI. Legacy
Popularity and Recognition
● Gopal Hari Deshmukh, also known as Lokhitawadi, was widely respected
and appreciated during his time. His popularity transcended linguistic and
regional barriers, reaching even Gujarati intellectuals. This is evidenced by
a poem written by the esteemed Gujarati poet Mohanlal Dalpatram, which
praised Lokhitawadi's work and contributions.
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Enduring Impact of His Writings
● His writings, collectively known as Shatapatre, had a significant and
long-lasting impact. They were not only popular during his time but
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continue to be relevant to this day. They serve as important historical
documents that shed light on the societal issues of the 19th century and
Lokhitawadi's progressive views on them. His writings, addressing diverse
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themes such as political views, literacy, ethics, and societal reform,
continue to inspire and guide future generations.
Promotion of Societal Reform
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● Deshmukh played a pivotal role in promoting societal reform in

Maharashtra. His steadfast opposition to social evils such as child
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marriage, untouchability, and dowry, and his strong advocacy for women's
education and empowerment marked him as a revolutionary figure. His
bold ideas and initiatives significantly influenced the reformist views of
future generations, making him a seminal figure in the history of social
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reform in Maharashtra.
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VII. Personal Life and Death

● Tragic Family Losses in Retirement: Gopal Hari Deshmukh, also known
as Lokhitawadi, faced immense personal tragedy during his retirement
years. He had to bear the heavy burden of losing his family members,
which was an unfortunate and heart-wrenching phase of his life. These
devastating losses marked a period of profound grief and sorrow for
Lokhitawadi.
● Demise in 1892: After a life filled with numerous accomplishments and
personal hardships, Lokhitawadi succumbed to a period of physical and
mental exhaustion. He passed away in Pune in the year 1892. His death
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marked the end of an era of transformative social reform, leaving behind a
legacy that would continue to inspire and influence generations to come.
VIII. Conclusion
Gopal Hari Deshmukh, stands as a beacon of progressive thought and action in
the annals of India's 19th-century history. His intellectual prowess was evident in
his writings, his Shatapatre essays being a testament to his wide-ranging
concerns from literacy to societal reform. As a judge and an official, his
competence and dedication led him to hold various high positions within the
government judiciary. His advocacy for societal change extended beyond his
professional life, as he was a driving force behind the establishment of libraries
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and newspapers, and a vocal supporter of progressive societies. He championed
causes like women's education and empowerment and took firm stances against
societal ills. Even amidst personal tragedies, his work remained undeterred. His
passing in 1892 marked an end of an era, but his ideas and beliefs continue to
guide and inspire, underlining the enduring nature of his remarkable legacy.
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Usha Mehta (1920-2000) - Quiet
Revolutionary: Radiating the Spirit of
Freedom through the Secret Congress Radio
Usha Mehta, a prominent figure in India's fight for

independence, dedicated her life to the cause of freedom. Known
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for her contributions to the Quit India Movement, she served as
a beacon of resistance against British rule, using clandestine
radio broadcasts to disseminate news and stoke nationalistic
fervor. Her story is a testament to the power of perseverance,
resilience, and unwavering commitment to the cause of freedom,
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proving her to be a significant figure in the annals of Indian
history. Her life and achievements underscore the pivotal role
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she played in shaping the course of India's struggle for
independence.
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II. Early Life and Inspiration
A. Birth on February 24, 1920, and her father's involvement in Indian
National Congress
● Born in the village of Saras, situated near Surat in the state of Gujarat.
● Father was a judge under the British Raj, but was involved in the Indian
National Congress.
● Father's involvement in politics served as a source of inspiration for Usha
from a young age.
B. Initial involvement in politics and childhood experiences with the Vanar
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Sena
● Participated in the fight against British rule from a young age.
● At the age of eight, she took part in her first protest against the Simon
Commission.
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● During the Salt Satyagraha, she would bring seawater to her home and
produce salt out of it.
● Found herself in the police lockup with other little children of the Vanar
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Sena.
● After her father's retirement in 1930, she was allowed to participate more
fully in freedom struggle activities.
C. Academic prowess - fluent in four languages, top student, and debate
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excellence at Wilson College

● Ranked one of the top 25 students in her matriculation or Class 10 exam in
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1935.
● Fluent in four languages – English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.
● Demonstrated prowess in debate and elocution at Wilson College.
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● Graduated with first-class honours in Philosophy from Wilson College,

Bombay.
● Began preparing to study for law, but halted her studies to join the freedom
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struggle with the announcement of the Quit India Movement.
III. Quit India Movement and Contribution

A. Decision to halt law studies to join the Quit India movement
● Usha Mehta decided to halt her law studies to join the Quit India
Movement in 1942.
● The announcement of the Quit India Movement was a pivotal moment that
led her to dedicate her full energies towards the freedom struggle.
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B. Involvement with the Indian National Congress and work with other
freedom fighters
● Usha Mehta was a key part of the All India Congress Committee session in
1942.
● Heard powerful speeches by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Maulana Azad, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
● These speeches served as a source of inspiration for her to establish the
secret Congress Radio.
C. Role in initiating the underground Congress Radio
1. Description of the radio's operation and purpose
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○ Launched the first announcement of "Congress Radio" on 14th
August 1942.
○ Would deliver the news bulletin in both English and Hindi, beginning
with the song "Hindustan Hamara" and ending with "Vande
Mataram".
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○ The purpose of the radio was to spread nationalistic fervor and
inform the world about the events taking place in India.
2. Challenges faced in keeping the radio station operational under British
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surveillance
○ Despite strict surveillance by British authorities, Usha Mehta's
station continued to report on the atrocities committed by the
British.
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○ The station had to frequently change its position to remain
anonymous and hidden from the British radar.
○ The team changed around 7-8 stations during the Quit India
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Movement.
3. Impact of the radio broadcasts on the Quit India movement
○ The Congress Radio played a crucial role in spreading awareness and
rallying support for the Quit India Movement.
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○ It was a powerful tool for disseminating news and the perspectives of

the freedom fighters.
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○ Despite eventual capture and imprisonment, Usha Mehta's work with

Congress Radio had a lasting impact on the Quit India movement.
IV. The Challenges and Imprisonment

A. Description of Mehta's arrest and subsequent imprisonment
● On 12th November 1942, as they were hosting a show from Girgaon, the
police arrested Usha Mehta along with her associates.
● She was tried in a special court for five weeks and sentenced to four years
of rigorous imprisonment.
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B. Conditions of imprisonment and her resilience in the face of adversity
● During the imprisonment, Usha Mehta was kept in solitary confinement.
● She was enticed by the government with offers to study abroad in
exchange for information about her fellow freedom fighters.
● Despite these pressures, she remained adamant and did not disclose any
information, showcasing her strong character and dedication to the cause.
C. Release from prison and feelings upon release
● Usha Mehta was released in 1946, becoming the first political prisoner to
be released in Bombay.
● Upon her release, she said, “I came back from the jail happy and proud
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because I had the satisfaction of carrying Bapu’s message, ‘Do or Die’ and
having contributed my humble might to the cause of freedom.” This
statement underlines her unwavering commitment to India's struggle for
independence.
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V. Transition to Education and Social Development
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A. Decision to leave politics and shift focus to education
● After the independence of India, Usha Mehta decided to leave politics and
dedicated her life to education and social development. This shift in
focus came from her belief in the importance of education for
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nation-building.
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B. Journey in the Bombay University’s Department of Civics and Politics

● Usha Mehta returned to the University of Bombay as a faculty member in
the Department of Civics and Politics.
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● Her academic focus was on Gandhian philosophy, which she shared with
her students.
● She attained a PhD in Gandhian thought from the University of Bombay.
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C. Involvement with University Grants Commission (UGC), Administrative

Reforms Committee of Gujarat, and the Shrimati Nathibai Damodar
Thackersey Women’s University
● She served as a member of the University Grants Commission (UGC),
contributing to policy-making in higher education.
● Usha Mehta was a member of the Administrative Reforms Committee of
Gujarat, which aimed to bring about effective changes in the administrative
system.
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● She also served on the Senate and the Board of Studies of Shrimati
Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women’s University, contributing her
expertise and knowledge for the betterment of women's education.
D. Work at Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya and Bombay Gandhi Smarak
Nidhi
● She was associated with the Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya, a
museum and historical building dedicated to Gandhi in Mumbai.
● Usha Mehta worked with the Bombay Gandhi Smarak Nidhi, an
institution dedicated to preserving the memory and teachings of Mahatma
Gandhi.
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E. Founding of the Bhavan's Cultural Centre in Mumbai
● Usha Mehta was instrumental in the founding of the Bhavan's Cultural
Centre in Mumbai, a hub for the cultural and intellectual growth of the
city's residents. It became a platform for promoting traditional Indian
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VI. Recognition and Retirement
A. Awards received, including the Padma Vibhushan and Jamnalal Bajaj
Award
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● Usha Mehta was honored with several awards recognizing her significant
contributions to India's freedom struggle and post-independence
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development.
● In 1998, she was bestowed with the Padma Vibhushan, the
second-highest civilian award in India, by the government of India.
● She was also the recipient of the Jamnalal Bajaj Award. This award is
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given annually to individuals who have made significant contributions to

Gandhian values.
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B. The Passing of Usha Mehta

● Usha Mehta continued to be an active advocate for education and social
development throughout her life.
● She passed away on August 11, 2000, leaving behind a legacy of steadfast
patriotism, commitment to education, and unwavering belief in Gandhian
values.
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VII. Conclusion
Dr. Usha Mehta's story is a testament to the power of unwavering dedication to a
cause and the resilience of the human spirit. Her early involvement in India's
freedom struggle, her vital contribution to the Quit India Movement through the
Congress Radio, and her enduring courage in the face of imprisonment highlight
her exceptional commitment to her country. Equally remarkable is her transition
from politics to education and social development, where she left a significant
impact in various capacities. Despite the challenges she faced, her belief in
Gandhian values and her commitment to social justice remained steadfast. The
recognition she received, including the prestigious Padma Vibhushan,
underscores the lasting influence of her work. Usha Mehta's life and work serve
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as an enduring beacon of inspiration, reminding us of the power of conviction,
courage, and commitment to societal betterment.
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270
Surya Sen (1894-1934): Master Da, the
Unyielding Flame of India's Freedom Struggle
Surya Sen, fondly known as "Master Da," was a prominent

figure in India's struggle for independence. Born in Noapara,
Chittagong, he grew up to become an inspiring leader, fostering
a revolutionary spirit among the youth of his era. His
significant contributions, particularly his leadership in the
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daring Chittagong Armoury Raid, demonstrated an unyielding
resolve against British colonial rule. Despite his brutal end,
Surya Sen's indomitable spirit and dream of a free India have
left an enduring legacy in the annals of India's fight for
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freedom. PR
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II. Early Life and Influences

A. Surya Sen's Birth and Upbringing in Noapara, Chittagong
271
● Surya Sen was born on March 22, 1894, in Noapara, Chittagong, which
was a part of undivided Bengal during the colonial era.
● He was born into a middle-class Baidya-Brahmin family, and his father's
name was Ramaniranjan Sen, a school teacher.
● Sen developed a revolutionary mindset at a young age, inspired by the
nationalist spirit sweeping across India during that period.
B. Influence of His Teacher in College, Leading Him to Join the Anushilan
Samiti
● For his undergraduate studies, Surya Sen went to Berhampore College in
Murshidabad, now known as Krishnath College.
● He was greatly influenced by his teacher, who infused a spirit of
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nationalism in him.
● Encouraged by his teacher's patriotic fervor, he joined the revolutionary
organization Anushilan Samiti in 1916.
C. Brief Overview of Anushilan Samiti and Its Objectives
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● Anushilan Samiti was a prominent revolutionary organization, founded by
Sarat Chandra Basu, which propelled a substantial wave of nationalist
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activism against British rule in India.
● It propagated violence as a viable means to end British colonialism.
● The organization mobilized youth and engaged them in an organized
struggle against British authorities.
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D. Surya Sen's Participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement and His

Arrest for Anti-Colonial Activities
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● Surya Sen was an active participant in the Non-Cooperation Movement

(1920-1922), which was led by freedom fighters like Chittaranjan Das in
Bengal.
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● He was arrested for his anti-British activities in 1926, leading to his

imprisonment for two years until 1928.
● The end of the Non-Cooperation Movement left many young activists,
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including Surya Sen, disheartened, leading them to form new groups with
more radical anti-colonial sentiments.
● After his release from prison, Sen became a part of such groups, striving
for stronger action against the British than the existing organizations and
the Indian National Congress proposed.
III. Chittagong Armoury Raid

A. The Formation of the Indian Revolutionary Army (IRA) under Surya Sen's
Leadership After His Release from Prison
272
● Following his release from prison, Surya Sen felt the need for stronger
action against the British.
● Consequently, he formed the Indian Revolutionary Army (IRA), an
organization of young, determined activists ready to take more aggressive
actions against the British rule.
● The IRA's primary goal was to lead an organized struggle against the British
and challenge their authority in India.
B. The Planning and Execution of the Chittagong Armoury Raid on April 18,
1930, Including the Roles of Key Participants
● Surya Sen, being a teacher in Chittagong, had easy access to youth, who
he trained and mobilized for the raid.
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● On April 18, 1930, over sixty students divided into groups, led by Surya
Sen, Ganesh Ghosh, and Pritilata Wadedar, launched an attack on the
colonial administration in Chittagong.
● The plan was to disrupt government communication lines to Chittagong,
raid the police and auxiliary forces armoury, and procure weapons.
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● These weapons would be distributed among the activists for launching an
armed struggle against the British.
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● Despite successfully disrupting the telegraph and railway lines and raiding
the armoury, they failed to find ammunition.
● Regardless, they declared Chittagong independent, claimed a provisional
government, and appealed to the youth to join them.
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C. The Aftermath of the Raid and Its Impact on the British Colonial
Administration
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● The raid caught the British authorities off guard, causing them to retreat
briefly, which indicated the temporary success of the raid.
● The British came back fortified and brutally suppressed the activists,
leading Sen and most of his associates to go into hiding in the Jalalabad
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Hills.
● Sen managed to evade the British for three years, during which he
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continued to conduct guerrilla raids on colonial property and authorities

from his hideout.
● Despite the difficulties, Sen received massive support from the people in
the villages.
● His capture on February 16, 1933, and execution on January 12, 1934,
along with his associate Tarakeswar Dastidar, marked a significant event in
India's freedom struggle.
● The Chittagong Armoury Raid served as a symbol of courage and
resistance, leaving an indelible mark on the British colonial administration.
It intensified the revolutionary spirit among the youth and contributed
significantly to the Indian freedom struggle.
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IV. Sen's Underground Activities and Capture
A. Surya Sen's Evasion of British Authorities and His Guerrilla Tactics
Against Colonial Forces
● Post the Chittagong Armoury Raid, Surya Sen, along with his associates,
had to go underground to evade the strengthened British forces.
● They took refuge in the Jalalabad Hills, from where Sen directed his
guerrilla warfare against the British colonial rule.
● Despite the British clampdown, Sen continued to disrupt colonial
administration and property, showing his enduring spirit and courage.
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B. The Support He Received from Local Villagers During His Years in Hiding
● During his time in hiding, Sen and his associates were heavily supported
by the local villagers.
● Despite the danger associated with helping outlaws, the villagers provided
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them with resources, shelter, and information.
● This support indicates Sen's charismatic leadership and the respect he
commanded among the locals, as well as the prevalent anti-colonial
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sentiments among the populace.
C. The Betrayal and Subsequent Capture of Sen, Leading to His Brutal
Torture
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● Sen managed to evade capture for three years after the raid, but a betrayal
from within his network led to his arrest on February 16, 1933.
● The person who betrayed Sen was reportedly one of his trusted associates,
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named Netra Sen.

● After his capture, Sen was subjected to brutal torture by the British
authorities.
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● Despite the physical torment, Sen's spirit remained unbroken, as he

continued to uphold his beliefs and dream of a free India even in the face of
imminent death.
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● Sen's ordeal is a testament to his indomitable spirit and the sacrifices he

made in the pursuit of India's independence.
V. Execution and Legacy

A. The Circumstances Leading to Surya Sen's Execution and His Indomitable
Spirit Despite Torture
● Following his capture, Surya Sen was subjected to severe torture by the
British authorities.
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● Despite the physical pain inflicted upon him, Sen's spirit remained
unbroken and he continued to dream of a free India.
● On January 12, 1934, Surya Sen was hanged to death, along with his
associate Tarakeswar Dastidar.
● Even in the face of death, Sen's courage and commitment to the cause of
Indian independence remained steadfast.
B. The Contents of Sen's Last Letter to His Comrades and His Dream of a
Free India
● Before his execution, Sen wrote a final letter to his comrades.
● In his letter, he expressed the anticipation of his imminent death and his
mind's flight towards eternity.
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● He left behind his dream for his comrades - the dream of a free India,
which he referred to as a "golden dream".
● Sen's final words epitomized his unwavering belief in the cause of Indian
freedom and his hope that his comrades would continue the struggle after
him.
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C. The Impact of Sen's Actions on the Indian Independence Movement and
the Recognition He Received Posthumously
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● Surya Sen's leadership of the Chittagong Armoury Raid and his subsequent
activities posed a significant challenge to the British rule, emboldening the
Indian independence movement.
● Despite his death, Sen's actions continued to inspire freedom fighters and
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the general populace in their struggle against colonial rule.

● Posthumously, Sen has been recognized for his contributions to India's
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freedom struggle.
● In acknowledgment of his bravery and contribution to the nation, the
Government of India issued a postage stamp in his honor.
● Sen's life and actions remain a symbol of courage, sacrifice, and the
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indomitable spirit of the Indian freedom struggle.

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VI. Conclusion
The life of Surya Sen, a significant figure in India's struggle for independence,
underscores the undying spirit of rebellion against colonial oppression. His
relentless efforts, despite brutal torture and the threat of death, left an indelible
mark on India's freedom struggle. Sen's legacy continues to inspire millions,
underlining the value of courage, sacrifice, and unwavering dedication to the
cause of freedom. His story serves as a potent reminder of the price paid for
India's independence, prompting us to cherish and safeguard our hard-earned
freedom.
275
Achyut Patwardhan (1905-92): The Lion of
Satara
Achyut Patwardhan, born into a prosperous Brahmin family on

February 5, 1905, was a seminal figure in India's struggle for
independence and a driving force behind the creation of the
Socialist Party of India. A theosophist, philosopher, and advocate
for social change, Patwardhan, nicknamed "The Lion of Satara",
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was deeply involved in the Quit India Movement and renowned
for his staunch belief that true societal change begins with the
individual. His unique blend of theosophical beliefs and
socialistic ideologies continues to inspire social reformers and
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scholars alike. PR
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A. Background
● Born on February 5, 1905, in Ahmednagar, Bombay Presidency, British
India
● Achyut's father, Hari Keshav Patwardhan, was a prosperous legal
practitioner based in Ahmednagar
● Achyut was the second of six sons in the family
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● At the age of four, he was adopted by Sitaram Patwardhan, a retired
Deputy Educational Inspector, who passed away in 1917, leaving a
considerable property to Achyut
● Achyut was noted for his lifelong bachelorship, potentially influenced by his
theosophist upbringing
B. Early Education
● Received primary and secondary education at Ahmednagar
● Graduated with B.A. and M.A. in Economics from the Central Hindu College
of Benares (now known as Varanasi), achieving first-class honors
● His academic prowess led to his position as Professor of Economics at his
Alma Mater until 1932
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C. Influences
● Both his birth and adoptive fathers were Theosophists, a philosophical
belief that aims for knowledge of God through spiritual ecstasy and
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mysticism
● As a result, Achyut was sent to the college founded by Dr. Annie Besant, a
prominent Theosophist, and women's rights activist
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● While at college, he was in regular contact with Dr. G. S. Arundale, the
Theosophist Principal of the college, Dr. Annie Besant, and Professor Telang
● This association greatly influenced his personal development, making him
studious, meditative, and ascetic
● His family's fervor for Theosophy was further reinforced by his uncle's
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deathbed wish that he never desert the Theosophical philosopher, Jiddu

Krishnamurti
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● His commitment to Theosophy led to his association with the Krishnamurti

Foundation, contributing to its expansion and the founding of a chain of
schools across India
● His family's alignment with Theosophy and the resultant influence of its
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precepts had a significant impact on his life and philosophy.

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III. Career as a Professor and Socialist Influences

A. Position as Professor of Economics at the College till 1932
● After graduation, Achyut Patwardhan joined his Alma Mater, the Central
Hindu College, as a Professor of Economics
● He served as a professor until 1932, when he left the institution to join the
Indian freedom struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi
● During his tenure, he demonstrated great dedication to teaching, earning
the admiration and respect of his students
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B. Trips to England and other European countries, contact with Socialist
leaders and scholars
● Patwardhan undertook extensive tours to England and Europe in the early
1930s
● These tours exposed him to the transformative socio-political changes
brought by Socialism in these regions
● He interacted with several Socialist leaders and scholars during these trips
● People like Jawaharlal Nehru, the future first Prime Minister of India,
further encouraged his interest in Socialism
C. Study of Communist and Socialist literature
SS
● In his student years, Patwardhan spent significant time studying Socialism
and Communism, greatly shaping his political ideology
● His deep understanding of socialist and communist principles was also
cultivated by his extensive reading and study of Socialist and Communist
literature
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● His exposure to these ideologies fuelled his aspiration for a more equal
distribution of wealth in society
● These principles would later inform his leadership of the Socialist Party of
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India, which he founded in 1947, aiming to sway India's politics towards
socialist policies.
IV. Participation in Indian Independence Movement

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A. Joining the civil disobedience movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932

E
● In 1932, after leaving his professorship, Patwardhan joined the Indian

freedom struggle, which was at that time led by Mahatma Gandhi
● He became an active participant in the civil disobedience movement
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orchestrated by Gandhi
● His political activism included his involvement in the Civil Disobedience
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Movement and the Quit India Movement

B. Multiple imprisonments over a decade due to political activities
● Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Patwardhan's political activities resulted
in him being frequently interned
● His role in the freedom struggle, including his acts of civil disobedience
against British rule, led to multiple imprisonments over a decade
● Despite these incarcerations, Patwardhan remained dedicated to the cause
of Indian independence
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C. Association with influential leaders like Acharya Narendra Deb,
Jayaprakash Narayan, and others
● During his participation in the independence movement, Patwardhan
associated with numerous influential political leaders
● Notably, he forged strong connections with leaders such as Acharya
Narendra Deb and Jayaprakash Narayan
● These associations played a key role in shaping his political ideology and
strategies
D. Formation of the Congress Socialist Party from within Congress in 1934
● In 1934, spurred by his socialist ideologies and the encouragement of
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like-minded leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Patwardhan initiated the
formation of the Congress Socialist Party
● The Congress Socialist Party was created from within the Indian National
Congress, the main political party at the time
● Patwardhan served as the general secretary of the Congress Socialist Party
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at the young age of 31, showcasing his leadership skills and political
commitment
● However, he observed that the climate within the Congress was
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inhospitable to socialism, which eventually led him to form the Socialist
Party of India in 1947, at the time of India's independence.
V. Prominent Role in Quit India Movement

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A. Involvement in the Quit India Movement in 1942

E
● In 1942, Patwardhan took an active role in the Quit India Movement, a civil
disobedience campaign calling for immediate end to British rule in India
● This was a nationwide movement, but Patwardhan was particularly active
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in his home region of Satara in the Bombay Presidency

● He was one of the last few survivors of the Quit India Movement
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B. Support for the parallel government movement in the Satara district,

evading arrest
● During this time, Patwardhan notably supported and played an
instrumental role in the formation of a parallel government in Satara
district
● This parallel government, or "Prati-Sarkar", was set up in defiance of
British rule
● Patwardhan skillfully evaded arrest and continued to lead the parallel
government movement in Satara, earning him the nickname "The Lion of
Satara"
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C. Description of his work in Satara, influence of Krantisinha Nana Patil,
and the administration of Prati-Sarkar
● The parallel government in Satara was a bold initiative to provide an
alternative administrative structure against the British rule
● Patwardhan was influenced by other leaders in the region, notably
Krantisinha Nana Patil, who was also a major figure in the independence
movement
● Despite the adversities, the Prati-Sarkar succeeded in maintaining law and
order, running courts, police stations, and even levying taxes
● Patwardhan's involvement in the administration of the Prati-Sarkar was
indicative of his determination and commitment to the cause of India's
independence
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VI. Formation of the Socialist Party of India
A. Struggles in promoting socialism within the Congress
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● Patwardhan had joined the Indian National Congress with the intention of
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promoting socialist ideologies within the party
● However, the expansion of Congress and inclusion of polarized ideologies
led to a diminishing space for socialist policies
● Despite his commitment to the party and his active role in the freedom
struggle, Patwardhan found it difficult to influence the party's direction
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towards socialism
● The ideological climate within the Congress was increasingly inhospitable
to socialist ideas, despite the efforts of Patwardhan and others
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B. Decision to form the Socialist Party of India independently in 1947

● Due to the above struggles, Patwardhan decided to leave the Congress in
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1947 to form the Socialist Party of India independently

● He believed that this new party would better represent and promote
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socialist principles within the political landscape of newly independent

India
● Patwardhan was at the helm of this newly formed party, leading it as its
general secretary
● The Socialist Party of India marked a significant phase in Patwardhan's
political career, representing his commitment to social equality and
economic justice
C. Retirement from politics in 1950 and return to academia
● After a few years of leading the Socialist Party of India, Patwardhan chose
to retire from active politics in 1950
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● Despite his retirement, his influence in Indian politics and the socialist
movement remained significant
● Post-retirement, Patwardhan returned to academia, channeling his efforts
towards educational and intellectual pursuits
● His return to academia did not signal an end to his activism, as he
continued to be vocal about societal issues, particularly regarding India's
political standards and overpopulation
VII. Relationship with Jiddu Krishnamurti and Theosophy

A. Influence of Krishnamurti on Patwardhan's thought and life
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● Jiddu Krishnamurti, a philosopher and former Theosophist, greatly
influenced Patwardhan's personal philosophy and ideological outlook.
● Krishnamurti's teachings, asserting that real revolution takes place in the
human psyche and not through economic and political systems, had a
profound impact on Patwardhan.
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● Patwardhan's commitment to Krishnamurti's teachings was solidified by a
deathbed promise to his uncle that he would never desert Krishnamurti.
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B. Development and expansion of Krishnamurti Foundation and creation of
schools across India
● Patwardhan played a crucial role in expanding the Krishnamurti
X
Foundation.
● He founded a chain of high-performing schools across India under the
banner of the foundation, propagating Krishnamurti's philosophies.
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● The foundation and the schools continue to be a testimony to Patwardhan's

dedication towards Krishnamurti's teachings.
C. Stormy relationship with Krishnamurti and disillusionment with
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Theosophical Society leading to joining freedom struggle

● Despite being influenced by Krishnamurti, Patwardhan's relationship with
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him was not always smooth.

● In 1929, when Krishnamurti broke with the Theosophical Society and left
India, Patwardhan was disheartened.
● This disillusionment led him to part ways with the Theosophical Society
and join the Indian freedom struggle under the leadership of Mahatma
Gandhi.
● Patwardhan's life was marked by a constant struggle between politics,
theosophy, and the philosophies of Krishnamurti.
D. Deep understanding of Krishnamurti's teachings and work towards
spreading them
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● Patwardhan developed a deep understanding of Krishnamurti's teachings,
particularly regarding the alleviation of human suffering through spiritual
change.
● This understanding was solidified after witnessing the devastating
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
● In the 1950s, Patwardhan withdrew from politics to exclusively devote
himself to disseminating Krishnamurti's message through the
Krishnamurti Foundation.
● He seamlessly integrated theosophy, politics, and Krishnamurti's teachings
into his life, arguing that socialism should not only cater to man's
economic needs but also create an equality of spirit.
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VIII. Theosophy, Politics, and Krishnamurti's Teachings
A. Patwardhan's belief in the integration of theosophy, politics, and
Krishnamurti's teachings
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● Patwardhan firmly believed in the integration of theosophy, politics, and
Krishnamurti's teachings into a unified philosophical framework.
PR
● His life and works reflect the constant interplay of these three elements.
● He felt that these three aspects were not mutually exclusive but, in fact,
complemented each other in fostering a holistic understanding of life and
society.
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B. His view on socialism as a tool for not just addressing economic needs,
but creating an equality of spirit
E
● Patwardhan viewed socialism not merely as a political and economic

ideology but as a philosophy that could usher in an equality of spirit.
● He argued that socialism shouldn't be concerned solely with economic
needs, but also aim to create spiritual equality.
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● This unique perspective set him apart from other socialist thinkers and
added a spiritual dimension to his understanding of socialism.
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C. Writings and perspectives on socialism, philosophy, India's political

standards, corruption, and consumerism
● Patwardhan was a prolific writer, having authored over 100 books and
pamphlets on socialism and philosophy. Important ones are:
○ The Communal Triangle in India (1942)
○ Ideologies and the Perspective of Social Change in India (1971)
● He expressed deep concern over declining political standards in India,
widespread corruption, and rampant consumerism.
● In his writings, Patwardhan consistently highlighted these issues and the
need to address them for the betterment of the country.
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● He firmly believed that the societal ills plaguing India were exacerbated by
overpopulation and hence emphasized the need to control the burgeoning
population in numerous public forums.
IX. Conclusion
Achyut Patwardhan was not just a political activist and a philosopher, but a
beacon of moral and intellectual integrity in the tumultuous times of India's
struggle for independence. His unwavering commitment to socialism, theosophy,
and the teachings of Jiddu Krishnamurti led him to establish a distinctive
ideological framework that blended economic justice with spiritual enlightenment.
His enduring influence is still felt in the political and educational landscapes of
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India, reminding us of the potential for harmonizing diverse philosophies for the
collective good.
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283
Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912): Advocate
of Women's Rights and Pioneer of Legal
Reforms
Behramji M. Malabari, an Indian poet, author, publicist,

and social reformer, was best known for his advocacy of
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women's rights and his fight against child marriage, most
notably through his involvement in the Rukhmabai case.
Born in 1853 into a Parsi family in Baroda, his life journey
took him from an Irish Presbyterian Mission School to
Bombay, and eventually to London, on a path marked by
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literary achievements and significant social reforms. His
dedication and fervor laid the groundwork for crucial legal
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reforms, helping shape a better society for women in India.
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284
II. Early Life of Behramji M. Malabari
● Born on 18 May 1853 in Baroda (now Vadodara, Gujarat)
● Born into a Parsi family
● Parents: Dhanjibhai Mehta and Bhikhibai
● Dhanjibhai Mehta, father, passed away when Behramji was six or seven
years old
● Bhikhibai, his mother, raised him after his father's death
B. Education at Irish Presbyterian Mission School in Surat
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● After his father's death, Behramji moved to Surat with his mother
● Studied at an Irish Presbyterian Mission School in Surat
● Developed an interest in Literature and Poetry during his schooling
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C. Adoption by Merwanji Nanabhai Malabari
● Adopted by Merwanji Nanabhai Malabari, a childless owner of a drugstore
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who traded in sandalwood and spices from the Malabar coast
● Merwanji Nanabhai gave him the name ‘Malabari’
D. Relocation to Bombay at the Age of 15 Years

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● Relocated to Bombay at the age of 15
● Took up a teaching job for financial support after moving to Bombay
● Continued pursuing his interest in Literature and Poetry in Bombay
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III. Malabari's Career in Literature and Journalism

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A. His First Volume of Poems, “Nitivinod” (Pleasure of Morality)

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● Published in 1875
● Comprised of Gujarati poems written by Malabari
● Showcased his interest and talent in literature and poetry
B. His Second Published Work “The Indian Muse in English Garb”

● Published in 1877
● Received acclaim from distinguished individuals of the time
● Alfred Tennyson, an eminent English poet, appreciated Malabari's work
● Recognition from scholars like Max Muller and Florence Nightingale
285
C. Contribution in Translating Max Muller’s Hibbert Lectures into Indian
Languages
● Malabari contributed to the translation of Max Muller's Hibbert Lectures
● Performed the Gujarati translation himself with the aid of N. M. Mobedjina
at Muller's request
● Believed Hindu priesthood was misinterpreting Vedas and Upanishads
● Aimed to provide accurate translations to prevent misunderstandings
● Faced difficulties in finding translators and securing funding
● Strived to get the lectures translated into other Indian languages, including
Marathi, Bengali, Hindi, and Tamil
D. Acquisition and Editing of the English Daily, “Indian Spectator”
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● Malabari acquired and edited the English daily, Indian Spectator
E. Joint Editing of “Voice of India” with Dadabhai Naoroji and William

Wedderburn
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● Collaborated with Dadabhai Naoroji and William Wedderburn to edit Voice
of India
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F. Publication of “Gujarat and the Gujaratis: Pictures of Men and Manners
Taken from Life”
● Published this work to offer insights into the life and manners of the people
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of Gujarat
G. Malabari's Travels to Britain and His Book “The Indian Eye on English
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Life, or Rambles of a Pilgrim Reformer”

● Travelled to the United Kingdom in 1890
● Published this book in 1893, chronicling his journey and observations of
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British life
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H. Role as the Editor of the Monthly East and West

● Served as the editor of the monthly publication, East and West
I. Other Notable Publications

● Authored several other notable publications
● His written work was influential in advocating for social reforms, especially
for women's rights and against child marriage
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IV. Malabari as a Social Reformer
A. His Advocacy for Women’s Rights
● Devoted significant efforts to advocating for women's rights, particularly
those of Hindu widows
● Worked tirelessly against child marriage and forced widowhood
● Gained recognition and acclaim in the United Kingdom for his efforts to
champion women's rights
B. Publication of “Notes on Infant Marriage and Enforced Widowhood”
● Published these "notes" as a critique of harmful social practices
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● Brought attention to the issues of child marriage and widowhood in India
● Generated significant discussion and influenced public opinion
● Helped build momentum for legislative changes to address these social
issues
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C. His Role in the Rukhmabai Case
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● Took an active role in advocating for Rukhmabai, a child bride who was
ordered to live with her husband
● Wrote editorials in his own magazine about the case
● Penned letters to the editors of The Times, shedding light on Rukhmabai's
plight
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● His efforts in the Rukhmabai case helped bring about significant changes
in legislation in both Britain and India
● The case influenced the passage of the Age of Consent Act in 1891 and the
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Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885

D. His Travels to London to Appeal for the Rights of Indian Daughters
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● Traveled to London in 1889 to appeal to British authorities for the rights of

Indian daughters
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● His advocacy helped bring international attention to the issue
E. His Role in the Passage of the Age of Consent Act of 1891 and Criminal
Law Amendment Act of 1885 in Britain
● Was a significant contributor to the passage of these important legislations
● These laws governed the age of consent for females in Britain and India and
were a major step towards improving the rights of women
F. His Relationship with Indian National Congress and Dadabhai Naoroji
● Attended the Indian National Congress in Bombay in 1885
287
● Maintained a close friendship with Dadabhai Naoroji, a founder and leader
of the Congress, despite distancing himself from the organisation
G. Recognition: Felicitation with the Kaiser-e-Hind Gold Medal
● Was awarded the Kaiser-e-Hind Gold Medal, a high civilian honor, in
recognition of his service to the public
V. Seva Sadan Society

A. Foundation and Objectives
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● Established by Malabari in 1885
● Created with the intention of serving socially vulnerable populations
● Aimed at particularly supporting women and working towards their
upliftment
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B. The Social Groups the Seva Sadan Catered To
● Mainly focused on women, especially those facing social disadvantages
PR
● Included widows and victims of child marriage among its primary
beneficiaries
C. The Services Provided by the Society
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● Acted as a safe haven and provided shelter for women in distress

● Engaged in a variety of social services, with an emphasis on the welfare and
empowerment of women
E
● The society's services were instrumental in advocating for women's rights,

challenging oppressive customs and promoting gender equality
S

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A. Death of Behramji Malabari

● Passed away in 1912 in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
B. Lasting Impact of His Work as a Poet, Journalist, and Social Reformer

● Through his literary and journalistic endeavours, Malabari made
substantial contributions to Gujarati and English literature
○ Works like Nitivinod and The Indian Muse in English Garb are still
acknowledged for their literary merit
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○ His chronicles of British life in The Indian Eye on English Life, or
Rambles of a Pilgrim Reformer provide a unique perspective of an
Indian reformer on English society
● His efforts to translate Max Muller's Hibbert Lectures into Indian languages
demonstrated his dedication to facilitating intercultural dialogue and
understanding
● As a journalist, Malabari had a far-reaching impact on shaping public
opinion, particularly through his editorials on the Rukhmabai case
● His social reform efforts continue to resonate
○ His advocacy for women's rights and his role in the passage of the
Age of Consent Act of 1891 and the Criminal Law Amendment Act of
1885 were landmark achievements in the field of social reform
The establishment of Seva Sadan stands as a testament to his dedication
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●
to the upliftment of socially vulnerable groups, particularly women
● His influence on the Indian National Congress and friendship with
prominent leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji have left a mark on the political
discourse of India
E
● Awarded the Kaiser-e-Hind Gold Medal in recognition of his tireless work
and contributions to society
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VIII. Conclusion
Behramji M. Malabari's journey from a young Parsi boy adopted by a merchant,
to a renowned poet, dedicated journalist, and an impactful social reformer
X
underscores his enduring legacy in Indian history. His work in literature and
journalism shaped public opinion, and his advocacy for social reform led to
tangible legislative changes, significantly impacting women's rights in India. His
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founding of the Seva Sadan Society further extended his influence, providing a
platform for the upliftment of socially vulnerable groups. His life, marked by
incessant dedication and tireless efforts, continues to inspire future generations.
S
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289
V.K. Krishna Menon (1896-1974): Defending
India's Sovereignty
V.K. Krishna Menon was an eminent Indian nationalist,

diplomat, and politician, widely regarded as one of the most
influential figures in India's post-independence era. Known
for his eloquence, unwavering stance against Western
imperialism, and close association with Jawaharlal Nehru,
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Menon played a pivotal role in shaping India's foreign policy
and promoting the principles of non-alignment. While
celebrated for his brilliance and fervent defense of India's
sovereignty, Menon also courted controversy with his
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abrasive personality and communist leanings. His enigmatic
persona and complex legacy continue to captivate and divide
opinions, making him a significant figure in Indian history.
PR
X
E
S
IA
290
A. Birth and Family Background in Kerala:
● V.K. Krishna Menon was born on May 3, 1897, in Calicut, which is now
known as Kozhikode, in the state of Kerala, India.
● He hailed from a family with a diverse cultural background, known as the
Vengalil family, which was prominent in the region.
B. Education at Zamorin's College and Presidency College:
● Menon received his early education at Zamorin's College in Kozhikode,
Kerala.
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● He later attended Presidency College in Madras, now Chennai, where he
furthered his academic pursuits.
C. Studies at the London School of Economics and University of London:
E
● After completing his education in India, Menon traveled to the United
Kingdom to pursue higher studies.
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● He enrolled at the London School of Economics (LSE) and the University of
London, where he gained valuable knowledge and insights.
● Menon's time at LSE helped shape his socialist beliefs and political
ideology, setting the foundation for his future activism and involvement in
Indian politics.
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III. Role in India's Independence Movement

E
A. Founding editor of the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books:

● V.K. Krishna Menon played a significant role in the publishing industry as
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the founding editor of the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books.

● Pelican Books, established in 1937, aimed to provide affordable and
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accessible books on a wide range of subjects, including politics, economics,

and social issues.
● Menon's involvement in this initiative showcased his commitment to
spreading knowledge and ideas among the masses, contributing to the
intellectual discourse of the time.
B. Leadership in the India League and campaign for Indian independence:
● Menon's leadership was instrumental in the India League, an organization
dedicated to advocating for India's independence from British colonial rule.
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● As the secretary of the India League from 1929, Menon tirelessly
campaigned for Indian independence in the United Kingdom, mobilizing
public support and raising awareness about the cause.
● His efforts included organizing protests, delivering speeches, and engaging
with influential figures and organizations to champion the Indian
nationalist movement.
C. Relationship with Jawaharlal Nehru and promotion of Nehru's leadership:
● Menon's close association with Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister
of independent India, began during his time in the India League.
● He shared a strong bond with Nehru and became one of his trusted allies
and advisors.
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● Menon played a crucial role in promoting Nehru's leadership and ideals,
working closely with him to shape India's foreign policy and diplomatic
strategies.
● Their collaboration further solidified Menon's influence in Indian politics
and his significant contributions to the nation's struggle for independence.
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IV. Diplomatic Career and Non-Aligned Movement
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A. High Commissioner to the United Kingdom:
● V.K. Krishna Menon served as the High Commissioner (ambassador) of
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India to the United Kingdom after India gained independence.
● His role as High Commissioner involved representing India's interests and
strengthening diplomatic ties between the two countries.
E
● Menon played a crucial part in advocating for India's position on various

issues and advancing the country's foreign policy objectives during his
tenure in the United Kingdom.
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B. Representation of India at the United Nations and promotion of

non-alignment:
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● Menon had a significant presence at the United Nations, representing India

as a diplomat and contributing to the development of non-alignment as a
prominent foreign policy approach.
● He actively promoted the principles of non-alignment, emphasizing India's
commitment to maintaining neutrality and independence in global affairs.
● Menon's speeches and engagement at the United Nations helped solidify
India's reputation as a leading advocate for anti-colonialism and neutrality
in the international arena.
C. Involvement in international issues such as the Suez Crisis:
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● Menon played a notable role in international affairs, including his
involvement in the Suez Crisis of 1956.
● During the crisis, Menon staunchly defended the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of nations, including Egypt, against the intervention of foreign
powers.
● His vocal support for anti-imperialist causes and his diplomatic efforts in
resolving the crisis contributed to his reputation as a skilled diplomat and
advocate for the rights of nations.
D. Defense of India's stance on Kashmir at the UN Security Council:
● One of Menon's notable achievements was his defense of India's stance on
the Kashmir issue at the United Nations Security Council.
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● He passionately presented India's case for self-determination and
sovereignty over the disputed region of Kashmir, earning him popularity
and the title of "Hero of Kashmir".
● Menon's persuasive arguments and eloquence during his eight-hour-long
speech at the Security Council showcased his determination to uphold
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India's position on Kashmir and drew international attention to the issue.
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V. Political Career and Controversies
A. Election victories and political influence:
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● V.K. Krishna Menon had several election victories throughout his political
career, including being elected to the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.
● His political influence grew as he became a prominent figure in Indian
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politics, particularly in the realm of foreign affairs and defense.

● Menon's victories and popularity among the public solidified his position as
a key political figure in India, second only to Jawaharlal Nehru.
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B. Controversies surrounding Menon's communist leanings:

● Menon faced controversies due to his perceived communist leanings, which
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drew criticism from some quarters.

● The Western press often depicted him as a "snake-charmer" and vilified
him for his leftist ideology.
● His association with communism and his alignment with leftist principles
were points of contention during his political career.
C. Criticisms of Menon's role as Defense Minister and the Sino-Indian War:
● Menon faced heavy criticisms for his role as Defense Minister, particularly
in the aftermath of the Sino-Indian War in 1962.
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● Some critics attributed India's military unpreparedness and the
subsequent defeat in the war to Menon's policies and decisions.
● The military reverses suffered by India against China intensified the
criticism surrounding Menon's tenure as Defense Minister.
D. Menon's resignation and his continuing influence as an elder statesman:
● Following the Sino-Indian War, Menon resigned from his position as
Defense Minister.
● Despite his resignation, Menon continued to wield influence as an elder
statesman, advising and counseling Jawaharlal Nehru and remaining
active in political circles.
● His political career and controversies shaped his legacy, and he remained
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an influential figure even after leaving the government.
VI. Personal and Legacy
E
A. Personal traits, lifestyle, and public image:
● Menon was known for his eloquence, brilliance, and forceful personality.
PR
● He maintained an ascetic lifestyle, abstaining from tobacco, alcohol, and
meat.
● Menon's public image was characterized by his distinctive appearance,
often dressed in bespoke suits and referred to as "Mephistopheles in a
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Savile Row suit".
● Despite his personal asceticism, Menon was known for his wit and humor
in public engagements.
E
● He was sometimes criticized for his lavish use of Rolls-Royce cars as official
vehicles.
B. Menon's death and commemoration:
S
● V.K. Krishna Menon passed away on October 6, 1974, at the age of 78.
● His death was remarked upon by then Indian Prime Minister Indira
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Gandhi, who compared it to the extinction of a volcano.

● To commemorate Menon's life and achievements, the V.K. Krishna Menon
Institute was established in 2006, honoring his contributions in various
fields.
● The institute also aims to recognize individuals from India and the Asian
diaspora for their significant accomplishments.
C. Evaluation of Menon's contributions and controversies:
● Menon's legacy remains enigmatic and controversial, evoking both
admiration and criticism.
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● He is recognized for his pivotal role in India's independence movement, his
leadership in the India League, and his campaigns for Indian
independence.
● Menon's contributions to India's foreign policy and his promotion of
non-alignment, particularly during his representation at the United
Nations, have also garnered appreciation.
● However, he faced controversies regarding his communist leanings, his
tenure as Defense Minister, and the Sino-Indian War.
● Evaluations of Menon's persona and political career vary, with opinions
ranging from admiration of his brilliance to criticism of his abrasive
manner and controversial policies.
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VII. Conclusion
In conclusion, V.K. Krishna Menon was a complex and influential figure in Indian
history. Known for his brilliance, eloquence, and unwavering commitment to
India's independence, Menon played a significant role in shaping the nation's
E
foreign policy and representing it on the international stage. Despite
controversies surrounding his communist leanings and his tenure as Defense
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Minister during the Sino-Indian War, Menon's contributions and legacy continue
to be debated and evaluated. Whether admired or criticized, his impact on India's
struggle for independence and his role in promoting non-alignment have left a
lasting imprint on the country's history and diplomatic relations.
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E
S
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295
Indulal Yagnik (1892-1972): The Voice of
Farmers and Freedom Fighters
Indulal Kanaiyalal Yagnik, also known as Indu Chacha, was a

prominent Indian independence activist, politician, and leader
of the All India Kisan Sabha. Born on 22 February 1892 in
Nadiad, Gujarat, Yagnik played a pivotal role in the
Mahagujarat Movement, advocating for the separate statehood
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of Gujarat. His contributions spanned across various fields,
including writing and filmmaking. With a steadfast
commitment to non-violence and social justice, Yagnik's
journey unfolded through his involvement in publications,
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participation in Satyagrahas, and leadership in political
organizations, leaving a lasting impact on the struggle for
independence and the shaping of modern Gujarat.
PR
X
E
S
IA
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II. Early Life (1892–1915)
● Indulal Kanaiyalal Yagnik was born on 22 February 1892 in Nadiad,
Kheda, Gujarat.
● Belonged to a Nagar Brahmin family.
● His father, Kanaiyalal, passed away when Indulal was young.
● Details about his immediate family members are not available.
B. Education and Academic Achievements

● Completed primary and secondary education in Nadiad.
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● Passed the matriculation examination in 1906.
● Joined Gujarat College in Ahmedabad for further studies.
● Pursued higher education at St. Xavier's College in Bombay (now Mumbai).
● Obtained a B.A. degree from St. Xavier's College.
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● Completed his L.L.B. examination in 1912.
C. Influence of Annie Besant

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● Indulal Yagnik was deeply influenced by Annie Besant during his college
days.
● Annie Besant was a prominent British socialist, theosophist, and Indian
independence activist.
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● Her ideas and philosophies had a lasting impact on Yagnik's political

ideology.
E
D. Establishment of Young India Magazine

● In 1915, along with Jamnadas Dwarkadas and Shankerlal Banker, Yagnik
co-published the English language magazine "Young India" from Bombay.
S
● Young India aimed to provide a platform for spreading ideas and promoting
the cause of Indian independence.
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● The magazine served as a medium for discussing social, political, and

cultural issues of the time.
● Indulal Yagnik's involvement in the publication marked his early foray into
the world of activism and intellectual discourse.
III. Independence Movement (1915–1947)

A. Role in the publication of Navjivan ane Satya:
● Indulal Yagnik served as the editor of the Gujarati monthly magazine
Navjivan ane Satya from its inception until 1919.
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● The magazine provided a platform for spreading Gandhian principles and
promoting the cause of Indian independence.
● Yagnik's involvement in the publication showcased his dedication to
disseminating ideas of truth, non-violence, and social justice.
B. Collaboration with Mahatma Gandhi and writing his autobiography:
● Indulal Yagnik collaborated closely with Mahatma Gandhi, taking dictation
and writing the first 30 chapters of Gandhi's autobiography in Yeravada
jail.
● This collaborative effort led to the creation of one of Gandhi's most famous
works, which showcased his life, struggles, and philosophies.
SS
C. Involvement in the Servants of India Society and Home Rule Movement:
● Yagnik joined the Servants of India Society in 1915, an organization
founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale to promote social and political reforms
in India.
E
● However, Yagnik resigned from the society in 1917 and joined the Home
Rule Movement, which advocated for self-government and independence
from British rule.
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D. Participation in the Kheda Satyagraha and other non-violent protests:
● In 1918, Indulal Yagnik actively participated in the Kheda Satyagraha, a
non-violent resistance movement led by Mahatma Gandhi against the
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British government's oppressive taxation policies.

● He played a crucial role in organizing protests, mobilizing people, and
E
spreading the message of non-violent resistance.

● Yagnik's involvement in various non-violent protests showcased his
commitment to civil disobedience as a means to achieve independence.
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E. Leadership in the Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee:

● In 1921, Indulal Yagnik assumed the role of secretary in the Gujarat
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Pradesh Congress Committee.

● As a leader in the committee, he worked towards advancing the goals of the
Indian National Congress in the region.
F. Editorship of Yugadharm and Hindustan publications:
● From October 1922 to 1928, Yagnik served as the editor of the Gujarati
monthly Yugadharm.
● During this time, he also worked as the editor of the Gujarati daily
Hindustan from Bombay.
● Through his editorial roles, Yagnik contributed to the dissemination of
nationalist ideas and promoted the cause of independence.
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G. Travel experiences in Europe:
● Between 1930 and 1935, Indulal Yagnik embarked on a series of travels to
various European countries.
● These travels exposed him to different cultures, political systems, and
social movements, enriching his understanding of global issues.
H. Formation of the All India Kisan Sabha and Gujarat Kisan Parishad:
● In 1936, Yagnik actively participated in the formation of the All India Kisan
Sabha, an organization representing the interests of farmers and peasants.
● He later founded the Gujarat Kisan Parishad in 1939, focusing specifically
on addressing the concerns of farmers in Gujarat.
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I. Imprisonment during anti-war campaign:
● Yagnik faced imprisonment from 1940 to 1941 for his involvement in
anti-war campaigns against British colonial rule.
E
● His imprisonment symbolized his commitment to resisting oppressive
policies and advocating for freedom.
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J. Presidency of the annual session of the Akhil Hind Kisan Sabha:
● In 1942, Indulal Yagnik presided over the annual session of the Akhil Hind
Kisan Sabha, further solidifying his position as a leader in the farmers'
movement.
X
K. Establishment of Nutan Gujarat daily:

E
● In 1943, Yagnik initiated the publication of the Gujarati daily newspaper

Nutan Gujarat.
● The newspaper provided a platform to address social, political, and
economic issues, promoting the cause of independence and empowering
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the local population.

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IV. Post-Independence (1947–1972)

A. Leadership in the Mahagujarat Movement and formation of Mahagujarat
Janata Parishad:
● Indulal Yagnik played a pivotal role in the Mahagujarat Movement,
advocating for the creation of a separate statehood for Gujarat.
● He led the movement, which aimed to establish Gujarat as an independent
state, distinct from the Bombay Presidency.
299
● As a prominent leader, Yagnik became the founder president of the
Mahagujarat Janata Parishad, an organization that spearheaded the
demand for a separate Gujarat.
B. Election to the Lok Sabha as a Mahagujarat Janata Parishad candidate:
● In 1957, Indulal Yagnik was elected to the 2nd Lok Sabha from the
Ahmedabad constituency as a candidate representing the Mahagujarat
Janata Parishad.
● This election marked his successful political journey and demonstrated the
support he garnered for his role in the Mahagujarat Movement.
C. Formation of the Nutan Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad:
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● After the formation of the Gujarat state on 1 May 1960, the Mahagujarat
Janata Parishad was dissolved.
● In June 1960, Yagnik founded the Nutan Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad as
a new political party.
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● Through this party, he continued to advocate for the welfare and
development of Gujarat.
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D. Death and Legacy:
● Indulal Yagnik passed away on 17 July 1972 in Ahmedabad, leaving behind
a remarkable legacy.
● His contributions to the Indian independence movement, leadership in the
X
Mahagujarat Movement, and political career as a parliamentarian have left

an indelible mark on the history of Gujarat.
E
● Yagnik's unwavering commitment to social justice, empowerment of

farmers, and the demand for separate statehood continues to inspire
generations.
● He is remembered as a dedicated leader, writer, and filmmaker who played
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a significant role in shaping the political and social landscape of Gujarat.

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V. Works
A. Autobiographical work Atmakatha and other books:
● Indulal Yagnik's most notable work in Gujarati language is his
autobiographical work, Atmakatha (Gujarati: આત્મકથા), which spans across
six volumes.
● The book provides a detailed account of his life, experiences, and
contributions to the independence movement and political activism.
● Other notable books written by Yagnik include Jivan Vikas (Development of
Life), Gujarat ma Navjivan (New Life in Gujarat), Karavas (Imprisonment),
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Jivan Sangram (Life's Struggle), Kisan Katha (Peasant Stories), and Chhella
Vahen (Last Streams).
● Yagnik also wrote Yaroḍā āśrama: 1923–24 na Gandhiji na Karavas na
Sansmarano (Reminiscences about Mahatma Gandhi during his
imprisonment in Yeravada Jail) in 1952, providing insights into his
interactions with Gandhi during their time in prison.
B. Notable publications and magazines edited:
● Indulal Yagnik was associated with various publications throughout his
career.
● He served as the editor of Navjivan ane Satya, a Gujarati monthly
magazine, until 1919.
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● Yagnik's editorship extended to publications like Yugadharm (a Gujarati
monthly), Hindustan (a Gujarati daily from Bombay), and Young India (an
English language magazine).
● He also had involvement in newspapers such as Mumbai Samachar, Nutan
Gujarat, The Bombay Chronicle, and Hindustan.
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C. Plays and Poetry:
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● Yagnik ventured into the world of theater with plays that addressed social
and political issues.
● One of his notable plays is Asha-Nirasha, which depicted the Satyagraha
movement in Bardoli, Gujarat.
● He also authored a collection of three plays titled Raṇasaṅgrāma.
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● Yagnik's contributions to poetry include the anthology Rashtrageet, which

consists of patriotic poetry that resonated with the spirit of independence
E
and national pride.
VI. Films
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A. Establishment of Young India Pictures:

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● Indulal Yagnik established his own film production company called Young
India Pictures.
● The company was dedicated to producing films with a focus on promoting
regional cinema and cultural themes.
● Yagnik's foray into filmmaking showcased his passion for visual storytelling
and his desire to use this medium to convey messages of social
significance.
B. Gujarati films produced by Indulal Yagnik's company:
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● Pavagadh nu Patan (1928): A Gujarati film that depicted the historical and
cultural significance of the Pavagadh region.
● Kali no Aekko: Details about this film are not available.
● Kashmir nu Ghulab: Details about this film are not available.
● Young India: A film produced by Young India Pictures, reflecting Yagnik's
commitment to portraying stories with a focus on Indian independence and
social issues.
● Rakhpat Rakhapat: Details about this film are not available.
VII. Recognition and Memorials

A. India Post postage stamp:
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● Indulal Yagnik was honored by India Post with a postage stamp.
● The stamp features his photo along with his publication Navjivan and a
couple holding the flag in the background.
● This recognition by India Post signifies the significant contributions and
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impact of Yagnik in the context of Indian independence and social activism.
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B. Statue and garden dedicated to Indulal Yagnik in Ahmedabad:
● In Ahmedabad, a statue of Indulal Yagnik has been erected in a garden at
the east end of Nehru Bridge.
● The garden itself has been named after him, serving as a tribute to his
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legacy and the role he played in shaping the city and the state of Gujarat.
● The statue and garden stand as a permanent memorial to commemorate
Yagnik's contributions as an independence activist, leader, writer, and
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filmmaker.
VIII. Conclusion
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Indulal Kanaiyalal Yagnik's life and contributions encompassed various facets of

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the Indian independence movement and the socio-political landscape of Gujarat.

From his early activism and collaboration with Mahatma Gandhi to his
leadership in the Mahagujarat Movement, Yagnik's unwavering commitment to
social justice and his efforts to establish Gujarat as a separate state left an
indelible mark on history. Through his writings, publications, and films, he
promoted cultural identity, non-violence, and the empowerment of farmers. The
recognition bestowed upon him, including a postage stamp and a dedicated
statue in Ahmedabad, stands as a testament to his enduring legacy as a revered
leader and a torchbearer of Gujarat's rich history.
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Satish Chandra Mukherjee (1865-1948):
Pioneer of National Education in India
Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a prominent Indian educator,

philosopher, and nationalist who played a significant role in
shaping modern Indian history. Born in 1865, he was
influenced by Auguste Comte's Religion of Humanity and
associated with leading Indian intellectuals and reformers.
SS
Mukherjee's contributions to national education and Indian
nationalism have left a lasting impact on the development of a
national identity in India.
E
PR
X
E
S
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303
● Early life and education
○ Born on June 5, 1865, in Banipur, Hooghly, Bengal, British India
(now West Bengal, India)
○ Father: Krishnanath Mukherjee, a translator of official documents in
the Calcutta High Court
○ Studied at South Suburban School in Bhowanipore, Kolkata, where
he received inspiration from Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
○ Completed BA from Presidency College, Kolkata, in 1884 and MA in
English in 1886
○ Taught at Metropolitan Institution, Kolkata, and later joined
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Berhampore College
● Influence of Auguste Comte and the Religion of Humanity
○ Introduced to the Religion of Humanity, founded by French positivist
Auguste Comte, through Justice Dvarkanath Mitra, a close associate
of his father
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○ Became an ardent follower of Comte's philosophy and maintained a
close association with Mahatma Gandhi
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● Association with prominent Indian intellectuals and reformers
○ During his time at South Suburban School, met contemporaries and
leading intellectuals and reformers, including Bipin Chandra Pal,
Rabindranath Tagore, and Swami Vivekananda
○ As a student, attended lectures on the Shad-Darshana or six schools
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of Hindu philosophy with his classmates
E
The Dawn Society

● Founding and objectives
○ Established in 1902 by Satish Chandra Mukherjee in Calcutta,
S
British India
○ Aimed to promote national education and Indian nationalism
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○ Sought to provide an alternate system of higher studies and promote

Indian views, achievements, heritage, and success
○ Members included prominent intellectuals and reformers such as
Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rajendra Prasad, Raja
Subodh Chandra Mullick, Radha Kumud Mukherjee, and Brajendra
Kishore Roychowdhury
● Role in the Indian Nationalist Movement
○ Founded as an example of self-reliance in Indian education
○ Non-political cultural organization established to protest against the
Report of the Indian Universities Commission
○ Imparted 'ideal education' to students from Bengal, including
religious and moral lessons
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○ Infused students with ideas of nationalism and patriotism, as well as
provided technical education
○ Participated in the Swadeshi Movement and encouraged students to
do the same
● Influence on prominent Indian leaders
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a legendary teacher and mentor to
contemporary young men
○ Influenced the likes of Binoy Kumar Sarkar, Radha Kumud
Mukherjee, Haran Chandra Chakladar, Rabindranarayan Ghosh,
Kishori Mohan Gupta, and others
○ The Dawn Society's work led to the founding of the National Council
of Education in 1906
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National Education in India
● Collaboration with Sri Aurobindo
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee and Sri Aurobindo were pioneers in
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establishing a system of national education in India
○ Both believed in the importance of national education as part of the
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new Nationalist Party's program
○ Sri Aurobindo served as the first principal of Bengal National College,
which was started on August 15, 1906
● Establishment of the National Council of Education
○ The National Council of Education (NCE) was founded by Satish
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Chandra Mukherjee and other Indian nationalists in Bengal in 1906

○ NCE aimed to promote science and technology as part of a swadeshi
industrialization movement
E
○ The organization was a response to the British colonial regime's

influence on education and the controversies related to education in
the 1900s
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○ NCE sought to provide an alternative form of education that was

rooted in Indian culture and tradition
Founding of the Bengal National College and Bengal Technical
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●
Institute
○ The Bengal National College was established on August 15, 1906,
under the management of the National Council of Education
○ The college aimed to provide literary, scientific, and technical
education on national lines and under national control
○ The Bengal Technical Institute was established on July 25, 1906, by
the Society for Promotion of Technical Education in Bengal, which
later merged with the National Council of Education in 1910
○ The two colleges were considered faculties of "Humanities and
Science" and "Technology" respectively
○ Both institutions later merged to form Jadavpur University
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Contributions to Indian Nationalism
● Involvement in the Swadeshi Movement
○ The Swadeshi Movement was a significant part of the Indian
Nationalist Movement, which aimed to promote Indian-made goods
and boycott British products
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was an active participant in the Swadeshi
Movement and encouraged others to join
○ As a member of the Dawn Society, he played a crucial role in
promoting the Swadeshi Movement among students and the general
public
○ The Dawn Society organized lectures, discussions, and exhibitions to
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create awareness about the importance of using Indian-made goods
and boycotting British products
● Support for Mahatma Gandhi and the Non-Cooperation Movement
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a strong supporter of Mahatma
Gandhi and his Non-Cooperation Movement
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○ The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant event in the Indian
Nationalist Movement, which aimed to resist British rule through
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nonviolent means
○ Mukherjee believed in the power of nonviolent resistance and
encouraged others to participate in the Non-Cooperation Movement
○ He played a crucial role in spreading Gandhi's message of
nonviolence and self-reliance throughout Bengal
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● Contributions to the English magazine Bande Mataram
○ Bande Mataram was an English-language magazine founded by
Aurobindo Ghosh in 1905, which played a significant role in
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promoting Indian nationalism

○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a regular contributor to the
magazine, writing articles on various topics related to Indian
nationalism and the need for national education
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○ His writings in Bande Mataram helped to spread the message of

Indian nationalism and the importance of self-reliance
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○ Mukherjee's contributions to the magazine were instrumental in

shaping the nationalist discourse in India during the early 20th
century
Philosophy and Spiritual Life

● Hindu philosophy and spiritual matters
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was deeply interested in Hindu
philosophy and spirituality
○ As a student, he attended lectures on the Shad-Darshana or six
schools of Hindu philosophy with his classmates
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○ His spiritual beliefs were influenced by the teachings of Swami
Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, and other prominent Indian spiritual
leaders
○ Mukherjee believed in the importance of spiritual growth and
self-realization as essential aspects of human life
● Stance on religious superstitions and the caste system
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a strong advocate for social reform
and was against religious superstitions and the caste system
○ He believed that these practices were detrimental to the progress of
Indian society and hindered the development of a united national
identity
○ Mukherjee worked towards the eradication of social evils and
promoted the idea of a casteless society based on merit and equality
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○ He encouraged people to question and challenge the existing social
norms and strive for a more just and equitable society
● Letters on spiritual matters
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee was known for his correspondence with
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various individuals on spiritual matters
○ His letters provided insights into his spiritual beliefs and his
understanding of Hindu philosophy
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○ Through these letters, Mukherjee shared his thoughts on the
importance of spiritual growth, self-realization, and the need for
social reform
○ His correspondence served as a source of inspiration and guidance
for many individuals seeking to understand and explore their
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spiritual path
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Legacy and Impact

● Influence on modern Indian history and education
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○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee played a significant role in shaping

modern Indian history and education through his efforts in
promoting national education and Indian nationalism
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○ His work in establishing the National Council of Education, Bengal

National College, and Bengal Technical Institute laid the foundation
for the development of a national education system in India
○ These institutions later merged to form Jadavpur University, which
continues to be a prominent center of higher education in India
○ Mukherjee's ideas and ideals continue to inspire generations of
educators, students, and nationalists
● Role in shaping the nationalist and liberal school of history writing
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee's writings and teachings contributed to
the development of a nationalist and liberal school of history writing
in India
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○ His work in the English magazine Bande Mataram helped to spread
the message of Indian nationalism and the importance of self-reliance
○ Mukherjee's writings on Indian history, culture, and tradition
provided a counter-narrative to the colonial historiography that
dominated the early 20th century
○ His emphasis on the importance of understanding and preserving
India's rich cultural heritage has had a lasting impact on the study of
Indian history
● Contributions to the development of a national identity in India
○ Satish Chandra Mukherjee's work in promoting Indian nationalism
and national education played a crucial role in the development of a
national identity in India
○ His involvement in the Swadeshi Movement and support for
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Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement helped to unite
Indians in their struggle for independence
○ Mukherjee's emphasis on the importance of self-reliance and the
need for social reform contributed to the shaping of a modern,
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progressive, and inclusive Indian identity
○ His legacy continues to inspire and guide the nation in its pursuit of
unity, progress, and social justice
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● Mukherjee died in 1948
Books & Publications

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1. "Letters of Acharya Satis Chandra Mukhopadhyay"

2. "The Dawn, a Monthly Magazine: March 1897-February 1898"
3. He also contributed to the English magazine "Bande Mataram".
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In conclusion, Satish Chandra Mukherjee was a pioneering figure in modern

Indian history, playing a crucial role in promoting national education and Indian
nationalism. His work in establishing educational institutions, involvement in the
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Swadeshi Movement, and writings on Indian history and culture have left a
lasting impact on the development of a national identity in India. His legacy
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continues to inspire and guide the nation in its pursuit of unity, progress, and
social justice.
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Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946)
Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946) was an Indian independence activist

and a highly regarded lawyer. He is best remembered for his
defense of the three Indian National Army soldiers accused of
treason during World War II and for attempting to negotiate a
secret power-sharing agreement with Liaquat Ali Khan of the
Muslim League. Desai's contributions to India's struggle for
freedom and his exceptional legal skills have left a lasting impact
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on the nation's history.
E
PR
X
E
S
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II. Early Life
● Birth and upbringing in Valsad, Gujarat
○ Born on October 13, 1877, in Valsad, Gujarat
○ Son of Jivanji Desai, a modest Government Pleader, and Ramabai, a
religious woman
○ Only child of his parents, pampered during his upbringing
○ Initially schooled by his maternal uncle
● Education at Avabai School, Bharda High School, and Elphinstone
College
○ Studied at Avabai School in Valsad
○ Attended Bharda High School in Bombay, matriculated in 1895,
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standing first in his school
○ Joined Elphinstone College in Bombay, graduated with high standing
in English Literature and History
○ Won the Wordsworth Prize and a scholarship for standing first in
History and Political Economy
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○ Completed his M.A. in English from the University of Bombay
● Marriage to Ichchhaben and their son, Dhirubhai
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○ Married Ichchhaben while still in school
○ Had one son, Dhirubhai
○ Ichchhaben passed away due to cancer in 1923
● Career as a professor and lawyer
○ Appointed Professor of English and History in Gujarat College,
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Ahmedabad
○ Studied law while teaching
○ Enrolled as an advocate at the Bombay High Court in 1905
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○ Became one of the city's and later the nation's leading lawyers
○ Known for his thorough knowledge of legal principles, competence,
hard work, and persuasive handling of cases
○ Fluent speech, quick grasp, sharp memory, and cheerful
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temperament contributed to his professional success

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III. Political Career

● Joining Annie Besant's All India Home Rule League and Indian Liberal
Party
○ Began political career by joining Annie Besant's All India Home Rule
League
○ Joined the Indian Liberal Party, initially supportive of British
influences
● Opposition to the Simon Commission
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○ Came out in opposition to the all-European Simon Commission
formed in 1928 by the British to formulate constitutional reforms in
India
● Representation of Gujarat farmers during Bardoli Satyagraha
○ Represented farmers of Gujarat in the inquiry by the British
Government following the Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928
○ The satyagraha was a campaign by the farmers of Gujarat protesting
oppressive taxation policies in a time of famine, under the leadership
of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
○ Desai formidably represented the farmers' case, contributing to the
eventual success of the struggle
● Joining the Indian National Congress in 1930
○ Formally joined the Congress in 1930
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● Formation of Swadeshi Sabha and arrest in 1932
○ Formed the Swadeshi Sabha to promote boycott of foreign goods
○ Persuaded 80 textile mills to join, aiming to build a boycott by Indian
companies of foreign goods
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○ Sabha declared illegal, and Desai was arrested in 1932 for his
activities
● Inclusion in the Congress Working Committee and election to the
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Central Legislative Assembly
○ Released from jail on health grounds, went to Europe for treatment
○ Included in the Congress Working Committee at Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel's insistence
○ Elected to the Central Legislative Assembly from Gujarat in
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November 1934
● Leadership in the Central Assembly and opposition to India's
involvement in World War II
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○ Elected the leader of all elected Congressmen in the Central

Assembly, becoming the majority leader
○ Forcefully led the first elected representation of the Congress,
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building much respect and standing

○ Opposed the arbitrary inclusion of India and Indian soldiers in World
War II
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○ Addressed the House on November 19, 1940, making a strong plea

against India's involvement in the war
● Arrest and release from prison
○ Participated in the satyagraha initiated by Mohandas Gandhi
○ Arrested on December 10, 1940, under the Defense of India Act and
sent to Yerwada Central Jail
○ Released from prison in September 1941 on grounds of poor health
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IV. Desai-Liaquat Pact
● Secret negotiations with Liaquat Ali Khan for a coalition government
○ Desai began secretive talks with Liaquat Ali Khan, the second-most
important leader of the Muslim League, while many Congress leaders
were imprisoned during the Quit India movement
○ Intention was to negotiate an agreement for a future coalition
government, enabling a united choice for Hindus and Muslims for the
independent Government of India
● Concessions made by both parties
○ Liaquat gave up the demand for a separate Muslim state in return for
parity of Muslims-to-Hindus in the council of ministers
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○ Desai conceded the League as the representative of Muslims and
gave a minority community equal place with the majority Hindus
● Leak of the deal and reactions from Congress and Muslim League
leaders
○ A press report leaked the prospective deal in 1945, alarming both
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parties
○ Desai presented full information to Gandhi, but Jinnah and the
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League outrightly rejected any agreements, and Liaquat Ali Khan
denied that such a pact was being negotiated
● Loss of political standing in Congress
○ Desai's assertion that a deal had been reached was ridiculed by the
League, while Congress leaders were angry at him for conducting
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such negotiations without informing them
○ Desai lost political standing in his own party due to the fallout of the
Desai-Liaquat pact
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○ He was not given a ticket to contest elections for the Constituent

Assembly of India on grounds of his ill-health, but also due to
feelings in the Congress that Desai had been advancing his own
power and popularity while the Congress leadership was imprisoned
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V. INA Soldiers Trial

● Formation of the Defense Committee for INA officers
○ The Indian National Congress formed a Defense Committee
composed of 17 advocates, including Bhulabhai Desai, to defend the
three Indian National Army (INA) officers accused of treason
○ The officers on trial were Shahnawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sahgal, and
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
● Bhulabhai Desai's passionate defense and arguments based on
international law
○ Bhulabhai Desai was the leading counsel for the defense
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○ Despite poor health, Desai made a passionate and emphatic
argument in defense of the accused soldiers
○ He worked for three months at a stretch
○ Desai cited international law in his arguments, stating that the
accused were entitled to take up arms to gain independence for their
country under the order of the Provisional Government established
by Subhas Bose, which had the recognition of a few sovereign
governments
○ He also argued that the Indian Penal Code did not apply to their case
● Guilty verdict and sentencing, followed by release of the accused
○ The judge pronounced the three officers guilty and sentenced them to
transportation for life
○ However, the accused were eventually released
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● Impact on the Indian freedom struggle
○ The INA trials reignited the Indian freedom struggle, leading to
complete independence in 1947
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● Bhulabhai Desai passed away on 6 May 1946
● Desai's immense wealth led to the establishment of the Bhulabhai
Memorial Institute in Bombay
● M.C. Setalwad authored Desai's biography, titled "Bhulabhai Desai"
● Bhulabhai Desai Road in Mumbai is named in his honor
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VII. Conclusion
E
In conclusion, Bhulabhai Desai was an influential figure in India's struggle for

independence, known for his exceptional legal skills and dedication to the cause.
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His defense of the Indian National Army soldiers accused of treason and his
involvement in the controversial Desai-Liaquat Pact showcased his commitment
to India's freedom. Despite facing numerous challenges, Desai's contributions to
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India's history continue to inspire future generations to uphold the values of

justice, integrity, and dedication to one's nation.
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Durgabai Deshmukh (1909-1981): The Iron Lady of
India and Her Impact on Indian Society
Durgabai Deshmukh was an Indian freedom fighter, lawyer,

social worker, and politician who played a significant role in
shaping India's Constitution and advocating for social
welfare laws. Born in 1909 in Rajahmundry, Andhra
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Pradesh, she was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi
and participated in the Indian freedom struggle from a
young age. As a member of the Constituent Assembly of
India and the Planning Commission of India, she made key
contributions to the nation's development. Durgabai's
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dedication to women's empowerment, education, and social
reform has left a lasting impact on Indian society, and her legacy continues to
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inspire future generations.
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E
S
IA
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II. Early Life and Background
Birth and family background

● Durgabai Deshmukh was born on July 15, 1909, in Rajahmundry, Andhra
Pradesh, British India.
● She belonged to the Gummidithala family of the Brahmin community.
Early education and marriage
● Durgabai was married at the age of 8 to her cousin, Subba Rao.
She refused to live with him after her maturation, and her father and
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●
brother supported her decision.
● At age 12, she left school in protest of the imposition of English-medium
education.
● She later started the Balika Hindi Paathshala in Rajamundry to promote
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Hindi education for girls.
Influence of Mahatma Gandhi
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Non-Cooperation Movement
● At the age of 12, Durgabai participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement
in 1922.
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● She was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's ideas of social reform.

● When Gandhi visited her birthplace, Kakinada, she ensured that he
addressed a gathering of Muslim women and Devadasis.
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● With the help of her Devadasi friends, she arranged for five thousand
rupees demanded by the local hosts to present to Gandhi.
● Gandhi's visit left a deep impact on the young Durgabai, who decided to
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start wearing only handspun khadi and quit school to protest the
imposition of the English language.
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Salt Satyagraha
● Durgabai was a dedicated Gandhian and participated in several Gandhi-led
Salt Satyagrahas during the Civil Disobedience Movement.
● She was instrumental in organizing women in the movement and was
imprisoned three times for activities against British rule between 1930 and
1933.
● She was the central figure in driving Andhra women to step out of their
homes, organize themselves against the British, and join the freedom
struggle.
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● With her support and encouragement, a large number of women became
Satyagrahis and faced the hardships of the movement, including prison
time.
● A young Durgabai was called to take over the Salt Satyagraha movement in
Madras after the arrest of freedom fighter T. Prakasam. She herself was
imprisoned at Madurai jail for three years from 1930-1933, which included
a year in solitary confinement.
III. Social Reforms and Activism
Andhra Mahila Sabha
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● Durgabai Deshmukh founded the Andhra Mahila Sabha in 1937.
● The organization aimed to empower women through education, health
services, and vocational training.
● It focused on coaching young Telugu girls in Madras for their Matriculation
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examination conducted by the Banaras Hindu University.
● Durgabai also founded and edited a Telugu journal called Andhra Mahila to
promote the cause of women's education and empowerment.
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Balika Hindi Paathshala
● Durgabai Deshmukh started the Balika Hindi Paathshala in Rajamundry to
promote Hindi education for girls.
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● This initiative was a response to her protest against the imposition of

English-medium education in schools.
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● The Paathshala aimed to provide an alternative educational platform for

girls who wanted to learn Hindi.
Blind Relief Association
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● Durgabai Deshmukh served as the president of the Blind Relief

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Association.
● In this capacity, she established a school-hostel and a light engineering
workshop for the visually impaired.
● These initiatives aimed to provide education, training, and employment
opportunities for visually impaired individuals.
Andhra Education Society
● Durgabai Deshmukh founded the Andhra Education Society (AES) in 1948.
● The organization aimed to serve the educational needs of Telugu children
residing in Delhi.
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● AES provided support and resources to ensure that Telugu children had
access to quality education and cultural programs.
IV. Political Career
Constituent Assembly of India

Election and role in the assembly
● Durgabai Deshmukh was elected to the Constituent Assembly of India as a
Congress candidate in 1946 from the Madras province.
She was the only woman in the panel of chairmen in the Constituent
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●
Assembly.
● Durgabai influenced several legislations on issues including judicial
independence, human trafficking, and the national language.
Key interventions and contributions
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● She proposed Hindustani (Hindi + Urdu) as the national language of India
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but also expressed concern about the forceful campaign for Hindi in South
India.
● Durgabai suggested a period of fifteen years of status quo to enable all
non-Hindi speakers to adopt and learn Hindi.
● She was instrumental in the enactment of many social welfare laws.
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Planning Commission of India

E
Nomination and role

● Durgabai Deshmukh failed to get elected to Parliament in 1952 and was
later nominated to be a member of the Planning Commission.
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● In her role, she mustered support for a national policy on social welfare.
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Central Social Welfare Board

● The policy resulted in the establishment of the Central Social Welfare Board
in 1953.
● As the Board's first chairperson, Durgabai mobilized a large number of
voluntary organizations to carry out its programs, which were aimed at
education, training, and rehabilitation of needy women, children, and the
disabled.
National Council on Women's Education
Establishment and chairpersonship
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● Durgabai Deshmukh was the first chairperson of the National Council on
Women's Education, established by the Government of India in 1958.
Recommendations and impact
● In 1959, the committee presented its recommendations, which included:
○ Giving priority to the education of girls by the Centre and State
Governments.
○ Creating a department of women's education in the central ministry
of education.
○ Appointing a Director of Women's Education in each state.
○ Properly organizing co-education at higher levels of education.
○ The University Grants Commission specifying a definite amount
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separately for the education of girls.
○ Providing free education for girls up to Class VIII in the first phase of
development.
○ Offering facilities in the choice of optional subjects for girls.
○ Providing training facilities for girls on a liberal basis.
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○ Encouraging the education of girls in rural areas.
○ Reserving a large number of seats in various services for women.
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○ Initiating and encouraging programs for the development of adult
women's education.
V. Legal Career and Advocacy

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Law Degree and Practice

E
● Durgabai Deshmukh completed her B.A. and M.A. in Political Science from
Andhra University in the 1930s.
● She obtained her law degree from Madras University in 1942.
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● After obtaining her law degree, she started practicing as an advocate in

Madras High Court.
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Family Courts
● Durgabai Deshmukh was the first to emphasize the need for separate
Family Courts in India.
● She studied the concept of Family Courts during her visit to China in 1953.
● She discussed the idea with Justice M.C. Chagla and Justice P.B.
Gajendragadkar of the Bombay High Court, as well as with Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru.
● Due to the demands for speedy justice for women in familial matters from
women's movements and organizations, the Family Courts Act was enacted
in 1984.
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VI. International Representation
World Food Congress

● Durgabai Deshmukh was sent to Washington D.C. in 1963 as a member of
the Indian delegation to the World Food Congress.
● The Congress aimed to address global food security issues and promote
international cooperation in the field of food and agriculture.
● Durgabai's participation in the World Food Congress showcased her
commitment to social welfare and her ability to represent India on the
international stage.
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VII. Awards and Recognitions
Padma Vibhushan
E
● Durgabai Deshmukh was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1975 by the
Government of India.
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● The Padma Vibhushan is the second-highest civilian award in India,
recognizing exceptional and distinguished service in various fields.
Nehru Literacy Award
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● In 1971, Durgabai received the Nehru Literacy Award for her contribution
to the promotion of literacy in India.
E
● The award recognized her efforts in advancing education, particularly for

women and marginalized communities.
UNESCO Award
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● Durgabai Deshmukh was honored with the UNESCO Award for

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outstanding work in the field of literacy.

● This international recognition highlighted her dedication to promoting
education and empowering individuals through knowledge.
VIII. Legacy
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh Centre for Women's Studies

● Established at Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, the Dr. Durgabai
Deshmukh Centre for Women's Studies commemorates her legacy and
contributions to women's empowerment and education.
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● The Centre focuses on research, teaching, and extension activities related
to women's issues, gender equality, and social justice.
Autobiography and Other Writings
● Durgabai Deshmukh authored a book titled "The Stone That Speaketh,"
which provides insights into her life and experiences.
● Her autobiography, "Chintaman and I," was published in 1980, a year
before her death. The book details her personal and professional life,
including her marriage to Chintaman Deshmukh, the first Indian governor
of the Reserve Bank of India and Finance Minister in India's Central
Cabinet from 1950 to 1956.
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IX. Conclusion
Durgabai Deshmukh's impact on Indian society as a freedom fighter, lawyer,
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social worker, and politician has been significant, particularly in the areas of
women's empowerment and social reform. Her unwavering dedication to social
causes and her ability to overcome personal and societal challenges have made
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her an inspirational figure, often referred to as the "Iron Lady" of India. Her legacy
continues to inspire future generations to fight for social justice and equality,
leaving an indelible mark on the nation's history.
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E
S
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320
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890-1988): The Frontier
Gandhi
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, often referred to as Bacha Khan or
Frontier Gandhi, stands as a towering figure in the annals of the
Indian freedom struggle. A staunch advocate for non-violence and
unity, especially among Hindus and Muslims, he mobilized the
Pashtuns through the Khudai Khidmatgar movement. His
teachings, deeply rooted in Pashtun traditions, emphasized
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education, secularism, and the power of collective resistance
against oppression.
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E
S
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II. Early Life and Background
Birth and Early Years

● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was born on February 6, 1890, in the village of
Utmanzai.
● Utmanzai is located in the region which was then known as the
North-West Frontier Province. Today, this region is part of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.
● The region, characterized by its rugged terrain and tribal communities,
played a significant role in shaping Khan's early perspectives and values.
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Family Background
● Khan hailed from a wealthy Sunni Pashtun family. The Pashtuns, also
referred to as Pathans, are an ethnic group primarily residing in
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present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
● His father, Behram Khan, was a landowner, which afforded the family a
comfortable lifestyle and a certain degree of influence in their community.
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● The Pashtun community, known for its warrior traditions, had a history
marked by invasions, conquests, and occupations. This backdrop would
later influence Khan's drive for non-violent resistance.
Early Education and Literacy Initiatives
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● Recognizing the importance of education, Khan was an early advocate for

E
literacy and learning.

● At the age of 20, in 1910, he took a significant step by opening a school in
his hometown, Utmanzai. This was a bold move, considering the
conservative societal norms of the time.
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● The school was not just for boys; it also provided education to women and
children. This initiative was groundbreaking, as it went against the
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prevailing norms that often restricted women's access to education.

● Khan's passion for education was not limited to formal schooling. He also
established the Afghan Reform Society in 1921. This society aimed at the
broader upliftment of the community, emphasizing the importance of being
well-read and informed.
● To further this cause, he founded the 'Pashtun', a monthly political
journal. This publication ensured that people in the region were kept
abreast of political developments and were educated on matters of national
importance.
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Founding of Schools and Educational Institutions
● Khan's commitment to education was evident in his continuous efforts to
establish more schools and educational institutions.
● He believed that education was the key to empowerment, especially for the
marginalized sections of society.
● His schools focused on a holistic curriculum, ensuring that students were
not only academically proficient but also morally and ethically grounded.
● These educational institutions became a beacon of hope for many in the
region, offering a pathway to a brighter future.
III. Political Awakening and Initial Movements
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Introduction to the Indian Freedom Struggle
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's political journey began with his deep-rooted
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desire to free India from British rule.
● He recognized the importance of a united front, emphasizing the need for
Hindu-Muslim unity in the struggle for independence.
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● His commitment to the cause was evident in his active participation in
various movements and protests against the British Raj.
Agitations Against the Rowlatt Act
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● The Rowlatt Act of 1919 was one of the many draconian laws imposed by
the British to curb dissent and nationalist activities.
E
● This act allowed the British to detain any individual without trial, leading
to widespread outrage and protests across India.
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan vehemently opposed this act, organizing and
leading protests in the North-West Frontier Province.
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● His efforts against the Rowlatt Act showcased his leadership capabilities
and his ability to mobilize masses against oppressive policies.
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Meeting with Mahatma Gandhi

● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's meeting with Mahatma Gandhi was a turning
point in his political journey.
● Inspired by Gandhi's principles of non-violence and civil disobedience,
Khan saw in him a kindred spirit and a mentor.
● Their shared vision for a free India and mutual respect for each other's
ideologies strengthened their bond, leading to a lifelong association.
● This association played a crucial role in aligning the objectives of the
Khilafat Movement with the broader Indian freedom struggle.
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Imprisonment and Torture Experiences
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's resistance against British policies often led to
his imprisonment.
● He faced multiple incarcerations, enduring harsh conditions and torture
during his time in jail.
● Despite the physical and mental torment, his resolve to free India never
wavered. His time in prison only strengthened his commitment to the
cause.
● His sacrifices and endurance made him a symbol of resilience and hope for
many in the freedom struggle.
Role in the Khilafat Movement
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● The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a significant political campaign
launched by Indian Muslims to protect the Ottoman Caliphate following
World War I.
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● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan played a pivotal role in this movement,
advocating for the rights of Muslims and emphasizing the importance of
Hindu-Muslim unity.
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● He believed that the success of the Khilafat Movement was intrinsically
linked to the broader Indian freedom struggle.
● His efforts ensured that the movement gained momentum in the
North-West Frontier Province, mobilizing thousands in support of the
cause.
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Election as President of a District Khilafat Committee

E
● Recognizing his leadership capabilities and contributions to the Khilafat

Movement, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was elected as the president of a
district Khilafat Committee.
S
● In this role, he was responsible for organizing protests, mobilizing support,

and coordinating with other leaders to ensure the movement's success.
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● His tenure as president further solidified his position as a key figure in the
Indian freedom struggle and a champion for the rights of Muslims.
IV. The Khudai Khidmatgar Movement
Foundation and Significance

● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan laid the foundation for the Khudai Khidmatgar
Movement as a response to the oppressive policies of the British Raj.
● The movement was not just a political endeavor but also a social reform
initiative, aiming to uplift the marginalized sections of society.
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● It played a pivotal role in the Indian freedom struggle, especially in the
North-West Frontier Province, mobilizing masses against the British rule.
Meaning and Philosophy
● The term Khudai Khidmatgar translates to "Servants of God". This name
was chosen to reflect the movement's spiritual foundation and its
commitment to serve humanity.
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan believed that true service to God was achieved
by serving fellow human beings, especially those in need.
● The movement was deeply rooted in the principles of non-violence, unity,
and selfless service.
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Mass Mobilization Against the British Raj
● The Khudai Khidmatgar Movement was characterized by its ability to
mobilize large numbers of people against the British Raj.
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● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's charismatic leadership and the movement's
emphasis on non-violence attracted thousands to its cause.
At its peak, the movement had mobilized over 100,000 individuals,
●
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making it one of the largest non-violent armies in the world.
Emphasis on Discipline, Organization, and Non-Violence
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● Discipline and organization were the cornerstones of the Khudai
Khidmatgar Movement.
● Members underwent rigorous training, ensuring they adhered to the
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principles of non-violence even in the face of adversity.

● The movement's structure was hierarchical, with leaders at various levels
responsible for mobilizing and guiding their respective groups.
Non-violence was not just a strategy but a deeply ingrained philosophy.
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Members were taught that true freedom could only be achieved through
peaceful means.
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The Oath Taken by Members

● Every member of the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement took a solemn oath,
committing themselves to the cause.
● The oath emphasized love, courage, and service. Members pledged to serve
humanity, uphold the principles of non-violence, and resist the British Raj
without resorting to violence.
● This oath was a testament to the movement's commitment to its principles
and its unwavering resolve to free India from British rule.
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Challenges Faced by the Movement
● The Khudai Khidmatgar Movement, despite its peaceful approach, faced
significant challenges from the British authorities.
● The British Raj viewed the movement as a threat and often resorted to
violent crackdowns to suppress its activities.
● Many members, including Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, were arrested,
tortured, and imprisoned for their involvement.
● The British also launched propaganda campaigns to discredit the
movement, portraying it as a disruptive force. However, these attempts only
strengthened the resolve of the Khudai Khidmatgars.
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V. Relationship with Mahatma Gandhi
Shared Ideals and Strategies
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● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Mahatma Gandhi were two stalwarts of
the Indian freedom struggle, and their relationship was marked by mutual
admiration and shared ideals.
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● Both leaders believed in the power of non-violence and civil disobedience
as tools to challenge the British Raj.
● Their commitment to Hindu-Muslim unity was unwavering, and they often
collaborated on initiatives that promoted communal harmony.
They envisioned an independent India where all communities coexisted
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peacefully, and their strategies often revolved around mobilizing the masses
through peaceful protests and demonstrations.
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Differences in Their Approaches to Non-Violence

While both leaders were staunch proponents of non-violence, there were
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●
subtle differences in their interpretations and applications of this principle.
● Gandhi viewed non-violence as an intrinsic part of his life philosophy,
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extending it to all aspects of his existence, including diet and lifestyle.

● Khan, on the other hand, saw non-violence primarily as a political strategy,
a means to resist the British without resorting to bloodshed. His focus was
on ensuring that the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement remained non-violent
in its protests against the British.
● Despite these differences, their mutual respect for each other's perspectives
ensured that their collaboration remained strong throughout the freedom
struggle.
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Collaboration During the Indian Freedom Struggle
● The collaboration between Khan and Gandhi during the freedom struggle
was a testament to their shared vision for India.
● They worked together on numerous campaigns, protests, and initiatives,
with Khan often leading the charge in the North-West Frontier Province
while Gandhi mobilized support in other parts of India.
● Their combined efforts played a crucial role in challenging the British Raj
and garnering widespread support for the Indian freedom movement.
Mutual Influence and Respect
The relationship between Khan and Gandhi was not just one of
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collaboration but also of mutual influence.
● Khan was deeply influenced by Gandhi's principles and often referred to
him as his "spiritual leader."
● Gandhi, in turn, held Khan in high regard, often praising his commitment
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to the cause and his ability to mobilize the Pashtun community.
● Their mutual respect was evident in their correspondence, where they often
sought each other's advice and shared insights on various issues related to
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the freedom struggle.
Khan's Stand Against the Rowlatt Act and Mobilization in
Utmanzai
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● One of the defining moments in Khan's political journey was his staunch
opposition to the Rowlatt Act of 1919. This act, introduced by the British,
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allowed for the detention of individuals without trial, a move that was
widely criticized by Indian leaders.
● Khan mobilized the people of Utmanzai, his hometown, against this
oppressive law. Under his leadership, the residents of Utmanzai organized
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peaceful protests and demonstrations, showcasing their dissent.

● This mobilization in Utmanzai was a testament to Khan's leadership skills
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and his ability to rally people around a common cause. It also marked the
beginning of his active involvement in the broader Indian freedom struggle.
VI. Stance on Partition and Post-Partition Life
Opposition to the Partition of India

● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was a vocal critic of the decision to partition
India. He believed in the unity of the Indian subcontinent and felt that the
division would lead to long-term strife and conflict.
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● His vision was of a united India where Hindus, Muslims, and other
communities coexisted harmoniously. The idea of splitting the nation on
religious lines was antithetical to his beliefs.
● Khan's opposition was rooted in his lifelong commitment to Hindu-Muslim
unity, a principle he had championed alongside Mahatma Gandhi and
other leaders of the Indian freedom movement.
Feelings of Betrayal by the Indian National Congress
● Khan felt deeply betrayed by the Indian National Congress (INC), the
party he had supported and worked with for decades. He believed that the
INC had compromised its principles by agreeing to the partition.
His disappointment was not just with the decision itself but also with the
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manner in which it was taken. He felt that the voices of leaders like him,
who opposed the partition, were sidelined in the final discussions.
● This sense of betrayal was profound, given Khan's long association with the
INC and his sacrifices for the Indian freedom struggle.
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Challenges Faced in the Newly Formed Pakistan
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● After the partition, Khan found himself in the newly formed nation of
Pakistan. Despite his opposition to the partition, he was committed to
working for the betterment of the people in this new country.
● However, his relationship with the Pakistani authorities was fraught with
challenges. His advocacy for non-violence and secularism was at odds with
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the policies of the Pakistani government.

● Khan's vision of Pashtun autonomy and his efforts to mobilize the Pashtun
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community often put him in direct conflict with the Pakistani

establishment.
Advocacy for Pashtun Autonomy
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● One of Khan's primary concerns in the post-partition era was the

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autonomy and rights of the Pashtun community. He believed that the

Pashtuns, who were divided between Pakistan and Afghanistan due to the
Durand Line, deserved greater autonomy and a say in their affairs.
● He championed the cause of Pashtunistan, a proposed homeland for the
Pashtuns. This advocacy was not well-received by the Pakistani authorities,
who viewed it as a secessionist movement.
● Despite the challenges, Khan remained steadfast in his commitment to the
Pashtun cause, mobilizing support and raising awareness about their
rights and aspirations.
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Repeated Imprisonments
● Khan's outspoken views and activism made him a target for the Pakistani
authorities. He was arrested and imprisoned multiple times in the years
following the partition.
● These imprisonments were often under draconian laws and without proper
trials. Despite the hardships, Khan remained resolute, using his time in
prison to write and reflect on his vision for the Pashtun community and the
broader subcontinent.
Eventual Exile to Afghanistan
The continuous confrontations with the Pakistani authorities eventually led
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●
to Khan's exile to Afghanistan. He spent the last years of his life in Kabul,
away from his homeland and the people he had dedicated his life to
serving.
● In Afghanistan, Khan continued his advocacy for the Pashtun cause and
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maintained correspondence with leaders and supporters from around the
world. He remained a revered figure, respected for his unwavering
commitment to justice, non-violence, and communal harmony.
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VII. Legacy and Honors
Monikers: Frontier Gandhi, Badshah Khan, and Bacha Khan

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● Frontier Gandhi: This title was bestowed upon him due to his close
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association with Mahatma Gandhi and his relentless efforts in the frontier
regions against British rule. His ideologies and methods were often
compared to those of Gandhi, leading to this affectionate nickname.
Badshah Khan: Translating to "King of Kings", this title reflects the
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●
immense respect and reverence he commanded among his followers and
the broader community.
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● Bacha Khan: This is another popular title used to address Khan Abdul
Ghaffar Khan. It signifies his leadership and the pivotal role he played in
mobilizing the masses against colonial rule.
Recognition as a Symbol of Peace, Secularism, and Unity
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan is remembered as a towering figure in the
Indian independence movement. His commitment to non-violence and his
lifelong dedication to the cause of India's freedom have made him a symbol
of peace.
● He was a staunch advocate of secularism, emphasizing the importance of
Hindu-Muslim unity. His efforts were instrumental in promoting communal
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harmony and countering divisive forces during a period of heightened
religious tensions.
● Bacha Khan's philosophy was deeply rooted in the teachings of Islam,
which he believed promoted peace, love, and understanding. He often
reiterated that true Islam did not advocate violence or hatred.
● His commitment to unity was evident in his establishment of the Khilafat
Movement and the Khudai Khidmatgars, organizations that played
pivotal roles in fostering unity among the masses and resisting British
colonial rule.
Awards and Honors, Including the Bharat Ratna
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was bestowed with numerous awards and
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honors in recognition of his unparalleled contributions to the Indian
freedom struggle and his unwavering commitment to peace and secularism.
● The most prestigious honor he received was the Bharat Ratna, India's
highest civilian award, in 1987. This award is a testament to his
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monumental role in shaping the course of Indian history and his enduring
legacy as a champion of peace and unity.
● Apart from the Bharat Ratna, he was also recognized internationally for his
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efforts. His global appeal and the universal nature of his message made
him a revered figure not just in India but across the world.
Contributions to Education, Women's Rights, and Social
Upliftment
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● Bacha Khan was not just a political leader; he was also a social reformer
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who believed in the transformative power of education. He established

numerous schools in the North-West Frontier Province, emphasizing the
importance of education for both boys and girls.
He was a vocal advocate for women's rights and believed in their equal
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●
participation in all spheres of life. His efforts led to the empowerment of
countless women, challenging societal norms and paving the way for
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gender equality.
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's commitment to social upliftment was evident
in his endeavors to uplift the marginalized sections of society. He worked
tirelessly to improve the socio-economic conditions of the Pashtuns and
other underprivileged communities.
● His belief in the power of collective action and community service was
manifested in the establishment of the Khudai Khidmatgars, a volunteer
organization dedicated to serving humanity and promoting social welfare.
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Influence on Subsequent Generations and Movements
● The legacy of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan extends beyond his lifetime. His
teachings and philosophy have left an indelible mark on subsequent
generations, inspiring countless individuals and movements.
● His commitment to non-violence and secularism has been a guiding light
for many movements across the world, emphasizing the importance of
peaceful resistance and unity in the face of adversity.
● Leaders and activists from various backgrounds have drawn inspiration
from Bacha Khan's life and work. His ideals continue to resonate in
contemporary times, serving as a beacon of hope and a reminder of the
power of perseverance, unity, and love.
The principles he championed – peace, secularism, and unity – remain as
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●
relevant today as they were during his time. They serve as foundational
pillars for numerous movements and initiatives aimed at creating a just
and inclusive society.
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VIII. Philosophical and Spiritual Beliefs
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Deep-rooted belief in non-violence
● Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as Bacha Khan, was a staunch
advocate for non-violence. His commitment to this principle was
unwavering throughout his life.
X
● He believed that non-violence was not just a political strategy but a way of
life. It was deeply rooted in his personal and spiritual beliefs.
E
● Bacha Khan's dedication to non-violence was influenced by his Pathan

heritage, which traditionally valued bravery and honor. However, he
redefined these concepts to align with non-violent resistance rather than
physical combat.
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● He often emphasized that true bravery was in resisting oppression without

resorting to violence. This belief was evident in his efforts to reform the
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Khilafat Movement, where he steered the movement towards non-violent

resistance against the British.
● Bacha Khan's commitment to non-violence was also evident in his
establishment of the Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God) in 1929. This
organization was dedicated to non-violent activism and played a crucial role
in the Indian freedom struggle.
Views on Islam and its teachings
● Bacha Khan was deeply influenced by Islam and its teachings. He believed
that Islam was inherently a religion of peace and that it advocated for love,
compassion, and service to humanity.
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● He often cited the Quran and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad to
reinforce his views on non-violence and peace. For him, the essence of
Islam was in its emphasis on love and compassion towards all beings.
● Bacha Khan's interpretation of Islam was in stark contrast to the more
militant interpretations that were prevalent during his time. He believed
that the true spirit of Islam was being distorted by those who advocated for
violence in the name of religion.
● He emphasized that Islam taught its followers to be patient and tolerant,
and to avoid aggression. This belief was central to his efforts in promoting
non-violence and peace in the Indian subcontinent.
Emphasis on love, courage, and service to humanity
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● For Bacha Khan, love and courage were intertwined. He believed that it
took immense courage to love unconditionally and to serve humanity
selflessly.
● He often spoke about the importance of love in overcoming hatred and
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prejudice. Love, for him, was the most potent weapon against oppression
and injustice.
● Bacha Khan's life was a testament to his belief in service to humanity. He
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dedicated his life to the upliftment of the Pathan community and worked
tirelessly for the betterment of society.
● His efforts in establishing schools, promoting education, and advocating for
social reforms were all driven by his deep-seated belief in serving
humanity. He believed that true service was in uplifting the downtrodden
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and working towards a just and equitable society.

E
Influence of Mahatma Gandhi's principles on his life and work

● Mahatma Gandhi had a profound influence on Bacha Khan's life and
philosophy. The two leaders shared a deep mutual respect and admiration
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for each other.

● Bacha Khan was deeply inspired by Gandhi's principles of Satyagraha
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(truth-force) and Ahimsa (non-violence). He saw in Gandhi a kindred spirit

who also believed in the power of non-violent resistance.
● The two leaders collaborated closely during the Indian freedom struggle.
Their combined efforts played a pivotal role in mobilizing masses and
challenging the British colonial rule.
● Bacha Khan often referred to Gandhi as his brother and considered him a
guiding light in his journey towards promoting peace and non-violence.
● The principles of Gandhi deeply resonated with Bacha Khan's own beliefs.
This mutual admiration and shared philosophy strengthened the bond
between the two leaders and played a crucial role in shaping the course of
the Indian freedom movement.
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IX. Conclusion
The legacy of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan remains profoundly relevant in today's
world, marked by conflicts and divisions. His unwavering commitment to
non-violence, unity, and secularism serves as a beacon for contemporary
societies grappling with religious and ethnic tensions. As we move forward,
embracing his teachings can pave the way for a more harmonious and inclusive
global community, emphasizing the power of unity and the importance of mutual
respect among diverse groups.
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E
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Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948): From
Barrister to Statesman
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, often hailed as the 'Father of the

Nation' in Pakistan, stands as a pivotal figure in the annals of
South Asian history. Born in Karachi and educated in London,
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Jinnah's journey from being a vocal advocate for Hindu-Muslim
unity to the foremost proponent of a separate homeland for
Muslims illuminates the complexities of pre-partition politics in
British India. His vision, leadership, and negotiations played a
fundamental role in the creation of the state of Pakistan in
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1947. PR
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E
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IA
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II. Early Life and Education of Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Born in Karachi
● Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on December 25, 1876, in Karachi.
● Karachi, during this period, was part of the British Indian Empire and
was a major port city.
● The socio-economic condition of Karachi at the time of his birth was
marked by its thriving maritime trade, burgeoning industries, and a mix of
various ethnicities and religious communities.
● The city's cosmopolitan nature exposed Jinnah to a myriad of cultures and
traditions from an early age.
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● Khoja Muslim community, to which Jinnah belonged, is a sect within
Shia Islam.
● The Khojas followed the teachings of Aga Khan and had a significant
presence in trade and business in Karachi.
Being a part of the Khoja community meant Jinnah had access to a better
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●
socio-economic status compared to other sections of society.
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Education in London
● At the age of 16, Jinnah sailed to England for his higher studies.
● Initially, he joined the Lincoln's Inn to study law. The choice of Lincoln’s
Inn was influenced by a plaque there which listed the Great Emancipator,
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M.K. Gandhi, as one of its famous alumni.

● London, being the epicenter of the British Empire, provided Jinnah with
E
an exposure to Western education and thought.

● The Western education system emphasized critical thinking, logical
reasoning, and the understanding of laws and governance.
● This educational environment significantly shaped Jinnah's analytical
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abilities and instilled a methodical approach in him.

● Exposure to British political processes and democratic traditions
influenced his belief in parliamentary democracy.
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● During his time in London, Jinnah also engaged with numerous political
and student organizations. These interactions provided a platform for him
to hone his leadership skills.
● Among the influential figures he encountered, Dadabhai Naoroji, a
renowned Indian political leader in London, left a profound impact on
young Jinnah. Under his tutelage, Jinnah gained insights into India's
political scenario and the nationalist movements.
● His time in London was not just about academics and politics. Jinnah
developed a taste for Western attire and lifestyle, which remained with
him throughout his life.
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● The combination of Western education and his personal experiences in
London made Jinnah a blend of Eastern values and Western thought. This
unique blend played a pivotal role in shaping his political strategies and
leadership style in the later stages of his life.
III. Jinnah’s Legal Career
Rise in Bombay High Court

● Muhammad Ali Jinnah, after returning from England, initiated his legal
practice in Bombay.
The Bombay High Court, established in 1862, was a hub for legal
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●
luminaries of the time.
● Jinnah's impeccable argumentative skills and rigorous preparation for his
cases quickly made him a sought-after lawyer in the High Court.
● Some significant cases he undertook addressed both civil and criminal
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aspects, showing his versatility in handling diverse legal issues.
● Notable cases included defending freedom fighters against the British rule
and advocating for minority rights, which showcased his commitment to
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justice.
● Jinnah's reputation in the legal fraternity was one of immense respect and
admiration.
● His peers often described him as a lawyer who never accepted defeat and
always presented his cases with utmost clarity and precision.
X
● The combination of his Western legal education and innate analytical skills
made him stand out among other Indian lawyers.
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● His success in the courtroom translated into considerable wealth, making

him one of the top-earning lawyers in India during his time.
Role in Indian National Congress
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● Jinnah's political journey began with his membership in the Indian

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National Congress (INC), founded in 1885.

● Initially, he was viewed as the "ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity" due
to his efforts to bring both communities together for the common goal of
India's independence.
● Early in his association with INC, Jinnah adhered to the moderate faction,
emphasizing constitutional reform as a means to gain more autonomy for
India within the British Empire.
● His initial rapport with leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale reflected his
alignment with the moderates.
● However, as the years went by, differences emerged between Jinnah and
some of the prominent INC leaders.
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● A primary point of divergence was with Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,
who introduced the method of non-cooperation against the British rule.
Jinnah disagreed with this approach, believing that it would lead to
lawlessness.
● Jinnah's vision of constitutional reform and political negotiation clashed
with Gandhi's mass civil disobedience movement.
● Furthermore, Jinnah became increasingly disillusioned with the INC's
approach towards minority rights, particularly concerning Muslims.
● These ideological differences ultimately led to Jinnah's departure from the
INC and his closer association with the All India Muslim League, where he
would play a pivotal role in the years to come.
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Attribute Muhammad Ali Jinnah Mohandas K. Gandhi
Approach Constitutional Reform Civil Disobedience
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towards British
Rule
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Stance on Ambassador initially Emphasized Unity
Hindu-Muslim
Unity
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E
Perception of Risk of Lawlessness Means to resist British

Non-cooperation
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Position on Increasing Concern Broader National Focus

Minority Rights
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IV. Divergence from Congress and Rise in Muslim League
Early reservations about Congress

● Indian National Congress (INC) Foundation: Established in 1885, the INC
primarily had Indian interests at its heart but was dominated by Hindu
leaders.
● Issues with Hindu Majority:
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○ Demographic Composition: While India was diverse, Hindus formed
a significant majority, thereby influencing the INC's policies and
approach.
○ Concerns of Minorities: Given the Hindu majority, other
communities, especially Muslims, felt they might be overshadowed.
○ Cultural and Religious Differences: The vast differences between
Hindu and Muslim cultures, traditions, and religious practices led to
apprehensions.
○ Fear of Marginalization: The apprehension that Muslims might
become politically irrelevant if they did not have adequate
representation.
● Call for Separate Electorates:
○ What are Separate Electorates?: A system where minorities, like
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Muslims, could elect their representatives, ensuring their voices
would be heard.
○ Reason for Demand: To prevent being overshadowed and to protect
their rights and interests.
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○ Lucknow Pact, 1916: An agreement between the INC and the All
India Muslim League (founded in 1906) which accepted the demand
for separate electorates for Muslims.
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○ Impact on Jinnah's Vision: This was seen as a significant step
toward realizing Jinnah's vision of safeguarding Muslim rights.
Ascendancy in the Muslim League
X
● Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Transition:

○ Previously, Jinnah was associated with INC and aimed for
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Hindu-Muslim unity.
○ Over time, due to differences and the need to safeguard Muslim
interests, he shifted his focus to the Muslim League.
● Adoption of the title 'Quaid-e-Azam':
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○ Meaning of Quaid-e-Azam: "Great Leader."

○ Reason for Title: In recognition of his leadership and dedication to
the Muslim cause in India.
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○ Impact on His Image: This title solidified Jinnah's position as the

foremost leader of Muslims in India, earning him immense respect
and reverence.
● Building a Political Base:
○ Lahore Resolution, 1940: A landmark event where the idea of a
separate nation for Muslims, later known as Pakistan, was proposed.
○ Jinnah's Role: He played a pivotal role in this resolution,
emphasizing the distinct cultural and political identity of Muslims.
○ Gathering Support: Jinnah worked diligently, touring the length and
breadth of the country, giving speeches, and gathering support for
the idea of a separate nation.
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○Formation of Pakistan: His efforts culminated in the creation of
Pakistan in 1947, a separate nation for Muslims.
● Comparison between INC and Muslim League under Jinnah:
Attribute Indian National Muslim League

Congress under Jinnah
Primary National freedom Safeguarding Muslim

Objective rights
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Leadership Diverse leaders, Dominantly led by
predominantly Hindu Jinnah
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Approach to Broad nationalistic Specific focus on
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Minority Rights approach Muslim rights
Response to Generally Strategic alliances for

British Rule non-cooperative Muslim interests
X
E
Electoral General electorate Separate electorates

Strategy for Muslims
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V. Ideological Evolution
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Shift towards a separate Muslim state

● Factors influencing the shift
○ Demographics: Muslim population felt overshadowed in a
predominantly Hindu India.
○ Cultural and religious differences: The distinction between Hindu
and Muslim traditions and practices played a crucial role.
○ Political Marginalization: Concerns that Muslims would be
politically irrelevant in a Hindu majority India.
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○ Economic Concerns: Fears that Muslim business interests might
not receive fair representation.
○ Historical Background: The Mughal Empire's decline and the rise of
Hindu Maratha and Sikh powers may have left a lasting impact on
Muslim psyche.
○ British Policies: Divide and rule policies of the British accentuated
the religious divide.
○ Personal Experiences: Jinnah's personal experiences in the Indian
National Congress which had dominant Hindu leaders.
● Reactions from contemporaries
○ Indian National Congress: Opposed the idea, believing in a unified
India.
○ Hindu Mahasabha: Strongly opposed to the partition, promoting a
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vision of Hindu nationalism.
○ Muslim Leaders: Divided opinions; some supporting Jinnah and
others seeking more reconciliation with the INC.
○ British Officials: Initially neutral, later seeing the benefit of a divided
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subcontinent as a possible strategy to keep influence.
○ General Public: Mixed reactions; many Muslims felt it would be
beneficial, while others, both Hindus and Muslims, wanted a united
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India.
Comparison with Nehru’s vision
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Attribute Jinnah Nehru

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Central Muslim Nationalism Secularism

Ideology
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Economic Capitalist tendencies Socialism with emphasis

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Vision with emphasis on free on state control and

trade and open market redistribution of wealth
Political Demanded separate state Vision of a united,

Structure for Muslims (Pakistan) secular India
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Cultural Promoted Islamic values Promoted cultural and
Integration in governance and religious harmony,
society focusing on shared
Indian identity
Foreign Allied more with Western Non-Aligned Movement

Policy powers, especially after (NAM), maintaining
partition distance from major
power blocs
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Religious Favored Muslim majority Secular state, separation
Autonomy with a certain level of of religion and politics
religious influence in
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VI. The Lahore Resolution and Demand for Pakistan
Significance of the 1940 Resolution

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● Context of the Resolution

○ By 1940, political divisions in India had intensified.
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○ Concerns about minority representation became more pronounced.

○ The Lahore Session of the Muslim League was a pivotal moment in
shaping the future political landscape of the subcontinent.
Content of the Resolution
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●
○ The resolution did not use the word 'Pakistan' directly.
○ It spoke of "independent states" where Muslims were majority.
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○ Envisioned regions in the northwest and east of India.

● Call for ‘Zones’ vs. a Separate State
○ The resolution hinted at 'zones' that could be autonomous within a
federated India.
○ However, over time, the demand solidified towards a separate
nation-state.
○ Discussions transitioned from autonomy within India to complete
sovereignty.
● Interpretation Over the Years
○ Initially viewed as a bargaining chip to gain more autonomy.
○ With time, became the basis for the demand for a separate nation.
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○ The idea of 'zones' transformed into the more definitive borders of the
proposed state.
Opposition to the Resolution
● Within the Muslim League
○ Not all members of the Muslim League were in agreement.
○ Some saw it as too radical, potentially leading to permanent division.
○ Others believed negotiations with Congress could lead to better
outcomes for Muslims without the need for a separate state.
● From Congress
○ Congress staunchly opposed the division of India.
○ Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru believed in a
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united, secular nation.
○ They felt the demands of the Muslim League could be addressed
within a unified India.
○ Nehru's vision of a socialist, secular India was at odds with the
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Muslim League's demand.
● From Other Groups
○ Hindu Mahasabha: Opposed any partition based on religion.
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○ Sikh Leaders: Concerned about the fate of Sikhs in a proposed
Muslim majority region, especially in Punjab.
○ Communists: Believed in a united front against colonialism, and
viewed the demand as divisive.
○ Princely States: Worried about their future status if India were to be
X
divided.
E
Broader Implications of the Resolution

● Shift in Political Dialogue
○ Before 1940, discussions centered around autonomy within a
S
British-dominated India.
○ Post-resolution, the discourse shifted to the nature and boundaries
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of the proposed separate state.

● Change in British Stance
○ Initially, the British were neutral to the idea of partition.
○ Over time, seeing the increasing rifts, they began to view it as a viable
solution to the Indian 'problem'.
● The Road to Partition
○ The Lahore Resolution can be seen as the starting point of a series of
events that culminated in the 1947 partition.
○ The demand for Pakistan became more pronounced, leading to
intense negotiations, communal riots, and ultimately the creation of
two nations.
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VII. Interactions and Negotiations with the British
Role in the Cripps Mission

● Background:
○ In 1942, the world was entrenched in World War II.
○ The British sought Indian cooperation in the war effort.
○ India demanded greater autonomy and possible independence as a
condition for support.
● Proposals by the Cripps Mission:
○ Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet, was sent to
India.
SS
○ He proposed a draft declaration for the future of India.
○ Key points included:
■ Dominion status for India after the war.
■ Protection of minority rights.
■ Right for provinces to join or abstain from the proposed
E
Dominion.
● Responses to the Cripps Proposals:
PR
○ Mixed reactions from various Indian factions.
○ Congress rejected the offer, primarily because it did not immediately
end British rule.
○ Jinnah and the Muslim League's viewpoint was that the offer did not
guarantee a separate nation.
X
○ The Sikh community, Communists, and others had varying degrees

of reservations.
Jinnah's Stand:
E
●
○ Initially, the Muslim League saw it as an opportunity to emphasize
the need for a separate state.
○ They were disappointed as the proposal did not definitively recognize
S
the concept of Pakistan.

○ Jinnah remarked that the British were unwilling to deal with the
reality of the Indian situation.
IA
August Offer and Jinnah’s Reaction

● Background of the August Offer:
○ In August 1940, before the Cripps Mission, the British made another
attempt to gain Indian cooperation.
○ It was a response to the deadlock between the British and the Indian
leaders.
● Proposals in the August Offer:
○ War Advisory Council would be set up.
○ Expansion of the Viceroy's Executive Council with more Indians.
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○ No future constitution would be adopted without the agreement of
minority groups.
● Significance of War Efforts:
○ The British were facing increasing pressures in the WWII arena.
○ Indian troops were a significant component in the British army.
○ The British war strategy relied heavily on resources from India.
● Jinnah's Reaction to the August Offer:
○ Jinnah recognized the strategic advantage the situation presented.
○ He realized the British dependency on Indian support in the war.
○ Jinnah expressed dissatisfaction with the August Offer, citing it did
not meet the demands of the Muslim League.
○ However, he was willing to cooperate if the right concessions were
made.
SS
● Leverage in Negotiations:
○ The global war scenario meant that Britain was in a vulnerable
position.
○ The Muslim League, under Jinnah, capitalized on this.
E
○ The demand for Pakistan became more pronounced in negotiations.
○ Jinnah advocated for the recognition of Muslims as a separate entity
from the Hindu majority.
PR
VIII. The Mountbatten Era and Finalization of Partition
Mountbatten's Influence
X
● Background Information:
E
○ Lord Louis Mountbatten arrived in India as the last Viceroy in March

1947.
○ Tasked with transferring power to the Indians.
○ Challenged by increasing communal tensions between Hindus,
S
Muslims, and Sikhs.

● View on Partition:
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○ Initially opposed to the idea of dividing India.

○ Felt it would lead to widespread violence and migration.
○ However, soon perceived partition as inevitable given the deep-rooted
Hindu-Muslim divide and Jinnah's adamant stance.
○ By June 1947, proposed the Mountbatten Plan recommending
partition of India into two dominions - India and Pakistan.
● Interactions with Jinnah:
○ Multiple meetings held between Mountbatten and Jinnah.
○ Jinnah, initially skeptical, found Mountbatten a pragmatic
negotiator.
○ The duo discussed the viability of Pakistan, its territories, and
political repercussions.
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○ Jinnah's insistence on a clear Muslim majority for Pakistan's
territories influenced Mountbatten's final proposal.
Last Minute Negotiations
● Background Information:
○ As the date for British departure neared, pressure mounted for a
final settlement.
○ Both Muslim League (Jinnah) and Indian National Congress (Gandhi)
were pivotal figures in these negotiations.
SS
Feature Jinnah’s Approach Gandhi’s Approach
Primary Creation of a United India, harmonious

Objective separate Hindu-Muslim relations
E
Muslim-majority
nation
PR
Negotiation Firm stance on Willingness to cooperate;
Strategy Pakistan; no conciliatory approach
compromise
X
E
Interactions Regular meetings Less formal interactions;

with British with Mountbatten emphasis on moral values
S
Concerns Territorial integrity Communal harmony; plight

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Raised of Pakistan of minorities
Outcomes of Formation of Retention of major Indian

Approach Pakistan; territorial territories; moral victory for
gains unity and non-violence
● Comparative Analysis:
○ Jinnah’s Strategy:
■ Aimed at concrete political outcomes.
345
■ Leveraged the British urgency to leave India.
■ Emphasized on Muslim rights and safety.
○ Gandhi’s Strategy:
■ Always advocated for non-violence and unity.
■ Focused on moral and ethical aspects.
■ Prioritized communal harmony over territorial gains.
○ Outcomes:
■ Jinnah's strategy led to the realization of Pakistan, albeit with
territorial concessions.
■ Gandhi's approach ensured minimal violence in
Congress-dominated areas and upheld the principle of
non-violence.
SS
IX. Creation of Pakistan and Jinnah’s Governance
First year of Pakistan
E
● Formation and Birth
○ Pakistan emerged as a separate state on August 14, 1947.
PR
○ The division of British India resulted in the birth of two nations: India
and Pakistan.
○ The creation was largely a result of the Muslim League's demand for
a separate state for Muslims, led by Jinnah.
Challenges faced by the nascent state
X
●
○ Refugee Settlement
■ Following partition, massive population transfers occurred
E
between India and Pakistan.

■ Nearly 15 million people moved across borders to settle in
areas where they believed they would be a religious majority.
■ This massive influx led to numerous challenges, including
S
providing shelter, food, and security.

■ Displaced persons' camps, also known as "refugee camps,"
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became a common sight in various parts of Pakistan.

■ The government had to undertake relief operations and initiate
rehabilitation schemes.
○ Economic Turmoil
■ Pakistan inherited a significant portion of undivided India's
agrarian economy but only a small fraction of its industrial
base.
■ The partition disrupted trade routes and severed economic ties,
leading to a scarcity of goods and inflation.
■ The distribution of assets between India and Pakistan became
a contentious issue.
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■ A considerable amount of the economy was dedicated to relief
and rehabilitation efforts.
○ Political and Administrative Challenges
■ The division of civil and military assets posed a significant
challenge.
■ The establishment of administrative machinery, particularly in
West Pakistan, was urgently needed.
■ The absence of a permanent capital; Karachi was chosen as
the temporary capital.
○ Foreign Relations
■ The unresolved issue of Kashmir led to tensions with
neighboring India.
■ Establishing diplomatic relations with other nations and
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ensuring international recognition.
Governance style of Jinnah
E
● Centralization vs. Federalism
○ Jinnah favored a centralized system of governance for Pakistan to
ensure the unity of the newly formed state.
PR
○ Provincial governments were given limited autonomy, and significant
powers were vested with the central government.
○ The Objective Resolution of 1949, which served as a preamble to
future constitutions, underlined the centrality of the state.
○ Federalism: Advocates believed that a federated structure would
X
better serve the diverse ethnic and linguistic communities of

Pakistan. However, in the early years, centralized control was
E
prioritized.
● Approach towards Minorities
○ Jinnah envisioned Pakistan as a modern, democratic, and inclusive
state where minorities would enjoy equal rights.
S
○ In his address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on August

11, 1947, Jinnah asserted that all citizens of Pakistan would be
equal and that religion would have nothing to do with the business of
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the state.
○ However, the ground reality differed. The non-Muslim minorities,
which constituted a significant percentage of the population, faced
challenges.
○ Over the years, there was an exodus of Hindus and Sikhs from
Pakistan due to various reasons, including communal tensions.
○ The government took measures like establishing the Minorities
Affairs Ministry to oversee the well-being of minority communities.
● Economic Policies
○ Jinnah aimed for a self-reliant and robust economy.
○ Emphasis on industrialization and infrastructure development.
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○ Efforts to diversify trade partners and reduce dependency on any
single nation.
● Foreign Policy Approach
○ Jinnah pursued a balanced foreign policy.
○ While the relationship with India remained tense due to the Kashmir
issue, Pakistan sought friendly relations with other neighbors like
Iran and Afghanistan.
○ Pakistan joined international organizations, and Jinnah laid the
foundation for Pakistan's future foreign policy directions.
X. Jinnah’s Personal Life and its Influence on Politics
SS
Marriage to Ruttie Petit
● Background:
○ Ruttie Petit, born in a prominent Parsi family.
E
○ Connection to Sir Dinshaw Petit, her father and a notable
businessman.
Marriage Overview:
●
PR
○ Marriage in 1918, amidst strong opposition.
○ Ruttie was 24 years younger than Jinnah.
○ Conversion to Islam prior to marriage, adopting the name "Maryam
Jinnah".
Influence of a Parsi Wife:
X
●
○ Ruttie's influence evident in Jinnah's clothing style; adoption of
Western attire.
E
○ Jinnah's exposure to Parsi community customs and beliefs.

○ Frequent appearance together in public, showcasing a modern
couple.
○ Jinnah's growing liberalism during the early years of their marriage.
S
● Personal Tragedies:
○ Marriage faced challenges due to Jinnah's political involvement.
IA
○ Ruttie's health declined, leading to her demise in 1929 at the age of

29.
○ Jinnah's immense grief, leading to temporary detachment from
politics.
Relationships with Family
● Estranged Daughter Dina:
○ Dina, only child of Jinnah and Ruttie.
○ Born in 1919, one year after the marriage.
○ Differences arose when Dina expressed a wish to marry a Parsi man,
Neville Wadia.
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○ Jinnah's objection rooted in religious differences.
○ Subsequent estrangement; limited contact during Jinnah's later
years.
○ Dina's life post-estrangement:
■ Marriage to Neville Wadia.
■ Life in India, away from her father's political realm.
■ Occasional visits to Pakistan post-partition.
● Jinnah's Siblings and Politics:
○ Seven siblings in total.
○ Fatima Jinnah, Jinnah's sister, most prominent among them.
○ Fatima Jinnah's Role:
■ Close companion to Jinnah after Ruttie's death.
■ Active in the Pakistan Movement.
SS
■ Supported Muslim League's objectives and campaigns.
■ Contested for the position of President of Pakistan in 1965.
○ Other siblings maintained a relatively low profile.
○ Jinnah's relationships generally cordial, barring some occasional
E
disagreements.
Jinnah's Personal Life: Reflection in Politics
PR
● Interfaith Marriage Influence:
○ Jinnah's appreciation of diversity and secular thoughts.
○ His belief in freedom of choice, seen in his marriage against societal
norms.
X
○ Display of personal courage and conviction, traits visible in his

political career.
E
● Tragedies and Political Retreat:

○ Ruttie's demise led to Jinnah's temporary withdrawal from politics.
○ Period of introspection and reflection.
○ Renewed vigor upon return, with clearer objectives for the Indian
S
Muslim community.
● Family Relations and Political Decisions:
○ Dina's estrangement showcased Jinnah's firmness in personal
IA
beliefs.
○ However, willingness to sacrifice personal happiness for a greater
cause.
○ Fatima's active political role indicative of Jinnah's trust in her
capabilities.
○ Jinnah's personal life intricately intertwined with his political
journey.
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XI. Legacy of Jinnah in Pakistan and India
Pakistan’s View on Jinnah

● Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a pivotal figure, played an integral role in the
formation of Pakistan in 1947.
● He is widely known as 'Father of the Nation' within Pakistan.
● Held in high esteem, his portrait is commonly seen in government offices,
public buildings, and currency notes.
● Jinnah's vision for Pakistan was to create a nation where the Muslim
majority could practice their faith freely and coexist harmoniously with
other religious communities.
SS
● His vision was further exemplified in his famous speech on 11th August
1947, where he spoke of religious freedom and equality for all citizens.
● Over the years, there has been a malleability of Jinnah’s image:
○ During military dictatorships, he was often portrayed as a strict
authoritarian figure.
E
○ Some religious extremists have depicted him as a staunch Islamic
leader, in contrast to his secular speeches and lifestyle.
PR
○ In modern times, especially among the youth, he is sometimes viewed
as a progressive leader, considering his westernized lifestyle and
views.
India’s Perspective on Jinnah
X
● In India, the legacy of Jinnah is multifaceted and garners a mix of

E
criticisms, appreciation, and acknowledgment.

● Jinnah's demand for a separate state for Muslims and his role in the
partition led to a major humanitarian crisis. As a result, he often faced
criticism in India for the violence and upheaval during the partition.
S
● However, many historians and intellectuals in India also acknowledge

Jinnah’s early efforts in fighting for a united India and his initial
resistance to the idea of partition.
IA
● There's an appreciation for his commitment to minority rights, as seen in

his endeavors during the early 20th century.
● In recent times, certain sections in India have tried to re-evaluate Jinnah’s
role, moving beyond the binary of hero or villain, and understanding the
complexities of his political journey.
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Influence on Subsequent Leaders
Leader Country Influence of Key Takeaways
Jinnah
Zulfikar Pakistan Took inspiration Shifted the country

Ali from Jinnah's towards socialism
Bhutto vision of a modern and nationalization.
Pakistan.
SS
General Pakistan Utilized Jinnah's Introduced Islamic
Zia-ul-H image to legitimize laws and moved
aq his Islamic Pakistan to a more
agenda, orthodox path.
E
contrasting
Jinnah’s secular
PR
ideals.
Indira India While having Played a pivotal role in

Gandhi differences, shaping India's
X
acknowledged the secular fabric and

realpolitik aspect foreign policy.
E
of Jinnah's
leadership.
S
XII. Criticism and Defense of Jinnah

IA
Charges of Communalism
● Communalism Defined: Communalism in the Indian context refers to a
politics that seeks to unify one religious community, at the expense of
others, and often results in religious antagonism.
● Instances of Divisive Speeches:
○ Over the years, various historians have highlighted instances where
Jinnah made speeches emphasizing Muslim distinctiveness.
○ The Lahore Resolution in 1940 is often cited where Jinnah asserted
the rights of Muslims as a separate nation within India.
351
○ His calls for "Direct Action Day" in 1946 led to significant communal
violence.
● Counters from His Defenders:
○ Supporters highlight his early career where he was an ambassador of
Hindu-Muslim unity.
○ Jinnah's speech on 11th August 1947 is often presented as evidence
of his secular beliefs where he emphasized the irrelevance of religion
in matters of state.
○ It's also argued that Jinnah used religious rhetoric as a tool for
political mobilization rather than genuine religious fervor.
○ Defenders emphasize the political context in which Jinnah was
operating, suggesting he resorted to communal language as a
response to Congress's alleged majoritarian tendencies.
SS
Accusations of Opportunism
● Opportunism Defined: Behavior that takes advantage of circumstances,
E
with little regard for principles or consequences.
● Shifts in Jinnah’s Political Stands:
○ Early 20th Century: Jinnah's efforts were aimed at bridging the gap
PR
between the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress.
○ Post-1930s: With rising communal tensions, Jinnah distanced
himself from Congress and became the champion of Muslim rights,
eventually demanding a separate nation.
○ Instances like his acceptance and later rejection of the Cripps
X
Mission proposal in 1942 have been seen as opportunistic shifts to

further his political ambitions.
E
● Responses from Scholars:

○ Historians like Ayesha Jalal suggest that Jinnah's call for Pakistan
was a bargaining chip to ensure rights for Muslims within a federated
India, rather than a genuine demand for a separate nation.
S
○ Scholars emphasize the evolving political landscape of pre-partition

India, suggesting that Jinnah's shifts were more realpolitik than
opportunism.
IA
○ Some opine that Jinnah's transformations are reflective of a leader

responding to the concerns of his community, adapting his strategies
in changing circumstances rather than sheer opportunism.
XIII. Conclusion
Throughout the exploration of Muhammad Ali Jinnah's life and legacy, it
becomes evident that his multifaceted persona, combined with his political
acumen, left an indelible mark on South Asian history. His journey from a
barrister to the linchpin of Pakistan's creation showcases the intricacies of
352
leadership amidst tumultuous times. As the world continues to grapple with
questions of identity and nationhood, Jinnah's story serves as a testament to the
complexities inherent in forging nations and identities.
SS
E
PR
X
E
S
IA
353
Bhikaiji Cama (1861-1936): Mother of Indian
Revolution
Bhikaiji Cama, often referred to as the "Mother of the

Indian Revolution," stands as a beacon of inspiration in
India's long and arduous journey towards independence.
Her indomitable spirit and unwavering commitment to the
cause of India's freedom have etched her name in the
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annals of history. What sets her apart from many other
freedom fighters of her time is her unique distinction of
unfurling the first version of the Indian national flag on
foreign soil, symbolizing India's aspirations for freedom and
E
sovereignty. This article delves into the life and
contributions of this remarkable woman, shedding light on
her pivotal role in India's freedom movement and her
PR
enduring legacy.
X
E
S
IA
Early Life and Background

● Bhikaiji Cama was born in the bustling city of Mumbai on 24th September
1861. Hailing from a prosperous Parsi family, she grew up amidst affluence
and cultural richness.
354
● Her educational journey began at the Alexandra Girls’ English Institution,
where she was recognized as a diligent and disciplined student. Her
proficiency in multiple languages was a testament to her intellectual
prowess.
● Life took a significant turn when she entered into matrimony with Rustom
Cama in 1885. Rustom, a wealthy lawyer with pro-British leanings, aspired
to make a mark in politics. However, the marriage was fraught with
differences, primarily due to their contrasting political ideologies. While
Rustom was inclined towards the British, Bhikaiji emerged as a fervent
patriot, deeply pained by the British exploitation of India.
● Despite the challenges in her personal life, Bhikaiji remained undeterred.
She channeled her energy into various social and charitable endeavors,
showcasing her commitment to societal welfare.
SS
Role in the Freedom Struggle
The year 1896 marked a significant turning point in Bhikaiji's life. The
E
●
Bombay Presidency was grappling with the devastating effects of a famine,
which was soon followed by an outbreak of the bubonic plague.
PR
Demonstrating immense courage and compassion, Bhikaiji plunged into
relief work, providing care and assistance to the affected. However, in a
cruel twist of fate, she contracted the disease herself.
● Her deteriorating health necessitated a move to London for treatment. It
was during this period in London that she crossed paths with prominent
X
Indian nationalists like Shyamji Krishna Varma and Dadabhai Naoroji.

These interactions further fueled her passion for India's independence. She
even took up the role of private secretary to Dadabhai Naoroji, deepening
E
her involvement in the freedom movement.

● Bhikaiji's fervor for the cause was evident when she was asked by the
British to sign an undertaking, promising not to engage in nationalist
S
activities upon her return to India. She staunchly refused, choosing her
nation over personal comfort.
Paris became her next abode, where she, along with other nationalists,
IA
●
co-founded the 'Paris Indian Society'. This society became a hub for
revolutionary activities against British rule.
● One of the most iconic moments in her life came in 1907 at the Socialist
Congress in Stuttgart, Germany. Bhikaiji Cama unfurled the 'Flag of
Indian Independence', becoming the first individual to hoist the Indian
flag on foreign soil. This act was not just symbolic but also a powerful
statement of India's aspirations.
● Her relentless efforts did not go unnoticed. The British authorities sought
her extradition from France due to her revolutionary activities. However,
the French government denied this request, allowing her to continue her
work from Paris.
355
● Bhikaiji's influence was not limited to India. She traveled extensively,
mobilizing international opinion against British colonialism in India. Her
speeches, writings, and interactions played a crucial role in garnering
global support for India's freedom struggle.
Contributions and Legacy

● Bhikaiji Cama's contributions to the Indian freedom struggle were
multifaceted. She was not just a vocal critic of British rule but also actively
engaged in creating and distributing revolutionary material. When the
British banned the song 'Vande Mataram', she composed a
counter-narrative with 'Bande Mataram', showcasing her spirit of
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resistance.
● Her association with other revolutionaries led to the creation of numerous
publications and writings that were smuggled into India, igniting the flames
of rebellion. One such notable work was 'Madan's Talwar', penned in
response to the execution of Madan Lal Dhingra, a fellow revolutionary.
E
● The flag she unfurled in Stuttgart was not just a piece of cloth but a symbol
of hope and resistance. Designed by Bhikaiji herself in collaboration with
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Shyamji Krishna Varma, the flag bore significant symbols: eight blooming
lotuses representing India's provinces, the words 'Bande Mataram' in
Hindi, and symbols of the sun and moon representing the Hindu and
Muslim communities. This flag later served as an inspiration for the design
of India's national flag.
X
● Beyond her revolutionary activities, Bhikaiji was a staunch advocate for

women's rights. She believed in the power of women to drive change and
often emphasized their role in nation-building.
E
● Despite her significant contributions, Bhikaiji spent a considerable part of

her life in exile. It was only in 1935, after suffering a stroke and being in a
fragile state of health, that she was allowed to return to India. She passed
S
away a year later, leaving behind a legacy of courage, determination, and

unwavering commitment to India's freedom.
Recognizing her immense contributions, the Indian government honored
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●
her with a commemorative stamp in 1962. Additionally, the Indian Coast
Guard named a vessel after her, the ICGS Bhikaiji Cama, in 1997.
● Today, Bhikaiji Cama stands as a testament to the power of individual
conviction and the impact one person can have in shaping the destiny of a
nation. Her life and work continue to inspire generations, reminding them
of the sacrifices made by countless individuals in the quest for India's
freedom.
356
Conclusion
Bhikaiji Cama's life story is a testament to the indomitable spirit of those who
believe in a cause larger than themselves. Her journey, marked by personal
sacrifices, relentless pursuit of justice, and an unwavering commitment to India's
freedom, serves as a beacon of inspiration for all. Her ability to transcend
boundaries, both geographical and societal, to champion the cause of India's
independence on international platforms showcases her visionary leadership.
In an era when women were often relegated to the background, Bhikaiji emerged
as a formidable force, challenging stereotypes and breaking barriers. Her
advocacy for women's rights, coupled with her revolutionary activities,
SS
underscores the pivotal role women played in shaping the course of India's
history.
In the words of Bhikaiji herself, "Do not forget the important role our women play
in building a nation." Her life and contributions serve as a timely reminder of the
E
power of conviction, the importance of resilience, and the endless possibilities
that arise when one is driven by purpose and passion.
PR
X
E
S
IA
357
Dinabandhu Mitra (1830-1873): A Literary
Pioneer of Colonial Bengal
Dinabandhu Mitra was a distinguished Bengali writer and

dramatist. His legacy is deeply rooted in his profound
contributions to Bengali literature, most notably for his play "Nil
SS
Darpan," which highlighted the struggles of indigo farmers and
played a significant role in social reform during colonial India.
Mitra's works not only reflected his literary prowess but also his
deep understanding of social injustices and his commitment to
depicting them through his writings.
E
PR
X
E
S
IA

● Birth and Family Background: Dinabandhu Mitra was born in 1829 in
the village of Chowberia in Gopalnagar P.S., North 24 Parganas, Bengal.
His real name was Gandharva Narayan, which he later changed to
Dinabandhu Mitra. He was the son of Kalachand Mitra.
358
● Initial Education: Mitra's education began at a local village pathshala
(school).
● Early Career Attempts: His father initially arranged a job for him on a
zamindar's estate in 1840. However, young Mitra fled to Kolkata, where he
started working in the house of his uncle, Nilmani Mitra.
● Further Education in Kolkata: Around 1846, Mitra was admitted to a free
school run by James Long in Kolkata. He was a bright student, winning
several scholarships. In 1850, he enrolled in Hindu College, demonstrating
academic excellence and earning scholarships there as well. However, Mitra
did not appear for his final examination, choosing instead to embark on a
professional career.
SS
Literary Career and Works
● Early Writing and Influences: Dinabandhu Mitra began writing while still
in college. Influenced by the poet Ishwar Chandra Gupta, he initially wrote
poems that gained attention in Kolkata. However, drama was his preferred
E
genre, a field where he excelled remarkably.
● Poetic Works: Among his poetic works are 'Suradhuni Kavya' (with its first
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part published in 1871 and the second in 1876) and 'Dvadash Kavita'
(1872).
● Dramatic Works: Mitra's plays include 'Nil Darpan' (1860), 'Nabin
Tapasvini' (1863), 'Biye Pagla Budo' (1866), 'Sadhabar Ekadashi' (1866),
'Lilavati' (1867), 'Jamai Barik' (1873), and 'Kamale Kamini' (1873).
X
● Novel and Film Adaptation: He also authored a novel titled 'Poda

Mahehshvar' and his work 'Jamalaye Jibanta Manush' was later adapted
into a film.
E
● Impact of 'Nil Darpan': Mitra's 'Nil Darpan' was a groundbreaking play

about the plight of indigo farmers, reflecting the Indigo Revolt of 1858. It
ignited significant debates and discussions soon after its publication, and
S
its English translation by Michael Madhusudan Dutt further enhanced its

reach. The play was widely acclaimed in Europe, translated into several
languages, and drew comparisons to 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' for its role in
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raising awareness of the exploitations in indigo plantations.
Later Life and Legacy

● Recognition by the British Raj: For his services during the Lushai
Expedition, Dinabandhu Mitra was honored with the title of Rai Bahadur
by the British Raj.
● Personal Connections: Mitra played a key role as a matchmaker in the
marriage of the renowned Bengali writer Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and
Rajlakshmi Devi.
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● Death: Dinabandhu Mitra passed away on November 1, 1873.
● Enduring Legacy: In recognition of his significant contributions,
Dinabandhu Mahavidyalay, a college established in 1947, was named in
his honor, perpetuating his memory and influence in the field of education
and literature.
Conclusion
Dinabandhu Mitra's life journey, from his early years in a Bengal village to his
monumental impact as a writer and dramatist, reflects a profound dedication to
literature and social change. His works, particularly "Nil Darpan," played a
pivotal role in highlighting societal issues and igniting discussions on social
SS
justice during colonial India. Awarded the title Rai Bahadur and leaving a legacy
that continues to inspire, Mitra's contributions to Bengali literature and society
are indelible. His life and works remain a testament to the power of literature as a
tool for social reform and awareness.
E
PR
X
E
S
IA
360
V. Krishnaswamy Iyer (1863-1911): An
Architect of Modern Indian Banking and a
Champion of Nationalism
Venkatarama Krishnaswamy Iyer, more commonly known as

V. Krishnaswamy Iyer, was a prominent figure in Indian
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history, particularly known for his contributions in the legal
domain and public affairs. Krishnaswamy Iyer's journey
from a modest background to becoming a High Court judge
in Madras and a pivotal figure in the Indian freedom
movement is both inspiring and noteworthy. His
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multifaceted personality encompassed roles as a lawyer,
judge, educator, philanthropist, and a key player in the
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Indian National Congress. His life story is a testament to his
resilience, intellectual prowess, and commitment to public
service.
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● V. Krishnaswamy Iyer was born on June 15, 1863, in Thiruvidaimarudur,
Thanjavur district.
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● He was the second of four sons born to Venkatarama Iyer, a District
Munsiff, and his wife Sundari.
● Krishnaswamy's mother, Sundari, passed away when he was young, after
which his father remarried.
● He received his early education in Thiruvidaimarudur and at S.P.G. High
School in Thanjavur, where he was a classmate of P. S. Sivaswami Iyer.
● Krishnaswamy graduated from Government College, Kumbakonam, and
Presidency College, Madras.
● He obtained a law degree from Madras Law College.
Legal Career and Achievements
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● Beginnings in Law: Krishnaswamy Iyer started practicing law in 1885. His
initial struggles in the profession ended in 1888 when S. Ramaswamy
Aiyengar, a distinguished lawyer, handed over his brief to Krishnaswamy
upon his appointment as District Munsiff.
Rising Prominence: Krishnaswamy's career then saw a meteoric rise. He
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became the Secretary of the Vakil's Association and co-founded the Madras
Law Journal in 1891 alongside P. R. Sundaram Aiyar.
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● Arbuthnot Bank Case: Krishnaswami gained significant recognition during
the Arbuthnot Bank crash case in 1906. His efforts in this case, where he
ensured the imprisonment of the principal partner, also led him to assist in
founding the Indian Bank.
● Judiciary and Public Service: In 1909, Krishnaswami ascended to the
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position of a judge at the Madras High Court. His tenure, although short
(15 months), was notable for his efforts to clear all arrears. Subsequently,
he joined the Executive Council of the Governor of Madras, a prestigious
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position offered by the British. Additionally, he was instrumental in

introducing educational reforms at the University of Madras.
● Supporting Swami Vivekananda: Krishnaswami was responsible for
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funding Swami Vivekananda's trip to Chicago in 1893. He also played a key

role in safeguarding the interests of the Shankaracharya of Kanchi during
his minority.
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Contributions to Education and Public Service

● Promotion of Indigenous Medicine: In 1905, Krishnaswami founded the
Venkataramana Dispensary and Ayurvedic College on Kutchery Road to
advance indigenous medicinal practices.
● Establishment of Madras Sanskrit College: A year later, he established
the Madras Sanskrit College, advocating for free boarding, lodging, and
stipends for students, and free accommodation for teachers, to support
their education and livelihood.
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● Role in the Indian National Congress: Krishnaswami was actively
involved in the Congress Party, playing a significant role in uniting the
moderate and extremist factions in 1908, an effort appreciated by notable
figures like Gokhale.
● Educational Reforms at the University of Madras: As a judge of the
Madras High Court and a member of the Executive Council of the Governor
of Madras, he introduced numerous educational reforms at the University
of Madras.
● Philanthropic Efforts: His philanthropic activities, including funding
Swami Vivekananda's trip to Chicago and safeguarding the interests of the
Shankaracharya of Kanchi, were recognized when he was awarded the
Kaiser-I-Hind gold medal in 1909. He was also elected to the Madras
Legislative Council in the same year.
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Legacy and Impact
Recognition: V. Krishnaswamy Iyer's contributions and legacy are honored
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through the naming of a prominent street after him - V. Krishnaswamy Iyer
Street in Mylapore, Chennai.
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● Personal Life and Legacy: Krishnaswamy Iyer was married to Balambal,
and the couple had six children. Their sons and daughters continued his
legacy in various fields, contributing significantly to banking, education,
and the arts. Notably, two of his daughters, despite limited schooling,
became accomplished writers in Tamil and English.
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● Death: Krishnaswamy Iyer passed away on December 28, 1911, at the age
of 48, in Madras. His untimely death was a significant loss to the legal and
public service sectors in India.
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Conclusion
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V. Krishnaswamy Iyer's life story is a compelling narrative of determination,

intellectual brilliance, and a deep commitment to public service. His
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contributions spanned various domains, including law, education, and public

welfare, leaving an indelible mark on Indian society. As a lawyer, judge, educator,
philanthropist, and a key figure in the Indian National Congress, he
demonstrated an unwavering dedication to the betterment of his country and its
people. His legacy, preserved in the institutions he established and the societal
reforms he championed, continues to inspire future generations. Krishnaswamy
Iyer's journey from humble beginnings to becoming a celebrated figure in Indian
history is a testament to his extraordinary capabilities and enduring impact.
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Lala Har Dayal (1884-1939): Architect of the
Ghadar Movement and His Enduring Legacy
Lala Har Dayal, born in Delhi on October 14, 1884, was a

distinguished Indian nationalist and polymath. Renowned for his
intellectual prowess and radical ideologies, he played a significant
role in India's freedom struggle, particularly through his
leadership in the Ghadar Party. His commitment to overthrowing
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British rule, combined with his scholarly contributions, marked
him as a key figure in the early 20th-century revolutionary
movement against colonialism.
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● Lala Har Dayal Mathur was born on October 14, 1884, in a Hindu Mathur
Kayastha family in Delhi.
● He received his early education at the Cambridge Mission School and
later pursued a bachelor's degree in Sanskrit from St. Stephen's College,
Delhi.
● Har Dayal furthered his studies by obtaining a master's degree in Sanskrit
from Punjab University.
● Recognizing his exceptional talents, he was awarded two scholarships for
higher studies in Sanskrit at Oxford University: the Boden Scholarship in
1907 and the Casberd Exhibitioner from St John's College.
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● Despite his academic achievements, Har Dayal developed a strong aversion
to the British rule in India. This led him to relinquish his Oxford
scholarship and forgo a career in the Indian Civil Service.
● His early education, which included Sanskrit, mathematics, and history,
was instrumental in shaping his intellectual foundation.
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● Har Dayal's time in England, particularly at Oxford, was a turning point.
The oppressive British policies towards India deeply affected him, fueling
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his decision to abandon his scholarship and dedicate his life to India’s
independence.
Political Awakening and Activism

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● Har Dayal's political activism was initially influenced by his disillusionment

with British rule in India while at Oxford University, leading to his active
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support for the Indian revolutionary movement.

● In 1908, he returned to India to further indigenous political institutions
and arouse resistance against British rule, but his efforts were obstructed
by the government, prompting his return to Europe.
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● Har Dayal continued his anti-British propaganda in Europe, traveling

through France and Germany and advocating Western science and political
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philosophy as crucial for successful anti-colonial struggle.

● In 1913, he founded the Ghadar Party in the United States, a pivotal group
composed mainly of Indian immigrants in North America, aiming to
overthrow British rule in India through revolutionary means.
● His activism extended beyond India, gaining resonance notably in the
United States, where he played a crucial role in mobilizing Indian
expatriates and fostering a spirit of rebellion against colonial rule.
● In the United States, he became involved in industrial unionism and served
as the secretary of the San Francisco branch of the Industrial Workers of
the World.
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● Har Dayal developed contacts with Punjabi Sikh farmers in California,
tapping into their disaffection with the British and encouraging young
Indians to gain scientific and sociological education.
● He was arrested by the U.S. government in 1914 for spreading anarchist
literature, then fled to Berlin, where he contributed to the formation of the
Berlin Committee (later: Indian Independence Committee) and collaborated
with the German Intelligence Bureau for the East.
The Ghadar Movement and International Efforts

● Lala Har Dayal was instrumental in the formation of the Ghadar
Movement, an international political movement initiated by expatriate
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Indians to overthrow British rule in India. It began in the early 20th
century on the West Coast of the United States and Canada and later
spread globally.
● The Ghadar Party, initially known as the Pacific Coast Hindustan
Association, was officially founded on July 15, 1913, in Astoria, Oregon,
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USA. Har Dayal played a pivotal leadership role in its establishment.
● Har Dayal, along with other leaders, chose to base the Ghadar Party and its
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newspaper, the Hindustan Ghadar, in San Francisco, California. The party
rapidly garnered support from Indian expatriates, notably in the United
States, Canada, East Africa, and Asia.
● Following World War I's outbreak in 1914, some Ghadar Party members,
including Har Dayal, returned to Punjab to ignite an armed revolution for
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Indian independence. They attempted to incite mutiny among Indian troops

against the British, an uprising known as the Ghadar Mutiny.
Although the Ghadar Mutiny was ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the
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●
execution of 42 mutineers after the Lahore Conspiracy Case trial, the
Ghadarites persisted with their underground anti-colonial actions from
1914 to 1917. They received support from Germany and Ottoman Turkey
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in what became known as the Hindu–German Conspiracy.

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Later Years and Philosophical Shift

● After World War I, Har Dayal settled in Stockholm as a professor of Indian
philosophy. His writings during this period, such as "Forty-Four Months in
Germany and Turkey," reflected a significant shift in his views. He began
advocating for mixed British and Indian administration in India and
developed an admiration for Western culture and values.
● In the late 1920s, Har Dayal moved to the United States, where he became
a professor of Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley.
● Har Dayal also became involved with the South Place Ethical Society,
joining in 1930. He became a respected speaker on pacifism, democracy,
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and rationalism, emphasizing humanist values of reason, freedom, and the
pursuit of a better world.
● His philosophical transition is evident in his work "Hints for Self-Culture,"
published in 1934, which underscored humanist values and the
importance of personal morality grounded in reason, reflecting the
principles of the humanist Ethical movement.
● Har Dayal's time in Germany during World War I led to a shift in his ideals
and allegiances, eventually causing him to part ways with the Hindu
Revolutionary movement after the war.
● In 1927, he returned to London to study for a doctorate in Sanskrit at the
University of London and established the Modern Culture Institute at his
home in Edgware, promoting the cultivation of personal morality and
progressive reform.
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● He died in Philadelphia on March 4, 1939, delivering a lecture on the
evening of his death, where he expressed being "in peace with all".
● In 1987, the India Department of Posts issued a commemorative stamp in
his honor, recognizing his contributions to India's struggle for freedom.
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Lala Har Dayal was a prolific writer with contributions spanning various genres
and themes:
1. Our Educational Problem: A collection of his articles published in Punjabi
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from Lahore in 1922, with an introduction by Lala Lajpat Rai.

2. Thoughts on Education: Articles against the British Government's
Education Policy in India, published in Punjabi (Lahore) and Modern
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Review (Calcutta).
3. Social Conquest of Hindu Race: A booklet proscribed by the British Raj,
now kept in the National Archives of India.
4. Writings of Lala Har Dayal: Published in 1920 by Swaraj Publishing
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House, Varanasi.
5. Forty-four months in Germany and Turkey, February 1915 to October
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1918: A record of personal impressions published in 1920 in London.

6. Lala Har Dayal Ji Ke Swadhin Vichar: Translated into Hindi and
published in 1922 in Kanpur.
7. Amrit me Vish: Hindi translation of "Thoughts on Education," published in
1922 in Lahore.
8. Hints for Self Culture: Published in 1934 in London, emphasizing
humanist values of reason, freedom, and the striving for a better world.
9. Glimpses of World Religions: A rational perspective on various religions,
focusing on history, ethics, theology, and religious philosophy.
10. Bodhisattva Doctrines: Originally a thesis for his Ph.D., published in
1932, exploring the principles of Gautam Buddha.
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Impact and Legacy
Lala Har Dayal's contributions to India's struggle for freedom, though not widely
recognized in popular history, have had a profound impact:
● Foundational Role in the Ghadar Movement: Har Dayal's role in
founding the Ghadar Party in 1913 was pivotal. This movement, largely
comprising Indian immigrants in North America, was dedicated to
overthrowing British rule in India through revolutionary means. The
Ghadar Party was crucial in mobilizing Indian expatriates and fostering a
spirit of rebellion against colonial rule.
● Intellectual and Revolutionary Influence: Har Dayal was a brilliant
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scholar and a fierce nationalist. His numerous writings critiqued British
imperialism and called for a united Indian front against it. His work,
particularly "Hints for Self Culture," advocated for an enlightened and
progressive society.
● Pre-Gandhi Era Leadership: Before the prominence of Gandhi in the
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Indian independence movement, Har Dayal was a prominent leader who
advocated for both non-violent civil disobedience and aggressive actions
against the British Empire. His inspirational leadership and writings
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motivated the Indian youth of that era.
● Global Recognition for His Ideas: Har Dayal's profound thoughts and
ideas garnered appreciation from American and European intellectuals. His
writings, characterized by originality, cognitive power, and aesthetic
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splendor, made a lasting impression.
● Unleashing a Wave of Nationalism: Har Dayal played a covert role in
initiating Americans and Germans into India’s independence movement,
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challenging the British Empire's might. The Ghadar movement became a

global phenomenon, leading to strict laws like the Rowlatt Act to counter
his influence.
● Legacy in Exile: Despite being in exile for over thirty years, Har Dayal
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remained dedicated to India's liberation from colonial rule, using his

intellect as his primary weapon. His legacy continues to be recognized and
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appreciated even today.
Conclusion
Lala Har Dayal's life, characterized by intellectual brilliance and unwavering
dedication to India's independence, left an indelible mark on the country's
freedom struggle. His leadership in the Ghadar Party, profound writings, and
global influence significantly propelled the anti-colonial movement. Despite his
relative obscurity in popular history, Har Dayal's legacy as a pioneer of the Indian
nationalist movement and a champion of enlightened societal progress continues
to inspire future generations.
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Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati (1858-1922) -
Championing the Cause of Women's Rights
and Emancipation
Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati was a pioneering Indian social

reformer, educator, and Sanskrit scholar. Her life's work
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significantly impacted women's education and rights, defying
social norms of her time and leaving a profound legacy in India's
social reform movements.
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● Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati, born on 23 April 1858, came from a
Marathi-speaking Chitpavan Brahmin family.
● She was born in the forest of Ganamal in Maharashtra to Lakshmibai and
Anant Shastri, a high-caste Hindu Brahmin.
● Her father, Anant Shastri Dongre, a Sanskrit scholar, taught her Sanskrit
at home. He was not only a Sanskrit scholar but also a social reformer with
a keen interest in educating girls.
● Raised in an orthodox Hindu religious environment, Ramabai's upbringing
was marked by her father's unconventional beliefs for that era, particularly
regarding women's education.
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● Her birthplace was an ashram run by her father in the Gungamal forests,
indicating a life deeply rooted in Hindu religious and scholarly traditions.
The family, belonging to the Chitpavan Brahmin caste, played a significant
role in shaping her early experiences and perspectives.
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Trailblazing Journey in Education and Sanskrit Scholarship
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● Ramabai distinguished herself as a pioneer among women Sanskrit
scholars at a time when girls' education was not the norm. She advocated
for girls' education and campaigned against child marriage while promoting
widow remarriage.
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● Ramabai's profound knowledge of Sanskrit earned her prestigious titles like
'Pandita' (wise person) and 'Sarasvati' (goddess of learning/wisdom).
● At just twelve years old, she had memorized 18,000 Sanskrit verses and
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was proficient in eight other languages. Ramabai was not only a scholar
but also an activist who addressed the Education Committee of India to
advocate against gender bias in education.
Ramabai and her brother Srinivas traveled across India, reciting Sanskrit
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scriptures after their parents' demise during the Great Famine of 1876–78.
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Social Activism and Advocacy for Women's Rights

● Ramabai's journey into social reform began early, influenced by her
childhood experiences of tragedy, learning, and poverty. She continued her
reform work even after her husband's death, Bipin Behari Medhavi.
● She founded the Arya Mahila Samaj in Poona (now Pune) in 1882 to
promote women's education and combat child marriage.
● Ramabai testified before the Hunter Commission on "native education,"
stressing the need for women teachers and doctors.
● Initially aspiring to study medicine to improve women's healthcare access,
Ramabai later taught Sanskrit at Cheltenham Ladies’ College in
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Gloucestershire due to health and ideological differences with religious
institutions.
● In 1886, Pandita Ramabai visited Philadelphia at the invitation of Rachel
Bodley, dean of the Women's Medical College in Pennsylvania, highlighting
her reputation as a scholar, educationist, and women's rights champion in
India.
● In the US, she embraced Friedrich Froebel’s kindergarten philosophy and
planned to implement it in the school she intended to establish in India.
She also incorporated educational techniques observed in the US into
primers she wrote in Marathi.
● Ramabai's book "The High Caste Hindu Woman," released in the US in
1887, solidified her status as a women's rights advocate, enhancing her
impact in social reform movements.
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● Her collaboration with American progressives like Frances Willard of the
Women’s Christian Temperance Union and suffragette Susan Anthony
signaled American philanthropic support for Indian movements over British
policies, bolstering her cause.
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● Upon returning to India, Ramabai established Sharada Sadan in Poona for
child widows and later, Mukti Mission in Kedgaon near Pune.
● During the famine of 1897-’98, she actively rescued and sheltered affected
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women and children, demonstrating her commitment to social welfare.
Conversion to Christianity and International Influence

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● Pandita Ramabai converted to Christianity during her stay in England in

the early 1880s due to disillusionment with orthodox Hinduism, especially
its treatment of women.
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● Her conversion in September 1883 occurred while she was in Britain,

where she initially intended to start medical training. It garnered significant
attention in India.
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● After her conversion, Ramabai traveled extensively in the United States,

publishing "The High-Caste Hindu Woman" and giving lectures to raise
funds for establishing a school in India for child widows.
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● Her association with American progressives, such as Frances Willard, and

the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), contributed to her
international influence.
● During the bubonic plague of 1896 in India, Ramabai rescued low-caste
girls and women from seclusion centers, establishing the Mukti Mission, a
sanctuary for them. She also translated the Bible into Marathi, leaving a
lasting legacy.
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Establishment of Institutions for Women's Welfare
● In 1889, Pandita Ramabai founded the Sharada Sadan (Home for
Learning) in Chowpatty, Mumbai, dedicated to the education and security
of young Hindu widows.
● Sharada Sadan offered education to girls and women of various ages,
allowing them to learn Christian doctrines while retaining their Hindu
beliefs. It aimed to challenge caste and gender divisions and promote
women's education and welfare, especially during crises like famine and
plague.
● The Mukti Mission, another significant institution established by Ramabai,
provided care to individuals in need, including orphans, the destitute, and
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those with special needs, without regard to caste, creed, religion, or status.
● Registered under various social welfare and trust acts, the Pandita
Ramabai Mukti Mission in Kedgaon, Pune, includes specialized homes for
destitute orphans, elderly women, individuals with special needs (including
a Braille school for the blind), nurseries, adoption facilities, schools,
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colleges, and vocational training.
● Mukti Mission extends its impact through community development and
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social projects, including mobile health clinics, adult literacy programs,
vocational training, kindergartens, day-care centers, and hostels across
India, aimed at improving the quality of life for disadvantaged individuals.
● The mission is dedicated to promoting the right to education, equality, and
equity, while also addressing child and women's rights issues, including
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combating sexual abuse, violence against women, and human trafficking to
safeguard the dignity and well-being of women and children.
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Contributions to Education and Literature

Ramabai made significant contributions to education and literature, with a
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focus on improving the status of women in Indian society.
● Her book "Stri Dharma Niti" ("Morals for Women," 1882) funded her travels
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to England, where she originally intended to study medicine but couldn't

due to progressive deafness.
● Her influential work "The High-Caste Hindu Woman" critically examined
the lives of Hindu women, exposing issues like child marriage and the
plight of child widows in Hindu-dominated British India. The book and her
speaking engagements raised funds for a school for child widows in India.
● In 1889, Ramabai established Sharada Sadan in Mumbai, providing formal
education and vocational training to young widowed Brahmin women and
unmarried girls. It offered a comprehensive education, including subjects
like reading, writing, history, and environmental studies.
● Ramabai advocated women's education as a means to challenge the
patriarchal structure of Indian society, aiming to empower women to
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become independent and self-reliant, even teaching skills traditionally
inaccessible to women, such as carpentry and running a printing press.
Influence on Early Pentecostalism

● Pandita Ramabai played a pivotal role in the early development of the
Pentecostal movement in India, contributing significantly to its origins
and growth, as recognized by scholars and historians.
● The Mukti Mission, established by Ramabai, was part of the international
Protestant missionary network and became a focal point for religious
revivals, with events there considered part of a new era in Christian
history.
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● Extraordinary events occurred at Mukti Mission in June 1905, including
emotional and physical experiences among the girls, seen as signs of the
Holy Spirit's presence. This drew global attention and was interpreted as a
precursor to the Azusa Street revival.
Ramabai's efforts, including intercessory prayer and sending young women
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to preach the gospel in villages, led to reports of an outpouring of the Holy
Spirit, with participants receiving the gift of speaking in tongues by 1906.
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● Ramabai's influence and the revival at Mukti Mission were significant in
shaping the emergence of Pentecostalism in India, with her role highlighted
by missionaries like Alfred G. Garr, underscoring her integral contribution
to the movement's history.
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Personal Life and Legacy

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● Pandita Ramabai's early life was unconventional, marked by challenges to

societal norms. Born into a Chitpavan Brahman family in Karnataka, she
received education in Sanskrit at home from her father who believed in
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educating women.
● Tragedy struck her life with the loss of parents, siblings, husband, and
daughter. Her marriage to Bipin Behari Das, a non-Brahman Brahmo
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Bengali lawyer, broke caste barriers but was short-lived due to his early
death.
● These experiences, coupled with exposure to patriarchal Hindu texts, led to
her disillusionment with orthodox Hinduism and her eventual turn to
Christianity.
● Her influential writings, including "Stri Dharma Niti" (Morals for Women,
1882) and "The High Caste Hindu Woman" (1887), critiqued Brahmanical
patriarchy and highlighted the challenges faced by women in Hindu
society.
● Her daughter, Manorama Bai, received an education and worked alongside
Ramabai, eventually becoming her successor at the Mukti Mission.
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● Despite facing societal challenges and personal losses, Ramabai's legacy is
one of resilience, empowerment, and advocacy for women's rights and
education.
Pandita Ramabai's remarkable journey from a Sanskrit scholar to a social
reformer and educator exemplifies her indomitable spirit and commitment to
women's empowerment. Her legacy continues to inspire and influence social
change, transcending the boundaries of time and culture.
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374
Pherozeshah Mehta (1845-1915): The Lion of
Bombay and His Impact on India's Freedom
Struggle
Pherozeshah Mehta was an influential Indian politician, lawyer,

and a key figure in the early Indian independence movement.
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Born into a Gujarati Parsi family in Bombay, British India, he
was a pioneer in many areas, being the first Parsi to receive a
Master of Arts degree and to be called to the Bar from Lincoln's
Inn. His career spanned law, politics, and social reform, with
significant contributions to the Indian National Congress and
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the Bombay municipality.
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Early Life
Birth and Family

● Pherozeshah Mehta was born on August 4, 1845, in Bombay City, Bombay
Presidency, British India.
● He hailed from a Gujarati-speaking Parsi Zoroastrian family.
● His father was a Bombay-based businessman who made notable
contributions to education, including translating a Chemistry textbook into
Gujarati and writing a Geography textbook.
Education
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● Mehta pursued his education at Elphinstone College, where he graduated
in 1864.
● He earned a Master of Arts with honors, becoming the first Parsi to achieve
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such a distinction at the University of Bombay (later University of Mumbai).
● He furthered his education by studying law at Lincoln's Inn, London,
becoming the first Parsi barrister from Lincoln's Inn in 1868.
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● During his time in London, he developed associations with fellow Indian
barristers, including Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee and Badruddin Tyabji.
Legal Career
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● Mehta returned to India in 1868 and established a successful law practice.

One of his notable cases was the legal defense of Arthur Crawford, where
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he emphasized the need for municipal government reforms in Bombay.
● Mehta's contributions led to the drafting of the Bombay Municipal Act of
1872, earning him the title of the 'father of Bombay Municipality.'
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Political Career
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Municipal Commissioner
● In 1873, Mehta assumed the role of Municipal Commissioner for Bombay
Municipality and served as its President on four separate occasions (1884,
1885, 1905, 1911).
Bombay Presidency Association
● He played a pivotal role in establishing the Bombay Presidency Association
in 1885 and served as its President for life.
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Indian National Congress
● Pherozeshah Mehta was a founding member of the Indian National
Congress.
● He served as the President of the Congress during the 1890 Calcutta
session and also chaired the Reception Committee during the Bombay
sessions in 1889 and 1904.
● Within the Congress, he advocated for preventing extremist domination and
supported resolutions for administrative reform.
Legislative Councils
Mehta served as a member of the Bombay Legislative Council in 1887 and
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later as a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1893.
Contributions
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● He actively promoted Western education and advocated for social causes,
including education, sanitation, and healthcare.
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Honors and Recognition
● In recognition of his dedicated service to the legal profession, Pherozeshah
Mehta was knighted by the British Government.
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● He was honored with the title of C.I.E. (Companion of the Order of the
Indian Empire) in 1894 and later as KCIE (Knight Commander) in 1904.
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● The University of Bombay conferred upon him an honorary Doctor of Law

degree in 1915.
● Pherozeshah Mehta earned several nicknames during his lifetime,
including "Ferocious Mehta," "Lion of Bombay," and "Uncrowned King of
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Bombay."
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Influence on Indian Independence Movement
Early Nationalists (Moderates)

● Mehta belonged to the group of early nationalists, known as Moderates,
who believed in British justice and integrity.
● They viewed British rule as beneficial and advocated for constitutional,
peaceful means for reform.
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Achievements
● Mehta's contributions led to a national awakening and the popularization
of democracy, civil liberties, secularism, and nationalism.
● He exposed British colonialism and laid the foundation for later nationalist
movements.
● Mehta founded The Bombay Chronicle in 1910, an English-language
weekly newspaper that served as a nationalist voice during the struggle for
independence.
Demands
His demands included administrative reforms such as Indian Civil Service
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examinations in England and India, executive-judiciary separation,
increased Indian representation in administration, spread of primary
education, and improvements in the police system.
● Politically, he called for the abolition of the India Council Act, expansion of
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legislative councils, "No taxation without representation," and the pursuit
of Swaraj (self-governance) within the British Empire.
He also advocated for Indian representation in the Viceroy's executive
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council and defended civil rights, particularly against the Preventive
Detention Act, restoration of individual liberties, and freedom of speech and
press.
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Legacy
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● Pherozeshah Mehta's importance in nation building is evident in his

portrait at the Indian Parliament House.
● He is revered in Mumbai, with roads, halls, and law colleges named after
him.
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● His leadership in law and politics served as an inspiration for young

Indians, laying the foundations for their involvement in Indian politics.
● Pherozeshah Mehta passed away on November 5, 1915, leaving behind a
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legacy that continues to influence India's political and social fabric to this
day.
Pherozeshah Mehta's legacy as a foundational figure in the Indian independence
movement and in the establishment of municipal governance in Bombay is
profound. His efforts in promoting education, healthcare, and sanitation, along
with his leadership in the Indian National Congress, mark him as a key architect
of modern India. His commitment to constitutional methods and his belief in the
British sense of justice shaped the moderate phase of the Indian Nationalist
Movement. His impact is enduring, with his influence still celebrated in various
ways, including institutions and landmarks named after him in Mumbai.
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Vithalbhai Patel (1873-1933): A Life of
Commitment to Freedom and Justice
Vithalbhai Patel, an influential figure in India's struggle for

independence, stands out as a notable leader whose
contributions significantly shaped the nation's political
landscape. His life, intertwined with the broader narrative of
India's fight against British colonial rule, reflects a blend of legal
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acumen, political foresight, and unyielding dedication to the
cause of freedom.
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Personal Life
Birth and Family

● Born: September 27, 1873, in Nadiad, Gujarat.
● Parents: Jhaverbhai Patel and Ladbai Patel.
● Siblings: He was the elder brother of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, another
prominent figure in the Indian independence movement.
● Education: Vithalbhai Patel received his education in Nadiad and Bombay.
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● Profession: He pursued a career in law and practiced in Godhra and
Borsad.
● Early Life: He married at a young age and had a wife named Diwaliba.
Political Career
Early Involvement
● In 1915, he joined the Indian National Congress.
● He served as the Chairman of the Reception Committee during the Special
Session of the Congress in Bombay in 1918.
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Legislative Roles
● Vithalbhai Patel was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council.
● He also served in the Central Legislative Assembly and became its
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President (Speaker) in 1925.
Swaraj Party
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● He co-founded the Swaraj Party along with Chittaranjan Das and Motilal
Nehru. The party aimed at sabotaging the British government's efforts in
India.
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Relationship with Gandhi

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● While he differed from Mahatma Gandhi in philosophy, Vithalbhai Patel

eventually joined the Congress and actively participated in various
movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
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Stand on Self-Government
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● Vithalbhai Patel advocated for Indian self-rule and played a significant role
in the pursuit of this goal.
Role in Congress
● He was an active member of the Indian National Congress but resigned
from the party in 1930 to support the Civil Disobedience Movement.
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Contributions to Freedom Movement
● Legal Career for Freedom: Vithalbhai Patel used his legal expertise to
further the cause of Indian independence.
● Participation in Civil Disobedience Movements: He actively participated
in various Civil Disobedience Movements, facing imprisonment and
hardships.
● Advocate for Social Justice: Vithalbhai Patel was known for his advocacy
for social justice and equality.
● Support for Non-Cooperation Movement: He extended his full support to
the Non-Cooperation Movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi.
● Promotion of Education: He believed in the importance of education and
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promoted it as a means of empowerment.
● Sacrifices for National Unity: Vithalbhai Patel made significant sacrifices
to strengthen the unity of the nation.
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Political Philosophy and Ideology
His political ideology was influenced by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
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● He adopted a moderate stance and believed in achieving goals through
direct actions within legal boundaries.
Relationship with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

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● Vithalbhai Patel maintained a distinct identity in the freedom struggle,

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allowing his younger brother, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, to lead in politics.
Legislative Achievements
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Bills and Amendments

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● Vithalbhai Patel was instrumental in the passing of several important bills

and amendments, including:
○ Bombay District Municipal Act Amendment Bill 1914.
○ Town Planning Bill 1914.
○ Extension of primary education to municipal districts in 1917.
○ Bombay Medical Act Amendment 1912.
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President of the Assembly
● During his tenure as the President of the Central Legislative Assembly, he
introduced various practices and procedures.
● He upheld the convention of neutrality and ensured a fair and balanced
approach.
● Vithalbhai Patel played a crucial role in establishing a separate office for
the Assembly, streamlining its functioning.
International Recognition
Vithalbhai Patel received recognition not only in India but also
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internationally.
● He addressed the California legislature in the United States.
● He played a significant role in addressing the Irish Question and even made
suggestions as an arbitrator.
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Final Years
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● In his final years, Vithalbhai Patel faced health issues, which led him to
travel to Europe for treatment.
● He extended his support to Subhas Chandra Bose in his quest for India's
independence.
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● In a remarkable act of generosity, Vithalbhai Patel left his estate to Subhas

Chandra Bose to further the cause of independence.
Death: Vithalbhai Patel passed away on October 22, 1933, in Geneva,
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Switzerland, and was cremated in Bombay.
Conclusion
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Vithalbhai Patel's life exemplified unwavering commitment to the ideals of

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freedom, justice, and self-rule. His contributions to the Indian independence

movement, his legislative achievements, and his international recognition
underscore his pivotal role in shaping India's history. Vithalbhai Patel's legacy
continues to inspire generations in the pursuit of a free and just India.
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Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894):
The Literary Giant of Bengal
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, a name that resonates with

literary excellence, was a multifaceted Indian personality who
made remarkable contributions as a novelist, poet, essayist,
and journalist. Born on either the 26th or 27th of June in
1838, he left an indelible mark on the literary and cultural
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landscape of India before his demise on April 8, 1894. Often
referred to as "Sahitya Samrat" or the "Emperor of Literature" in
Bengali, his life and works continue to inspire generations.
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● Birthplace: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was born in Kanthalpara,
Naihati, North 24 Parganas, India.
● Family Background: He hailed from an orthodox Bengali Brahmin family.
He was the youngest of three brothers, with his father, Yadav Chandra
Chattopadhyay, serving as the Deputy Collector of Midnapur. His ancestors
hailed from Deshmukho, Hooghly District, adding to the rich cultural
tapestry of his upbringing. Notably, his brother, Sanjib Chandra
Chattopadhyay, also achieved fame as a novelist.
● Education: Bankim Chandra's academic journey included stints at
Hooghly Collegiate School, where he penned his first poem. He furthered
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his education at Hooghly Mohsin College, Presidency College in Kolkata,
and eventually graduated with a degree in arts in 1859 from the University
of Calcutta. He also obtained a degree in law in 1869.
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Career
Subordinate Executive Service: He embarked on his career as a Deputy
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Magistrate in Jessore in 1858.
● Merged Services: In 1863, he merged services and held the dual role of
Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector. He also served as the first
in-charge of the Arambag subdivision.
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● Government Service: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay retired from
government service in 1891, having achieved titles like "Companion of the
Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire" in 1894 and "Rai Bahadur" in
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1891.
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● Mastery of Sanskrit: Bankim Chandra had a deep understanding of

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Sanskrit, which greatly influenced his literary works.

● Innovations in Bengali Literature: He brought significant innovations to
Bengali literature, incorporating colloquial language and infusing his
writings with rich cultural and historical references.
● Major Works:
○ Anandamath: This work is famous for giving birth to the national
song, "Vande Mataram," which became a source of inspiration for
Indian nationalists.
○ Rajmohan's Wife: It is notable as the first published English novel.
○ Durgeshnandini: This novel marked the beginning of Bengali romance
literature.
○ Kapalkundala, Mrinalini, Vishabriksha, and many more.
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● Religious Commentaries:
○ Krishna Charitra
○ Bhagavad Gita Commentary
○ Essays on Sankhya philosophy
Influence and Legacy

● Key Figure in Literary Renaissance: Bankim Chandra played a pivotal
role in the literary renaissance of Bengal.
● Impact on Nationalism and Patriotism: His works awakened the spirit of
nationalism in India, instilling pride and determination among the masses.
Exploration of Feminine Identity: He challenged societal stereotypes and
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empowered his female characters, setting a precedent for feminist
literature.
● Modernization of Bengali Literature: His contributions laid the
foundation for contemporary Bengali authors.
Continuing Relevance: The themes explored in his works continue to
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transcend time and culture.
● Inspiration for Renowned Authors: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's
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influence extended to luminaries like Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra
Chattopadhyay, and Subramania Bharati.
● Ideological Impact: His writings left an indelible mark on politics,
philosophy, and social reform, serving as a wellspring of revolutionary
thought.
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List of Literary Works

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Novels
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● Durgeshnandini (1865)
● Kapalkundala (1866)
Mrinalini (1869)
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● Vishabriksha (1873)
● Indira (1873, revised 1893)
● Jugalanguriya (1874)
● Radharani (1876, enlarged 1893)
● Chandrasekhar (1875)
● Kamalakanter Daptar (1875)
● Rajani (1877)
● Krishnakanter Uil (1878)
● Rajsimha (1882)
● Anandamath (1882)
● Devi Chaudhurani (1884)
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● Kamalakanta (1885)
● Sitaram (1887)
● Muchiram Gurer Jivancharita
Religious Commentaries
● Krishna Charitra (1886)
● Dharmatattva (1888)
● Devatattva (Posthumously)
● Srimadvagavat Gita (1902, Posthumously)
In conclusion, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay stands as a luminary in Indian
literature, leaving an indelible mark on the Bengali and Indian cultural
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landscape. His innovative approach to storytelling, commitment to cultural and
historical authenticity, and profound influence on subsequent generations of
writers and thinkers solidified his place as an enduring figure in the annals of
Indian literature. His literary legacy continues to inspire and shape the cultural
and ideological landscape of India, making him a revered icon in the world of
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literature.
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Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967): A Pillar of
Indian Socialism and Nationalism
Ram Manohar Lohia, an iconic Indian socialist leader, played a

pivotal role in the struggle for India's independence and left an
indelible mark on the nation's political and social landscape. Born
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on March 23, 1910, and passing away on October 12, 1967, Lohia's
life and contributions are a testament to his unwavering
commitment to the welfare of his fellow countrymen.
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Early Life
● Birthplace: Ram Manohar Lohia was born in Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh, in
the heart of India.
● Family Background: He hailed from the Marwari Bania community, which
had a significant influence on his upbringing.
● Education: Lohia's educational journey took him to various institutions.
○ Early schooling began in Bombay.
○ He pursued his intermediate studies at Banaras Hindu University.
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○ Lohia obtained his B.A. degree from the University of Calcutta in
1929.
○ Furthering his education, he went on to earn a Ph.D. in Economics
from the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1933.
● Influences: Lohia's nationalist spirit was instilled by his father, Hiralal,
and his education in Germany left a lasting impression on his worldview.
Political Career
● Pre-Independence Contributions: Lohia actively participated in the Indian
○ He co-founded the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) and served as its
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editor.
○ Lohia's involvement in the Quit India movement led to his arrest and
imprisonment.
○ Later, he joined the Congress Party and held the position of Foreign
Department Secretary.
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● Post-Independence Role: After India gained independence, Lohia
continued to make significant contributions to politics.
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○ He became a member of the Praja Socialist Party and served as its
General Secretary.
○ Lohia also founded and led the Socialist Party (Lohia), which
eventually merged into the Samyukta Socialist Party.
○ His parliamentary career saw him representing constituencies in
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Farrukhabad and Kannauj in the Lok Sabha.

○ Lohia was known for his opposition to Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first
Prime Minister.
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○ He won notable elections in 1963 and 1967, but also faced defeat to
Nehru in 1962.
○ Lohia played a key role in forming a Non-Congress Government in
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Uttar Pradesh in 1967.

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Political Philosophy
● Indian Socialism: Lohia's political philosophy was grounded in Indian
socialism.
○ He rejected Russian and Western models and emphasized the
importance of a decentralized society.
○ Lohia advocated for the use of small-unit technology.
○ His New Socialism principles included maximum attainable equality,
social ownership, and a four-pillar state (central, province, district,
and village).
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● Sapt Kranti (Seven Revolutions): Lohia envisioned seven key revolutions
for India's progress.
○ These included gender equality, the eradication of racial and caste
inequalities, anti-imperialism, economic equality, non-violence, civil
disobedience, and individual freedom.
Cultural and International Influence

● Cultural Politics: Lohia's political approach incorporated Hindu cultural
ideals.
○ He drew inspiration from epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
○ His political actions were often guided by the examples of Rama,
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Krishna, and Shiva.
● Internationalism: Lohia was an advocate for international peace and
cooperation.
○ He strongly opposed nuclear weapons and supported the idea of an
Indo-Pak federation.
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○ His belief in "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (the world as one family)
reflected his commitment to global unity.
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Literary Works
● Major Publications: Lohia authored several influential books and essays.
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○ Notable works include "The Caste System," "Foreign Policy,"

"Fragments of World Mind," "Fundamentals of a World Mind," "Guilty
Men of India’s Partition," "India, China, and Northern Frontiers," and
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"Interval During Politics."

○ His "Marx, Gandhi, and Socialism" remains a significant contribution
to political thought.
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● Collected Works: His writings are compiled in a nine-volume set, and the
Karnataka Government translated them into six volumes.
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Legacy and Recognition

● Named Institutions: To honor his contributions, various institutions carry
his name.
○ These include Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Faizabad,
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University, Lucknow, Ram
Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia
Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow.
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● Commemorative Locations: Streets and buildings like 18th June Road in
Panjim, Goa, and Lohiya Bhawan in Akbarpur serve as reminders of his
legacy.
In conclusion, Ram Manohar Lohia's multifaceted contributions to Indian politics,
social reform, and cultural thought continue to resonate in modern Indian
society. His unique blend of socialism, cultural integration, and advocacy for
equality and decentralization remains influential in contemporary political and
social discourse. Lohia's legacy is etched into the fabric of India, serving as a
guiding light for those who strive for a more just and equitable society.
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Rash Behari Bose (1886 – 1945): A
Revolutionary Journey
Rash Behari Bose, a prominent figure in the Indian

independence movement, left an indelible mark on history
through his revolutionary activities and contributions. Born on
May 25, 1886, in Subaldaha, British India, his life unfolded in a
manner that would eventually lead him to play a pivotal role in
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the fight for India's independence.
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Early Life:
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● Birth and Family:

○ Born on May 25, 1886, in Subaldaha, Burdwan, Bengal Presidency
(Present-day West Bengal, India).
○ Hailed from a humble family in British India.
● Childhood and Education:
○ Spent his early years in Subaldaha, living with his father in the
House of Bidhu Mukhi.
○ His education was supervised by Kalicharan Bose.
○ Attended Pathsala, Subaldaha Rashbehari Bose F.P School.
○ Rash Behari Bose was drawn to the revolutionary movement,
inspired by stories from his grandfather and teacher Bakkeswar.
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○ He was affectionately known as "Rasu."
○ Pursued degrees in medical sciences and engineering at Morton
School in Calcutta.
○ Later, he studied at Dupleix College in Chandernagar, where he was
influenced by Principal Charu Chandra Roy.
● Early Influences:
○ Revolutionary stories from his grandfather and teacher kindled his
spirit.
○ Rash Behari Bose was known for his stubborn attitude even from a
young age.
Revolutionary Activities:
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● Avoiding Alipore Bomb Case Trials (1908):
○ To escape the Alipore bomb case trials, he moved to Dehradun.
○ Worked at the Forest Research Institute, maintaining a low profile.
Involvement with Revolutionaries:
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○ Maintained secret connections with revolutionaries in Bengal.
○ Established connections with Arya Samaj in Uttar Pradesh and
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Punjab.
● Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy (1912):
○ Participated in the attempted assassination of Lord Hardinge.
○ Forced into hiding after the conspiracy.
○ Remarkably, he returned to his office in Dehradun the very next day.
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● Flood Relief in Bengal (1913):

○ During flood relief efforts, he came in contact with Jatin Mukherjee.
○ Later, Rash Behari Bose played a significant role in the Ghadar
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Mutiny during World War I, infiltrating the Indian army and

ultimately escaping to Japan in 1915.
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Life in Japan:
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● Alias Priyanath Thakur:

○ Adopted the alias "Priyanath Thakur" to maintain a covert identity.
○ Interestingly, he was a relative of Rabindranath Thakur (Tagore).
● Shelter with Pan-Asian Groups:
○ Found refuge and support among Pan-Asian groups in Japan.
● Marriage and Citizenship:
○ Married Toshiko Soma in 1918, who was the daughter of Aizō Sōma
and Kokkō Sōma.
○ Attained Japanese citizenship in 1923.
○ Rash Behari Bose never remarried after Toshiko's unfortunate death
in 1924.
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● Children with Toshiko Soma:
○ They had two children: Masahide Bose (Bharatchandra), born in
1920, who tragically died in World War II at the age of 24, and a
daughter named Tetsuko, born in 1922.
● Introduced Indian-Style Curry in Japan:
○ Pioneered the introduction of Indian-style curry in Japan, which
gained popularity despite its relatively high cost.
○ Fondly known as the "Bose of Nakamuraya."
Contribution to the Indian Independence Movement:

Formation of Indian Independence League (IIL):
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○ The IIL was formed in Japan in 1931, with the objective of achieving
Indian independence by all possible means.
○ Notable events include the Tokyo Conference in March 1942, where a
motion to raise an army was discussed, and the Bangkok Conference
in June 1942, where Rash Behari Bose became the President of IIL,
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further propagating Pan-Asianism.
● Indian National Army (INA):
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○ The INA was established on September 1, 1942, as the military wing
of IIL.
○ It comprised Indian soldiers from the British garrison in Singapore.
○ Rash Behari Bose served as the first head of INA.
○ He played a pivotal role in persuading Indian POWs to join the INA's
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ranks, with campaigns in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Singapore.

○ Collaboration with Iwakuro Kikan and Hikari Kikan was
instrumental in advancing the cause.
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○ Rash Behari Bose selected the flag for the movement and continued
to lend his support to the fight for Indian independence.
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Later Years and Legacy:

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● Ideological Isolation:
○ He experienced physical and ideological isolation from mainstream
Indian nationalism during his later years.
● Recognition:
○ In 1943, Rash Behari Bose was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun,
2nd class, in Japan.
○ He passed away due to tuberculosis in 1945 at the age of 60.
○ Posthumous honors include an Indian postage stamp issued in his
memory in 1967 and the naming of Rash Behari Avenue in Kolkata.
Rash Behari Bose's life was a testament to his unwavering commitment to the
cause of Indian independence. From his early revolutionary influences to his
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instrumental role in the Indian National Army, his legacy endures as a symbol of
resilience and dedication in the fight for freedom.
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Ram Prasad Bismil (1897-1927): A
Revolutionary Poet and Freedom Fighter
Ram Prasad Bismil (1897-1927) was a distinguished Indian

poet, author, and revolutionary who made substantial
contributions to the struggle against the British Raj. He was a
central figure in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918 and the
Kakori Conspiracy of 1925. Bismil was also instrumental in
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establishing the revolutionary group Hindustan Republican
Association. His mastery of Urdu and Hindi languages, along
with his poetic talent, elevated his status in the Indian
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Formative Years and Education
● Ram Prasad Bismil was born on June 11, 1897, in the Shahjahanpur
district, in what was then the North-Western Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh,
India). He hailed from a Rajput family.
● His parents, Muralidhar and Moolmati Devi, nurtured his education. Bismil
acquired Hindi from his father and was tutored in Urdu by a moulvi.
Despite his father's objections, he was enrolled in an English-medium
school.
● Bismil became a member of the Arya Samaj in Shahjahanpur, an
association that significantly impacted his life.
● His exposure to diverse languages honed his skills as a writer and poet
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early in his life. He authored patriotic poems in Hindi and Urdu under
pseudonyms such as ‘Agyat’, ‘Ram’, and the most famous – ‘Bismil’
(meaning ‘wounded’, ‘restless’).
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Political Engagement and Revolutionary Endeavors
The concept of freedom and revolution took root in Bismil following the
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death sentence of Bhai Parmanand, a freedom fighter and Arya Samaj
member. This incident prompted him to express his outrage in a poem,
‘Mera Janm’.
● Bismil played a role in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918, where authorities
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discovered several youths, including Bismil, distributing books banned by
the government. Bismil evaded capture by diving into the Yamuna River.
● He attended the 1921 Indian National Congress session in Ahmedabad.
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However, he soon grew disenchanted with the Congress Party's moderate

faction. Bismil was not prepared to “negotiate” or “plead” for his nation's
freedom – he was ready to seize it by force if the British refused.
Bismil was a principal founder of the Hindustan Republican Association
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(HRA) alongside Sachindra Nath Sanyal and Jadugopal Mukherjee. The
organization was established in 1924, with Bismil primarily drafting its
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constitution.
● The HRA published numerous pamphlets aimed at motivating people to
resist the government through revolutionary actions.
● Bismil also took part in the Kakori conspiracy of 1925, a train robbery in
central Uttar Pradesh. The British subsequently initiated a court trial
against over 20 Indian revolutionaries for this act.
● Despite widespread protest over the death sentences and support from
various Indian political leaders for the revolutionaries, the government
remained unmoved. Bismil was executed on December 19, 1927, for his
revolutionary activities.
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Literary Achievements
● Bismil was a skilled poet, writing in Urdu and Hindi languages under the
pen names Ram, Agyat, and Bismil. His Hindi poem "Manipuri ki Pratigya"
gained widespread recognition.
● He was also a proficient translator across multiple languages. Bhagat
Singh lauded him as a remarkable poet-writer of Urdu and Hindi, who had
also translated the books Catherine from English and Bolshevikon Ki
Kartoot from Bengali.
● Bismil authored a total of 11 books, which were prohibited by the British
government due to their potential to spark a second Independence war
after 1857. Of these 11, 8 books have been lost, but 3 rare books remain:
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Ram Prasad Bismil's Autobiography, Ram Prasad Bismil's Written Patriotic
Poems Collection, and Ram Prasad Bismil's Written Krantikari Jivan.
Ideological Convictions and Impact
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● Bismil was affiliated with Arya Samaj where he drew inspiration from
Satyarth Prakash, a book authored by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He also
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maintained a secret connection with Lala Har Dayal through his guru
Swami Somdev, a preacher of Arya Samaj.
● Bismil's political journey began with a communal understanding, which
was a reflection of the world and society he lived in. However, as his
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revolutionary and political career evolved, Bismil transitioned to a clear
anti-communal and secular politics.
● In his final letter to his fellow Indians, Bismil even advocated for capital
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punishment for those who participated in Communal politics.

● In his autobiography, Bismil condemned practices such as female
infanticide, widow killings based on mere suspicion of “immoral behaviour”,
compulsory veil wearing, and the reactionary caste violence perpetrated by
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the Upper caste, who attacked lower caste women for wearing ornaments.
He attributed the source of caste violence to the “false caste pride” of
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Zamindars (Landlords).
● Bismil's Arya Samaji and socialist beliefs were fundamental to his passion
for Indian independence and deeply influenced his character.
● His selfless deeds became a beacon for millions and a trigger for intensified
British repression. His words and actions have inspired generations of
Indians.
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Influence on the Indian Freedom Movement
● Ram Prasad Bismil's revolutionary actions and his participation in the
Mainpuri Conspiracy and Kakori Conspiracy had a profound impact on the
Indian freedom movement.
● His establishment of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and his
partnerships with other notable revolutionaries such as Ashfaqullah Khan,
Chandrasekhar Azad, and Bhagat Singh bolstered the revolutionary cause
in India.
● Bismil's literary creations, especially his patriotic verses, motivated
numerous Indians to partake in the fight against British imperialism.
● His execution in 1927, alongside other revolutionaries, incited widespread
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indignation and further ignited the Indian freedom movement.
Remembrance and Honors
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● Ram Prasad Bismil is commemorated as a brave freedom fighter and a
gifted poet who made substantial contributions to the Indian freedom
movement.
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● His poetry and writings persist in inspiring generations of Indians and act
as a testament to the sacrifices made by the revolutionaries in their pursuit
of independence.
● Bismil's birth anniversary is observed annually on June 11, with national
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leaders across the country honoring his contributions to the fight for
freedom.
● Numerous establishments and landmarks in India bear Ram Prasad
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Bismil's name, including the Ram Prasad Bismil Memorial Degree College
in Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
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Conclusion
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Ram Prasad Bismil was a revolutionary poet and champion of freedom who
played a pivotal role in the Indian freedom movement. His engagement in the
Mainpuri Conspiracy, Kakori Conspiracy, and the inception of the Hindustan
Republican Association had a significant influence on the resistance against
British colonial rule. Bismil's literary works, particularly his patriotic verses,
motivated many Indians to partake in the fight for freedom. His execution in 1927
further ignited the Indian freedom movement, and his legacy continues to inspire
generations of Indians.
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Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840-1911): Amrita Bazar
Patrika & India League
Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840-1911) was an eminent Indian

journalist, social reformer, freedom fighter, and spiritual
writer. He founded the iconic Bengali newspaper 'Amrita
Bazar Patrika' in 1868 and played a pioneering role in Indian
journalism. Ghosh was a staunch advocate for India's
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independence from British rule and campaigned extensively
through his writings against colonial oppression. Alongside
his political activism, he was also deeply influenced by
Vaishnavism and wrote extensively on the mystic saint
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Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
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1. Sisir Kumar Ghosh was born in 1840 in the village of Palua in the Jessore
district of undivided Bengal (present-day Bangladesh).
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○ His father, Harinarayan Ghosh, was a lawyer in Jessore.
○ After early schooling in his village, Ghosh moved to Kolkata for
higher education.
○ He was among the first batch of students to clear the entrance exam
conducted by the newly established Calcutta University in 1857.
○ He subsequently studied at the Presidency College.
2. Even as a young student, Ghosh displayed great compassion for the
oppressed and downtrodden in society.
○ After finishing his formal education, he dedicated himself to social
reform causes, especially helping indigo cultivators who faced
exploitation from planters.
○ This early exposure to injustice and colonial oppression shaped his
political views and journalism later on.
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Founding of Amrita Bazar Patrika
1. In 1868, along with his brother Motilal Ghosh, Sisir Kumar founded the
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iconic Bengali newspaper 'Amrita Bazar Patrika'.
○ It started as a weekly newspaper and soon grew in popularity due to
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its fiery anti-colonial stance.
○ The British administration imposed multiple restrictions on the
publication at various points, including demanding a high security
deposit.
○ But Sisir Ghosh refused to bow down and continued his fearless
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journalism.
2. Under Ghosh's leadership, the Amrita Bazar Patrika ran several
high-impact campaigns against colonial policies:
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○ Strongly supported the Swadeshi movement and promoted domestic

industries.
○ Criticized the Partition of Bengal and the brutal suppression of
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protests.
○ Raised funds for Bal Gangadhar Tilak's legal defense in the sedition
case against him.
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○ Opposed restrictions imposed on civil liberties of Indians under the

draconian press laws.
3. For his nationalist journalism, Ghosh faced constant harassment from the
British authorities in forms of legal prosecution, demands for security
deposits, and temporary suspensions of publishing.
○ But he soldiered on undeterred in his fight against the Raj.
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India League and Political Activism
1. Apart from journalism, Sisir Ghosh was also actively involved in the Indian
independence movement, especially through the organization he founded
called 'India League' in 1875.
○ The goal of the India League was to promote nationalism among
Indians and unite them across regional, religious, and class divisions
against the British Raj.
2. Ghosh was deeply inspired by the ideals and vision of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
○ When Tilak was imprisoned by the British on sedition charges,
Ghosh raised funds for his legal defense.
○ He was also closely associated with other leading nationalist figures
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like Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh.
3. Through both his journalism and political activism, Ghosh tirelessly
worked to expose colonial exploitation and strengthen the nationalist
movement.
○ He was among the pioneering freedom fighters who laid the
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foundations for India's eventual independence.
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Spiritual Inclinations and Writings
1. Apart from his socio-political activism, Sisir Ghosh was also deeply
influenced by spiritual ideals, especially Vaishnavite philosophy.
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○ He was an ardent devotee of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the 15th
century mystic saint who founded the Hare Krishna movement.
2. Ghosh wrote extensively on Chaitanya's life and teachings in books like
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'Lord Gauranga' and 'Salvation to All'.

○ He highlighted Chaitanya's message of love, equality, and bhakti
marga (path of devotion).
○ He also authored a biography titled 'Narottam Charit' on the
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Vaishnava saint Narottam Das.

3. Through his spiritual writings, Ghosh emerged as a prominent voice for
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promoting the Vaishnava philosophy and devotional worship among

modern Indians.
○ He skillfully reconciled his nationalist, reformist, and spiritual
orientations - seeing no contradictions between the three.
Final Years and Death

1. In his final years, Sisir Kumar Ghosh gradually withdrew from his
journalistic pursuits and public life.
○ Much of his time was devoted to contemplation, worship, and
working on his manuscripts focused on Vaishnavism.
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○ He nurtured a dream of setting up a monastery to promote
Chaitanya's teachings.
2. Ghosh passed away on 10th January 1911 at the age of 71, leaving behind
an unmatched legacy as a journalist, freedom fighter, and spiritual seeker.
○ He inspired a generation of nationalists and social reformers through
his courageous life dedicated to the service of the motherland.
3. The Amrita Bazar Patrika continued to be published under the stewardship
of his son Tushar Kanti Ghosh before finally ceasing publication in 1992,
after an illustrious innings of 124 years.
○ Sisir Ghosh's pioneering contribution left a lasting impact on Indian
journalism and the freedom struggle.
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Conclusion
In many ways, Sisir Kumar Ghosh's life serves as a microcosm of the Indian
national movement - spanning the literary, social, political, and spiritual spheres.
Ghosh's multifaceted legacy continues to inspire later generations of journalists,
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reformers, and spiritual seekers. Through his courageous life dedicated to the
service of the motherland, Ghosh emerges as one of the shining stars of the
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Indian national movement.
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Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru (1875-1949): The
Liberal Leader Who Championed
Constitutional Reforms
Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru (8 December 1875 – 20 January

1949) was an eminent Indian freedom fighter,
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constitutional expert, lawyer and politician who played a
pivotal role in India's struggle for independence. He
advocated dialogue and constitutional methods to
negotiate with the British, while also supporting various
nationalist mass movements at critical junctures. His
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contributions spanned the legal, political and social
spheres.
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Tej Bahadur Sapru was born on 8 December 1875 in Aligarh, United Provinces
(present-day Uttar Pradesh) to a distinguished Kashmiri Pandit family. His father
was Ambika Prasad Sapru and mother was Gaura Hukku.
● He was the 8th cousin of famous Urdu poet Allama Iqbal, who wrote Saare
Jahan Se Accha.
● Sapru had his early schooling in Aligarh and graduated from Agra College
with BA (1894) and MA (1895) degrees.
● He obtained advanced degrees in Law - Master's and Doctorate from
Allahabad University, specializing in constitutional law.
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Sapru married Bishan Kaur and had 2 daughters and 3 sons - Jagdembashwari,
Indra, Jagdish Narain, Jyoti and Tejendra.
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Legal Career
Sapru started legal practice in 1896 at the prestigious Allahabad High
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Court after being called to the Bar.
● He quickly established himself as an erudite constitutional expert and
brilliant lawyer, earning titles like "the Chief Justice who was never
appointed."
Sapru had Purushottam Das Tandon, a future nationalist stalwart, as his
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junior in legal practice.
● He served as the Dean of Banaras Hindu University's Law School and
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mentored a generation of young lawyers.

● Sapru appeared in several landmark cases during his legal career:
○ Defended revolutionaries in the Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1929
along with Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali.
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○ Represented defendants in the INA trials of 1945 along with

Bhulabhai Desai and others.
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○ Argued the seminal Privy Purse case on behalf of Indian rulers in the
Supreme Court.
● Sapru was made a Privy Councilor in 1934 in recognition of his
constitutional expertise.
Political Career
● Sapru served as member of the United Provinces Legislative Council
(1913-1916) and Imperial Legislative Council (1916-1920).
● He held the position of Law Member in the Viceroy's Executive Council
(1920-1923).
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● Led the liberal faction in the Indian National Congress initially, before
forming the National Liberal Federation party in 1919, which he headed.
● Played a leading role in all major constitutional reform debates in British
India as an eminent delegate:
○ Represented India at the 1923 Imperial Conference in London.
○ Led Indian delegation at the three Round Table Conferences on
constitutional reform from 1930-1932.
○ Headed the 1945 Sapru Committee on constitutional proposals.
● Sapru collaborated with Indian National Congress across party lines and
participated in nationalist movements:
○ Supported non-cooperation movement, Salt Satyagraha and Quit
India movement.
○ Helped bring back Tilak and other extremists into Congress
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mainstream in 1916.
● His mediation led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931 allowing Gandhi to
attend the London conference.
● Sapru also negotiated the Poona Pact in 1932 with Ambedkar on reserved
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Contributions to Freedom Struggle
As a constitutional expert and political leader, Sapru made significant
contributions:
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● He constantly engaged the British on political reforms and negotiating

constitutional concessions for India.
● Sapru submitted visionary constitutional proposals in 1945 envisaging
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equal rights for all citizens.

● He supported mass movements like Non-Cooperation while adhering to
constitutional methods, acting as an important bridge between extremists
and moderates.
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● As a brilliant lawyer, Sapru defended several nationalists and

revolutionaries in British Indian courts.
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● He was a key delegate articulating India's case in all major constitutional

conferences in the 1920s and 1930s.
Post-Independence Role
● Sapru was set to serve as Law Minister in the interim government in 1946
but declined due to failing health.
● He co-founded the Indian Council of World Affairs in 1943 and served as its
first President.
● Sapru passed away at age 73 on 20 January 1949 in Allahabad, just 17
months after India gained independence.
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● He remained active with statesman-like guidance to the Constituent
Assembly drafting India's constitution till his last days.
Legacy
● Sapru was a leading light of the Indian bar and enjoyed immense respect
for his legal acumen, wisdom and high integrity.
● He was honored with titles like Privy Councilor (1934) and Knight
Commander of Indian Empire (1922) for his stellar public service.
● Sapru was a devout Hindu and brilliant Persian scholar who also mastered
Urdu and English.
He was a humanist and man of peace who strongly espoused national unity
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and opposed communal divisions throughout his career.
● Sapru was guided by lofty liberal principles and worked to secure equal
rights for all Indian citizens regardless of religion, caste or creed.
● He mentored a generation of young leaders as a sagacious elder statesman
and came to wield enormous moral influence cutting across political
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divides.
● Sapru left an enduring legacy as a nationalist leader of unimpeachable
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integrity, who furthered India's freedom struggle through legal,
constitutional and political means.
Conclusion
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Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru made long-lasting contributions as a constitutional

expert, mass leader, lawyer and negotiator over his distinguished public career
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spanning more than five decades. He helped advance India's freedom movement
by building bridges between opposing factions, securing critical constitutional
concessions from the British and articulating India's national aspirations on
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global platforms. Sapru's humanism, wisdom and high principles serve as an

inspiration for all times.
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Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919): The
Father of Telugu Renaissance
Kandukuri Veeresalingam, a prominent social reformer and

writer, played a pivotal role in shaping the course of Telugu
society and culture. Born on 16 April 1848 in Rajahmundry,
during the era of British India, his life was marked by relentless
efforts to challenge and transform prevailing social norms.
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Veeresalingam's contributions to literature and his unwavering
commitment to social reform earned him the title of the "Father
of the Telugu Renaissance."
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Early Life of Kandukuri Veeresalingam

● Telugu Brahmin Family: Veeresalingam was born into a Telugu-speaking
Brahmin family, setting the stage for his profound impact on Telugu
culture and language.
● Battle with Smallpox: At a mere six months of age, he faced a
life-threatening battle with smallpox, emerging victorious against the odds.
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● Orphaned at Four: Tragedy struck when Veeresalingam's father passed
away when he was just four years old, leaving him orphaned and
vulnerable.
● Adoption: Fortunately, his paternal uncle stepped in and adopted him,
providing him with the support and care needed for a brighter future.
● Education in English Medium: Veeresalingam's education began in an
English medium school, offering him exposure to modern education in
addition to traditional learning.
● Matriculation in 1869: In 1869, he successfully matriculated, marking a
significant milestone in his educational journey.
● Teaching Career: His first job as a teacher took him to Korangi village,
where he would begin to impact the lives of others through education.
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Literary Contributions of Kandukuri Veeresalingam
Kandukuri Veeresalingam was a scholarly figure with proficiency in Telugu,
Sanskrit, and Hindi. His literary works served as a powerful tool to address and
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combat social evils:
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● 'Rajasekhara Charitra': He authored the first novel in Telugu, 'Rajasekhara
Charitra,' a groundbreaking literary achievement.
● 'Viveka Vardhini': In 1887, he established 'Viveka Vardhini,' a journal
dedicated to women's education, emphasizing his commitment to
empowering women.
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● 'Satihita Bodhini': Veeresalingam also founded 'Satihita Bodhini,' a monthly

magazine focused on women's issues, further promoting awareness and
change.
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● 'Vyavahara Dharmabodhini': His work extended to the realm of theater,

with 'Vyavahara Dharmabodhini' being the first staged Telugu drama.
● 'Bramha Vivaham': He authored 'Bramha Vivaham,' a satirical work
challenging those opposed to women's education.
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● 'Satyaraja Poorvadesayatralu': This work presented a satirical critique of

male dominance in society.
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● 'Viveka Deepika': Published in 1880, 'Viveka Deepika' added to his literary

legacy.
● 'Prahlada': In 1885, 'Prahlada,' a play, showcased his versatility as a writer.
● 'Satya Harischandra': The year 1886 saw the publication of 'Satya
Harischandra,' another significant play.
● 'Tiryag- Vidvan Mahasabha': In 1889, 'Tiryag- Vidvan Mahasabha'
furthered his contributions to theater.
● 'Athibalya Vivaham': In 1910, he published 'Athibalya Vivaham,' a
commentary challenging the practice of child marriage.
● 'Sweeyacharitha': Veeresalingam also penned 'Sweeyacharitha,' the first
autobiography in Telugu.
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Translated Works: In addition to his original writings, Veeresalingam translated
works from Sanskrit and English into Telugu, expanding the literary horizons of
the Telugu-speaking community.
Social Reforms by Kandukuri Veeresalingam

Veeresalingam's commitment to social reform extended beyond the realm of
literature. His efforts were instrumental in challenging and reshaping societal
norms:
Emancipation of Women
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● Girls' Education: He opened girls' schools in Dowlaiswaram and Innisipeta,
advocating for women's education.
● Educating His Wife: Veeresalingam himself educated his wife,
Rajyalakshmi, setting an example for the empowerment of women.
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● Widow Remarriage: He was the first advocate of widow remarriage in South
India and facilitated the first such remarriage on 11 December 1881.
● Citing Hindu Scriptures: Veeresalingam used Hindu scriptures to support
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his stance on widow remarriage, challenging deeply ingrained societal
norms.
● Remarriage Association: His efforts culminated in the establishment of the
Remarriage Association, further promoting the cause.
Against Child Marriage and Dowry: He vehemently opposed the practices of
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child marriage and the dowry system, advocating for their abolition.
● Published Articles: Veeresalingam used his writing skills to publish articles
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addressing various women's issues, raising awareness and inspiring

change.
● Influence of Brahmo Samaj: He was influenced by the Brahmo Samaj, a
socio-religious reform movement, which shaped his views on social reform.
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● Indian National Congress: In 1885, he attended the first Indian National

Congress meeting, aligning himself with the broader struggle for Indian
independence.
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● Honored with Rao Bahadur: In recognition of his contributions,

Veeresalingam was honored with the title of Rao Bahadur in 1893.
Personal Life and Legacy

● Marriage: Veeresalingam married Bapamma Rajyalakshmi in 1861 when he
was 14 years old, and she was 9, reflecting the prevailing customs of the
time.
● Passing Away: He passed away at the age of 71, leaving behind a legacy
that would continue to inspire generations.
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● Statue and Stamp: A statue in his honor stands on Beach Road in
Vishakhapatnam, and the Indian Postal Service issued a postage stamp in
his memory in 1974.
Conclusion
Kandukuri Veeresalingam's multifaceted contributions in literature and social
reforms profoundly impacted Telugu society and culture. His pioneering efforts in
women's education, advocacy for widow remarriage, and unwavering fight against
social injustices laid the foundation for a progressive Andhra Pradesh.
Veeresalingam's legacy continues to serve as a beacon of hope and inspiration for
those striving for a more equitable and just society.
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Rani Gaidinliu (1915-1993): A Naga Freedom
Fighter
Rani Gaidinliu (26 January 1915 – 17 February 1993) was a Naga

spiritual and political leader who, at the age of 13, joined the
Heraka religious movement and later led a rebellion against British
colonial rule in India. Imprisoned at 16, she spent 14 years in jail
before being released in 1947. Post-independence, she continued
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to advocate for her people's rights and cultural identity.
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Early Life of Rani Gaidinliu

● Born on January 26, 1915, in Longkao (Nungao) village of Manipur.
● Fifth child among six sisters and one younger brother.
● Parents: Lothonang Pamei (father) and Kachaklenliu (mother).
● Belonged to the Rongmei Naga tribe, part of the Zeliangrong community.
● Known for her dynamic and virtuous personality from childhood.
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● At age 13, influenced by her cousin Haipou Jadonang, she joined the
Heraka religious movement.
● The Heraka movement aimed to revive Naga tribal religion and establish
self-rule.
● Gaidinliu was considered an incarnation of the Goddess Cherachamdinliu
within the Heraka faith.
● Became a political leader, leading a rebellion against British colonial rule in
India.
Involvement in the Freedom Struggle

After the arrest and execution of her cousin Haipou Jadonang by the
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British in 1931, Gaidinliu emerged as his spiritual and political successor.
● She openly rebelled against British rule, urging the Zeliangrong people not
to pay taxes.
● Gaidinliu received donations from local Nagas, many of whom also joined
her as volunteers.
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● She led an armed uprising against the British in Manipur, Nagaland, and
Assam.
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● She established a tribal organization, Kabini Samiti, in 1934.
Life in Prison
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● Arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, Gaidinliu was sentenced to life

imprisonment by the British.
She spent her youthful life in different jails of British India for 14 years.
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● Her prison life included 1 year in Gauhati jail in 1933, and 4 years in Tura
jail from 1943 to 1947.
● During her imprisonment, she was reportedly tortured and harassed by the
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British rulers.
● In 1937, Jawaharlal Nehru met her in Shillong Jail, promising to pursue
her release.
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● Nehru described Gaidinliu as a "daughter of the hills" and gave her the title
'Rani' or Queen.
● Nehru also wrote to the British MP Lady Astor, advocating for Gaidinliu's
release.
● Despite the harsh conditions, Gaidinliu's spirit remained unbroken, as she
continued to dream of freedom for her people.
● After the Interim Government of India was set up in 1946, Gaidinliu was
released on Prime Minister Nehru's orders from Tura jail.
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Life after Independence
● After her release from prison in 1946, Gaidinliu continued to work for the
upliftment of her people.
● She initially stayed at Vimrap village of Tuensang with her younger brother
Marang till 1952.
● In 1952, she was finally allowed to move back to her native village of
Longkao.
● Gaidinliu remained close to Nehru and the Gandhi family.
● She demanded a separate Zeliangrong area within the Union of India.
● Facing opposition from other Naga leaders for her demand, she was forced
to go underground in 1960.
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● She later reached an understanding with the Government of India and
dismantled the underground movement.
● She passed away on 17 February 1993, at the age of 79.
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Legacy and Honors
The Government awarded Rani Gaidinliu the prestigious Padma Bhushan
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award in 1981 for her social work.
● The Government of India issued a postal stamp in her honor in 1996.
● In 2015, the Indian government issued commemorative coins of Rs 100 and
a circulation coin of Rs 5 in her honor.
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● The Indian Coast Guard commissioned a Fast Patrol Vessel named "ICGS
Rani Gaidinliu."
● She was posthumously awarded the Bhagwan Birsa Munda Puraskar in
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1996.
● The Government of India instituted an award called Stree Shakti Puraskar
in honor of five eminent women, of whom Rani Gaidinliu was one.
● She was conferred with the 'Tamrapatra Freedom Fighter Award' in 1972
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and Vivekananda Seva Award in 1983.

● A park along with a statue has been developed by the state government to
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honor the late freedom fighter.

● The Tribal Freedom Fighters museum was named after her and is set up in
her birthplace, Luangkao Village in Tamenglong district.
Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual and political leader, is remembered for her
significant contributions to India's freedom struggle and her relentless advocacy
for the rights and cultural identity of her people. Despite enduring years of
imprisonment and hardship, her spirit remained unbroken. Her legacy continues
to inspire, and she has been honored posthumously with numerous awards and
recognitions, including a postal stamp, commemorative coins, and a museum
named after her.
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Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (1887-1964)
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, born on February 2, 1887, in Badshah

Bagh, Lucknow, India, was a remarkable individual whose life
and contributions left an indelible mark on the nation. Her
journey was characterized by diverse experiences, unwavering
commitment to social reform, and an unshakable belief in India's
quest for independence.
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Life and Background

● Early Years: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur was born to a distinguished family. Her
father, Raja Sir Harnam Singh Ahluwalia, and mother, Priscilla Golaknath,
instilled in her a strong sense of purpose and duty. Raised amidst ten
siblings, she was the only daughter, which influenced her perspective on
gender equality.
● Education Abroad: Her educational journey took her from the Sherborne
School for Girls in Dorset, England, to the prestigious Oxford University.
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This exposure to Western education played a crucial role in shaping her
worldview.
● Return to India: Amrit Kaur's return to India in 1918 coincided with the
fervor of the Indian independence movement. This pivotal moment would
set the stage for her lifelong commitment to the nation's cause.
Political and Social Contributions

● Association with Indian National Congress: Her father's close association
with the Indian National Congress, along with the mentorship of Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, introduced her to the political landscape at a young age.
Meeting Mahatma Gandhi: In 1919, in Bombay (Mumbai), she had the
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privilege of meeting Mahatma Gandhi, a fateful encounter that shaped her
future.
● Advocate for Social Reforms: Amrit Kaur fervently opposed the Purdah
system, child marriage, and campaigned against the Devadasi system,
demonstrating her unwavering dedication to social reform.
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● Co-Founding All India Women's Conference: In 1927, she co-founded the
All India Women's Conference and served as its secretary in 1930 and later
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as president in 1933.
● Participation in Freedom Movement: Amrit Kaur actively participated in
iconic events like the Dandi March, the Quit India Movement, and criticized
the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
● Imprisonment: She faced imprisonment for her involvement in the Dandi
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March, sedition charges in Bannu, and her active role in the Quit India
Movement.
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Healthcare and Education Leadership

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● First Health Minister of India: In 1947, Amrit Kaur assumed the role of
India's first Health Minister, holding office until 1957, and also serving as
the Sports and Urban Development Minister.
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● Healthcare Reforms: Under her leadership, she championed women's

rights, spearheaded efforts to eradicate malaria and tuberculosis, and
initiated the BCG vaccination program.
● Educational Roles: Amrit Kaur's dedication to education extended to her
roles as chairperson of the All India Women's Education Fund Association
and an executive committee member of Lady Irwin College in New Delhi.
● International Representation: She represented India at UNESCO
conferences in London (1945) and Paris (1946), emphasizing literacy and
women's education on the global stage.
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Religious and Cultural Identity
● Punjabi Christian: Amrit Kaur's identity as a Punjabi Christian was
significant. She was actively involved with Christian missionary
organizations and served as a liaison with Jawaharlal Nehru.
Significant Contributions and Legacy

● Driving Force Behind AIIMS: Her tireless efforts led to the establishment of
AIIMS, with the introduction of a bill in the Lok Sabha in 1956. Funds were
collected from countries like New Zealand and Australia, as well as
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organizations like the Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation, to
support this endeavor.
● Constituent Assembly Member: Amrit Kaur played a pivotal role in the
drafting of India's Constitution, advocating for universal suffrage, opposing
women's reservation, and supporting a uniform civil code.
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● First Woman in Cabinet: As the first woman in the Indian Cabinet, she
campaigned against malaria and tuberculosis, and her advocacy for the
rhythm method highlighted her commitment to healthcare.
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● Nursing and Sports Development: She founded the Indian Council of Child
Welfare, the National Sports Club of India, and served as chairperson of the
Indian Red Cross Society and the Rajkumari Amrit Kaur College of Nursing.
● Parliamentary Contributions: Amrit Kaur was a member of both the Lok
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Sabha (1952-1957) and the Rajya Sabha (1957-1964). She also served as
the president of institutions like the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,
Tuberculosis Association of India, and St. John's Ambulance Corps. Her
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numerous awards, including the Rene Sand Memorial Award and TIME
Magazine's Woman of the Year (1947), reflect her exceptional contributions.
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Conclusion
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In conclusion, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur was a multifaceted personality who made

extraordinary contributions to India's healthcare, education, and social reform
sectors. As India's first Health Minister and a pioneering figure in Indian politics,
she played a pivotal role in shaping the nation's public healthcare system and
advocating for social reforms. Her legacy continues to inspire and influence
generations, standing as a testament to her unwavering commitment to the
betterment of society and her beloved nation.
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Subramania Bharati (Mahakavi Bharatiyar)
(1882-1921): Shaping Nationalism with Verse
I. Introduction
Subramania Bharati, also known as Mahakavi Bharatiyar, was a renowned
Indian writer, journalist, and activist who was instrumental in shaping the Tamil
language's modern literary style. Born in the late 19th century, his life was a
testament to his revolutionary spirit and relentless pursuit of social justice. He
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utilized his talents in literature and journalism to fuel the Indian nationalist
movement, leaving an indelible mark on both the literary world and the Indian
independence struggle. His works, embodying a strong sense of nationalism and
an equally fervent call for social reform, continue to inspire millions.
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II. Early Life & Education

● Subramania Bharati was born on December 11, 1882, in Ettayapuram,
Madras Presidency. His parents were Chinnaswamy Iyer and Lakshmi
Ammal.
● He lost his mother at a young age of 5.
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● Bharati displayed extraordinary literary and debating skills from an early
age.
● He won a debate contest held at the court of Maharaja of Ettayapuram at
age 11. Impressed by his debating abilities, the Maharaja conferred him the
title "Bharati". From then on, he was known as Subramania Bharati.
● Bharati did his schooling till 9th grade at the Hindu School in Tirunelveli.
He enhanced his poetic and literary abilities during this period.
● At the age of 16, Bharati moved to Varanasi to live with his uncle after the
death of his father.
● In Varanasi, Bharati gained knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindi, and English.
● He also successfully passed the Entrance Examination of Allahabad
University during his stay in Varanasi.
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III. Personal Life
● Bharati got married at a very early age of 15, in line with the prevailing
customs of those days. His wife's name was Chellama.
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● The death of Bharati's father occurred when he was only 16 years old. This
unfortunate event led to the onset of financial difficulties and plunged him
into poverty.
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IV. Career
Bharati kickstarted his career as a Tamil teacher at the Sethupathi High
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●
School in Madurai. He also served as a court poet at the request of the king
of Ettayapuram for a short period.
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● In a significant career shift, Bharati joined the Tamil daily newspaper,

Swadesamitran, in the year 1904. This marked his entry into the field of
journalism.
● During this period, Bharati became actively involved with the extremist
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wing of the Indian National Congress (INC). He notably attended the

Benaras Session in 1905 and the Surat Session in 1907, where his
patriotic fervour left a mark on national leaders.
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● In a pioneering move, Bharati introduced the weekly newspaper 'India'.

This publication stood out as the first paper in Tamil Nadu to feature
political cartoons, reflecting Bharati's innovative approach to journalism.
V. Activism
Early Involvement in the Nationalist Movement
● Post joining the Tamil daily newspaper, Swadesamitran in 1904, Bharati
began his active engagement in political affairs, marking the beginning of
his role in the nationalist movement.
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● His involvement with the extremist wing of the Indian National Congress
(INC) added momentum to his activism. Bharati's presence at the annual
INC sessions provided him with opportunities to interact with eminent
national leaders.
Revolutionary Journalism
● Bharati's approach to journalism was indeed revolutionary. He introduced
the weekly newspaper 'India', printed on red paper, symbolizing revolution
and defiance.
● Bharati brought a unique element to the journalism scene in Tamil Nadu
by featuring political cartoons in his newspaper, 'India'.
● Apart from 'India', Bharati contributed to other publications like 'Vijaya'
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and 'Sudesa Geethangal' as well, leaving his imprints on multiple
platforms.
Role in the Freedom Movement
E
● Bharati's contribution to the freedom movement was immense. His
compelling writings, filled with patriotic fervour, served as a call to action
for the youth and common people, inspiring them to join the struggle for
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independence.
● His efforts to intensify the freedom struggle extended to organizing
meetings with revolutionary national leaders, facilitating a shared platform
for discourse and strategic planning.
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Philosophy and Advocacy

E
● Bharati's poetry reflected his profound social justice philosophy. His fight
for self-determination and freedom was a recurring theme in his literary
works.
● Alongside, Bharati actively advocated against caste-based discrimination
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and gender inequality, reinforcing his stand as a social reformer and a

champion of equality.
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Reaction to International Events

● Bharati's reaction to the Russian Revolutions of 1917 manifested in his
poetry. His poem, 'Pudiya Russia' ('The New Russia'), reflected his political
philosophy and his empathetic response to international events.
VI. Exile and Life in Pondicherry

● Bharati found himself exiled to Pondicherry, a French colony, due to his
involvement with revolutionary faction of Indian National Congress (INC).
His period of exile extended from 1910 to 1919.
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● Despite his situation, Bharati didn't deter from his path. He continued his
work in publishing and activism during his time in Pondicherry. His
nationalistic poems and essays found significant success in this phase.
● An interesting aspect of Bharati's life in Pondicherry was his association
with Aurobindo Ghosh, a renowned freedom fighter and spiritual reformer.
Their relationship lent a unique dynamic to Bharati's exile period.
● Unfortunately, Bharati's active stand against British rule led to his arrest
in 1918. This was followed by a ban on his publications, leading to severe
hardships for the poet. Despite these hurdles, Bharati persevered in his
commitment to the cause of independence and social reform.
VII. Literary Works
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● Bharati's oeuvre is rich and varied, with notable works including Kaṇṇan
pāṭṭu (Songs to Krishna), Panchali sapatham (Panchali's Vow), and Kuyil
pāṭṭu (Kuyil's Song). These literary pieces not only showcased his profound
lyrical talent but also his dedication to spiritual and patriotic themes.
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● In terms of his influence, Bharati's contributions to modern Tamil poetry
are unparalleled. His translations of spiritual texts like the Bhagavad Gita
into Tamil made these revered scriptures accessible to a broader audience,
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fostering a deeper connection between the Tamil-speaking population and
the rich heritage of spiritual literature.
● Bharati was not just a master of the Tamil language, but he was proficient
in English too. His collection of English works was later published in 'Agni
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and Other Poems and Translations and Essays and Other Prose Fragments'
in 1937. This collection showcased his writing prowess and his ability to
navigate different literary styles with ease.
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VIII. Final Days and Legacy

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● Bharati's final chapter started with his return to Chennai. A significant

event from this period is his encounter with an elephant at the
Parthasarathy Temple, which led to his tragic death on September 11,
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1921.
● In his short lifespan, Bharati made an enduring impact on the Indian
freedom struggle. He is remembered as a significant reformer who used his
words as weapons to inspire his fellow countrymen. As a spiritual
philosopher, his thoughts and ideas transcended the constraints of time
and place, making him a timeless figure in Indian history.
● In addition to his political contributions, Bharati's legacy in the field of
literature and poetry is equally significant. His writings, filled with love for
the nation and humanity, have inspired generations and continue to be
celebrated.
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● Bharati's life and works are commemorated every year during the
International Bharati Festival. Organized by the Vanavil Cultural Centre in
Tamil Nadu, the festival marks Bharati's birth anniversary and features the
prestigious Bharathi Award. This annual event is a testament to Bharati's
enduring legacy and the lasting impact of his contributions.
IX. Misinterpretation of Bharati's Ideals

● Certain Dravidian academicians and writers have represented Bharati's
ideals in a skewed manner. They portray him as being against the Brahmin
community and Hindu religion. However, a comprehensive study of
Bharati's writings and philosophy reveals a different picture.
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● Bharati's stance on untouchability was quite clear. He staunchly opposed
this inhumane practice and advocated for the abolishment of such
discriminatory social norms. His writings often condemned untouchability,
indicating his deep-seated belief in human equality and dignity.
● Similarly, Bharati's views on women were progressive and empowering. He
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consistently argued against gender inequality and emphasized the
importance of women's education and empowerment. His works reflect his
vision of a society where women are given their rightful place and treated
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with respect and equality.
● It's essential to interpret Bharati's ideals in their correct context. While he
critiqued certain practices within the Brahmin community and Hindu
religion, his criticism was aimed at the systemic inequalities and not
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against any particular community or religion as a whole. His overarching
aim was to foster a society that embraced unity, equality, and social
justice.
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X. Conclusion
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Subramania Bharati's life, marked by a fervent commitment to social justice and

freedom, has left an indelible mark on Indian history. His work as a journalist,
poet, and activist consistently pushed for progressive change, transforming the
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Tamil literary world and leaving a legacy that continues to inspire. In

understanding Bharati, one must delve into his ideals, acknowledging the full
spectrum of his philosophy. This way, his true spirit can continue to guide future
generations towards a more equitable society.
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Other Personalities
Cornelia Sorabji Cornelia Sorabji was a pioneering figure in Indian

history, born on November 15, 1866, in Nashik,
Maharashtra. She was the first woman to graduate
from Bombay University and the first Indian woman
to study law at Oxford University, as well as the first
female lawyer in both India and Britain. Influenced
by her mother, who was an advocate for women's
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education and established several girls' schools in
Pune, Sorabji was a trailblazer for women's rights
and education. Despite facing discrimination and
opposition, she persisted in her legal career,
advocating for the rights of purdahnashins—women
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who were secluded and unable to communicate with
the outside male world. Sorabji helped over 600
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women and orphans with legal advice and
representation, sometimes pro bono. She authored
several books, including her autobiographies "India
Calling: The Memories of Cornelia Sorabji" and
"India Recalled," as well as "Between The Twilights,"
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which recounts her experiences in the legal field.

Sorabji passed away on July 6, 1954, in London,
leaving behind a legacy of breaking barriers and
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advocating for social reform. Her life's work paved the

way for future generations of women in law and
continues to inspire many.
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Amritlal Vithalal Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar, known as Thakkar Bapa,
Thakkar was born on November 29, 1869, in Bhavnagar,
Gujarat, and died on January 20, 1951. Coming from
a middle-class family, he completed his education in
civil engineering and initially worked as an engineer
in India and Uganda before resigning in 1914 to focus
on social work. He joined the Servants of India
Society and became deeply involved in advocating for
the rights of untouchables and tribals. Thakkar Bapa
founded the Bhil Seva Mandal in 1922 and later
became the general secretary of the Harijan Sevak
Sangh, established by Mahatma Gandhi. He also
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contributed to the Indian constitution-making
process, particularly in matters related to tribal and
Harijan communities. Thakkar authored "Tribes of
India," reflecting his engagement with tribal issues.
His dedication to serving marginalized communities
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earned him the title "Father of Harijans" from Gandhi,
and he was honored with a commemorative stamp by
the Government of India in 1969.
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K. B. Hedgewar Keshav Baliram Hedgewar, commonly referred to as
Doctorji, was born on April 1, 1889, in Kandakurthi,
Central Provinces, British India (now in
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Maharashtra), and died on June 21, 1940, in Nagpur.

He was an Indian physician and the founding
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Sarsanghachalak of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak

Sangh (RSS), an organization he established in 1925
in Nagpur with the aim of promoting Hindu
nationalism and the ideology of Hindutva. Hedgewar's
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early life was marked by his involvement in

anti-British activities and his association with
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revolutionary groups like the Anushilan Samiti. He

was deeply influenced by nationalist leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.
Despite his medical background, Hedgewar devoted his
life to social and political activism, focusing on
organizing Hindus to create a united India rooted in
indigenous ideology. His legacy as a nationalist and
the founder of the RSS has been recognized
posthumously, including through a commemorative
stamp issued by the Indian government in 1999.
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Barindra Kumar Barindra Kumar Ghosh, born on January 5, 1880, in
Ghosh Croydon, near London, was a significant figure in the
Indian revolutionary movement and a journalist. He
was the younger brother of the renowned spiritual
leader and philosopher Sri Aurobindo. Barindra's early
life was influenced by his family's intellectual and
reformist background, with his father being a
physician and his mother, the daughter of the Brahmo
reformer Rajnarayan Basu. After completing his
education, Barindra was drawn towards the
revolutionary movement, inspired by his brother
Aurobindo. He became one of the founding members of
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Jugantar, a key revolutionary outfit in Bengal, which
was involved in various anti-British activities. His
revolutionary activities led to his arrest and
subsequent life imprisonment in the notorious
Cellular Jail in the Andamans, although he was
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released in 1920. Later in life, Barindra shifted
towards spirituality and journalism, contributing to
various publications and starting his own, including
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"The Dawn of India." He also authored several books,
including "The Tale of My Exile," detailing his
experiences in the Andamans. Barindra Kumar Ghosh
passed away on April 18, 1959, leaving behind a
legacy of both revolutionary zeal and intellectual
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contributions to India's freedom movement and

cultural discourse.
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Dr. Zakir Hussain Dr. Zakir Hussain, born on February 8, 1897, in

Hyderabad, was an esteemed Indian educationist
and politician who made history as the third
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President of India, serving from May 13, 1967, until

his death on May 3, 1969. His early life was marked
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by the loss of his parents, which led him to pursue

education with a fervent zeal. He was a key figure in
the establishment of the National Muslim University
in Aligarh, which later became Jamia Millia Islamia,
showcasing his commitment to education and the
Indian freedom movement. Hussain's academic
journey took him to the University of Berlin, where he
earned a Ph.D. in Economics. Throughout his career,
he held several significant positions, including Vice
Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University and
Governor of Bihar, before ascending to the roles of
Vice President and then President of India. His
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contributions to education and politics were recognized
with India's highest civilian awards, the Padma
Vibhushan in 1954 and the Bharat Ratna in 1963.
Hussain was also a prolific writer, contributing to
children's literature and translating significant works
into Urdu, reflecting his deep engagement with
education and culture. His legacy as a leader who
bridged the gap between education and governance
remains influential.
Dhondo Keshav Dhondo Keshav Karve, affectionately known as
Karve Annasheb Karve, was a prominent Indian social
reformer and educator born on April 18, 1858, in
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Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. He was a trailblazer in the
field of women's education and empowerment,
dedicating his life to improving the status of women in
Indian society. Karve founded the Hindu Widows'
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Home Association in 1896 and went on to establish
the first women's university in India, the SNDT
Women's University, in 1916. His efforts were
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recognized with the Bharat Ratna, India's highest
civilian award, in 1958. Karve was also a prolific
writer, authoring autobiographies such as
'Atmawrutta' in Marathi and 'Looking Back' in
English, which provide insights into his life and the
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social conditions of the time. He passed away on

November 9, 1962, at the age of 104, leaving behind a
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legacy of relentless work towards the upliftment of

women and the promotion of education.
Govind Ballabh Govind Ballabh Pant was a prominent Indian freedom
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Pant fighter and politician, born on September 10, 1887,

in Khoont village near Almora, in a Maharashtrian
Brahmin family. He studied at Allahabad University
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and began his career as a lawyer in Kashipur. Pant's

political journey started in 1921 when he was elected
to the Legislative Assembly of the United Provinces
of Agra and Oudh. He became deeply involved in the
Indian independence movement, representing
revolutionaries in the Kakori case and participating in
the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Civil
Disobedience Movement, and the Satyagraha
Movement, which led to multiple imprisonments. After
India's independence, Pant served as the first Chief
Minister of Uttar Pradesh, where he implemented
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significant reforms such as the abolition of the
zamindari system and the enactment of the Hindu
Code Bill, which granted Hindu women the rights to
divorce and inheritance. Later, as Union Home
Minister from 1955 until his death on March 7, 1961,
he played a pivotal role in the reorganization of states
on linguistic lines and the establishment of Hindi as
an official language. Pant was awarded the Bharat
Ratna, India's highest civilian honor, in 1957 for his
service to the nation.
Jatindra Nath Das Jatindra Nath Das, also known as Jatin Das, was a
fervent Indian freedom fighter born on October 27,
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1904, in Calcutta. His life was marked by a deep
commitment to the cause of Indian independence,
which he pursued from a young age. Das was a bright
student who joined the Anushilan Samiti, a
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revolutionary group in Bengal, and actively
participated in Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation
Movement at the tender age of 17. His revolutionary
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activities led to his arrest in November 1925 while he
was pursuing a BA at Vidyasagar College in Calcutta.
In jail, he protested against the ill-treatment of political
prisoners through a hunger strike, a form of protest
he would tragically repeat. On June 14, 1929, Das
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was arrested again for his revolutionary activities and

imprisoned in Lahore jail, where he began a hunger
E
strike demanding equality for Indian political

prisoners. His steadfast resolve and refusal to end his
hunger strike without the fulfillment of his demands
led to his death on September 13, 1929, after 63
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days of fasting, at the age of 24. His death sparked

widespread protest and mourning throughout India,
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highlighting the inhumane treatment of Indian

prisoners and further galvanizing the freedom
movement. The Indian government honored his
sacrifice by issuing a special postage stamp on the
50th anniversary of his martyrdom.
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Kalpana Datta Kalpana Datta, born on July 27, 1913, in Sripur,
Chittagong, was a revolutionary figure in the Indian
independence movement, particularly remembered
for her role in the Chittagong armoury raid in 1930.
After completing her matriculation in 1929, she moved
to Calcutta to pursue higher education at Bethune
College. Influenced by the revolutionary spirit of the
time, she joined the Chhatri Sangha, a women's
student association, and was drawn into the
revolutionary activities led by Surya Sen. Datta played
a crucial role in the transportation of explosives and
was involved in the planning of attacks against British
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establishments, including the European Club in
Chittagong. Her involvement led to her arrest and she
was sentenced to transportation for life, although she
was released in 1939. After India's independence,
Datta shifted towards political activism, joining the
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Communist Party of India, and later focused on
social work. She married P.C. Joshi, a leader of the
Communist Party of India, and continued her
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engagement in social causes until her death on
February 8, 1995, in Kolkata. Datta's life and
contributions were marked by her unwavering
commitment to the cause of Indian independence and
social reform.
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Khudiram Bose Khudiram Bose was a young Indian revolutionary

E
from Bengal, born on December 3, 1889, in the

village of Mohobani, under the Keshpur Police
Station in the Midnapore district of Bengal. He was
one of the youngest participants in the Indian
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independence movement against British colonial

rule. Bose was deeply influenced by the notion of
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karma from the Bhagavad Gita and was involved in

revolutionary activities from a young age. He joined the
revolutionary group Anushilan Samiti and was
involved in distributing anti-British propaganda and
planting bombs near police stations to target
government officials. His most notable act was the
attempted assassination of the British magistrate
Douglas Kingsford, which unfortunately resulted in
the death of two innocent British women. Bose and his
associate Prafulla Chaki had planned to kill Kingsford
to avenge the harsh sentences he had passed on
Indian freedom fighters. After the failed assassination
427
attempt, Chaki committed suicide, and Bose was
arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. Despite his
young age, Bose faced his execution with remarkable
courage, smiling as he went to the gallows. He was
hanged on August 11, 1908, at the age of 18,
becoming one of the youngest martyrs in the history of
India's struggle for independence. His legacy continues
to inspire future generations, and his life is
commemorated in various ways, including films and
institutions named in his honor.
Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy was born on July 30,
Dr. Muthulakshmi 1886, in Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu, to a Devadasi
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Reddy mother and a progressive Brahmin father. She
overcame societal barriers to become one of the first
female doctors in India, graduating from Madras
Medical College in 1912. Reddy was a trailblazer in
E
many fields, notably as the first woman legislator in
British India and an advocate for women's rights. She
played a pivotal role in the abolition of the Devadasi
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system and championed the cause of women's and
children's welfare. In addition to her medical and
political career, she founded the Adyar Cancer
Institute in 1954 and was a prolific writer, authoring
books like 'My Experience as a Legislator'. Her efforts
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were recognized with the Padma Bhushan award in

1956. Reddy passed away on July 22, 1968, leaving a
E
profound impact on healthcare, politics, and social

reform in India.
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Kamaladevi Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay was born on April 3,

Chattopadhyay 1903, in Mangalore, Karnataka, into a well-off
Saraswat Brahmin family. She emerged as a prominent
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figure in India's struggle for independence, a

passionate advocate for women's rights, and a key
player in the revival of Indian handicrafts and
handlooms. Kamaladevi was a visionary who also
contributed significantly to the fields of art, theater,
and literature. She was married twice, first at a young
age to Krishna Rao, who died early, and then to
Harindranath Chattopadhyay, a poet and dramatist.
Her literary contributions include her autobiography,
"Inner Recesses, Outer Spaces," published in 1986,
which won her the Padma Vibhushan in 1987 for
428
literary excellence. Kamaladevi was instrumental in
setting up various cultural institutions in India,
including the National School of Drama and the
Sangeet Natak Akademi. She was a recipient of several
prestigious awards, including the Ramon Magsaysay
Award in 1966, and the Padma Bhushan in 1955.
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay passed away on October
29, 1988, leaving behind a legacy of relentless pursuit
of social reform, cultural revival, and empowerment of
women.
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Anasuya Sarabhai, born on November 11, 1885, in
Anasuya Sarabhai Ahmedabad, Gujarat, was a pioneering figure in India's
labor movement and a champion for women's rights.
Coming from a wealthy industrialist family, she faced
personal tragedies early in life with the loss of her
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parents at age nine and an early forced marriage,
which she later annulled. With her brother's support,
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Sarabhai went to England in 1912, initially to study
medicine but switched to the London School of
Economics after being influenced by the Fabian Society
and the suffragette movement. Upon returning to
India, she became deeply involved in social work,
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focusing on the plight of disempowered women and

laborers. In 1920, she founded the Ahmedabad
Textile Labour Association, India's oldest union of
E
textile workers, becoming India's first woman trade

union leader. Sarabhai was affectionately known as
"Motaben" (elder sister in Gujarati) for her work. She
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passed away on November 1, 1972, leaving behind a

legacy of advocacy for labor rights and women's
empowerment.
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Abdul Halim Sir Abdul Halim Khan Ghaznavi was a distinguished
Ghaznavi figure in the political, social, and economic spheres of
British India, born on November 11, 1876, in
Delduar, Tangail, Bengal. Coming from a prominent
zamindar family, he pursued his education at City
School and St. Xavier's College, Kolkata. Ghaznavi's
career was marked by his early involvement in politics,
initially opposing the partition of Bengal in 1905 and
later aligning with the All India Muslim League. He
served as a member of the Central Legislative
Assembly, representing the Dacca Rural and Dacca
SS
cum Mymensingh constituencies from 1926 to 1945.
His contributions extended beyond politics; he was an
industrialist and played a significant role in the
publication of newspapers like The Musalman and The
Star of India, supporting the Muslim League's
E
ideologies. Ghaznavi was knighted in 1935,
acknowledging his contributions to society. He passed
away on June 18, 1953, in Delduar, leaving behind a
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legacy of leadership and service.
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Hemachandra Hemchandra Kanungo was a key figure in the Indian

Kanungo freedom struggle, born on August 4, 1871, in
E
Radhanagar, Bengal. A member of the Anushilan

Samiti, a revolutionary group, Kanungo's journey to
Paris in 1907 to learn bomb-making techniques from
Russian revolutionaries marked a significant turn in
S
his life. Upon returning, he established a secret bomb

factory in Kolkata, significantly advancing the Indian
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nationalist movement's armed resistance against

British rule. Kanungo was deeply involved in the
Alipore Bomb Case alongside Aurobindo Ghosh,
leading to his imprisonment and later release in 1921.
His efforts were pioneering, making him one of the first
revolutionaries to seek military training abroad for
India's independence. Kanungo passed away on April
8, 1951, leaving behind a legacy of courage and
dedication to India's freedom.
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Sachchidananda Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was a prominent Indian
lawyer, journalist, and parliamentarian born on
Sinha November 10, 1871, in Ara, Bengal Presidency
(present-day Bihar). He played a pivotal role in the
formation of the modern state of Bihar and was a key
architect in its development. Sinha was the first
President of the Constituent Assembly of India, serving
temporarily from December 9 to December 11, 1946,
before being succeeded by Dr. Rajendra Prasad. His
career spanned various roles, including membership in
the Imperial Legislative Council and the Central
SS
Legislative Assembly. He was also a member of the
Privy Council and an educationist, serving as the
Vice-Chancellor of Patna University from 1936 to 1944.
Sinha was a passionate advocate for the rights of
Biharis and worked towards the creation of a separate
E
province for Bihar. As an academician, he authored
multiple books and was the editor of the Hindustan
Review, a monthly magazine. Sinha passed away on
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March 6, 1950, in Patna, Bihar.
Sachindra Nath Sachindra Nath Sanyal was a revolutionary freedom

X
Sanyal fighter born on April 3, 1890, in Benares, Uttar

Pradesh. He was a co-founder of the Hindustan
Republican Association (HRA), which later became
E
the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

(HSRA). Sanyal played a significant role in the Indian
revolutionary movement, mentoring figures like Bhagat
Singh and participating in the Gadar conspiracy. He
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authored the influential book "Bandi Jeevan" (A Life of

Captivity), which detailed his experiences and thoughts
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on the freedom struggle. Sanyal was involved in the

Kakori conspiracy, for which he was imprisoned in
the notorious Cellular Jail in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. He died on February 7, 1942, in
Gorakhpur Jail, after contracting tuberculosis in the
harsh prison conditions.
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Margaret Margaret Elizabeth Noble, better known as Sister
Elizabeth Noble Nivedita, was an Irish-born teacher, author, and
disciple of Swami Vivekananda. Born on October 28,
(Sister Nivedita) 1867, in Dungannon, Ireland, she moved to India and
dedicated her life to the education and welfare of
Indian women. Influenced by her father, a pastor who
believed in serving mankind, Nivedita's early life was
steeped in a sense of service and spirituality. After
meeting Swami Vivekananda in London in 1895, she
was inspired to move to India in 1898, where she
adopted the name Nivedita, meaning "Dedicated to
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God". Her work in India included founding a girls'
school, advocating for Indian independence, and
supporting the arts and sciences. Nivedita wrote
extensively, with works like "Kali the Mother" and "The
Web of Indian Life" highlighting her deep engagement
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with Indian culture and her efforts to promote social
reform. She passed away on October 13, 1911, in
Darjeeling, leaving behind a legacy of dedication to
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India's liberation and progress.
Madan Lal Madan Lal Dhingra was an Indian revolutionary born

X
Dhingra on February 18, 1883, in Amritsar, Punjab, into an

affluent and educated family. He moved to England in
1906 to study engineering at University College
E
London. Influenced by the nationalist sentiments and

the Swadeshi movement, Dhingra became involved
with the India House and the Abhinav Bharat
Society, radical organizations advocating for Indian
S
independence. He assassinated Sir William Hutt

Curzon Wyllie, a British official, on July 1, 1909, in an
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act of political defiance. Dhingra was tried and

executed by hanging on August 17, 1909, at
Pentonville Prison. His actions were driven by a desire
to protest against British colonial rule in India and
inspired future generations of freedom fighters.
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Mukhtar Ahmed Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari was a significant figure in
Ansari Indian history, born on December 25, 1880, in
Yusufpur-Mohammadabad, Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh.
He was a renowned physician and a fervent nationalist,
deeply involved in the Indian independence movement.
Ansari pursued his medical education at Madras
Medical College and furthered his studies in the UK,
where he earned his MD and MS degrees. His medical
career was distinguished, and he was known for his
pioneering work in surgery. Ansari's political journey
was marked by his leadership roles in both the Indian
SS
National Congress and the Muslim League, showcasing
his commitment to India's freedom and communal
harmony. He played a pivotal role in the Lucknow Pact
and was a staunch supporter of the Khilafat
Movement. Ansari was also instrumental in the
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founding of Jamia Millia Islamia University, serving as
its chancellor from 1928 to 1936. His dedication to
Hindu-Muslim unity and his close association with
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Mahatma Gandhi were notable aspects of his legacy.
Ansari passed away on May 10, 1936, leaving behind
a rich legacy of medical excellence and nationalist
fervor.
X
Prafulla Chaki Prafulla Chaki was a young revolutionary born on

E
December 10, 1888, in Bogra, Bengal Presidency,

British India (now Bangladesh). He became a key figure
in the Indian independence movement through his
association with the Jugantar group, a radical
S
organization aiming to overthrow British rule in India.

Chaki's early life was marked by his expulsion from
IA
school due to his involvement in political activities,

which led him to join the Rangpur National School
where he met other revolutionaries. His commitment to
the cause of freedom was evident in his participation in
the attempted assassination of British magistrate
Douglas Kingsford in 1908, alongside Khudiram
Bose. The mission, however, resulted in the accidental
death of two British women, and Chaki, to avoid
capture by the British police, took his own life on May
1, 1908, at Mokama Ghat Railway Station in Patna,
Bihar. Chaki's act of self-sacrifice at a young age made
433
him a martyr and an inspiring figure in the struggle for
India's independence.
Pulin Behari Das Pulin Behari Das was a revolutionary leader and the
founder-president of the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti,
born on January 24, 1877, in Faridpur, Bengal (now
Bangladesh). Coming from a middle-class Bengali
Hindu family, Das was deeply influenced by nationalist
sentiments from a young age. He pursued his
education at Dhaka College, where he also worked as a
laboratory assistant. Das's revolutionary activities
SS
began in earnest when he established the Dhaka
Anushilan Samiti in 1906, aiming to mobilize youth for
the cause of Indian independence through physical
training and armed resistance. His leadership in
organizing the Samiti and his involvement in various
E
revolutionary acts, including the planned assassination
of British officials and participation in dacoities,
PR
marked him as a significant figure in the Indian
freedom struggle. Despite facing imprisonment and
house arrest, Das remained committed to the
revolutionary cause until his death on August 17,
1949, in Kolkata. His life and work left a lasting
X
impact on the movement for India's independence.

E
Tarabai shinde Tarabai Shinde was a pioneering feminist activist born

in 1850 in Buldhana, Berar Province, British India
(now Maharashtra). She was a trailblazer in
S
challenging the patriarchal and caste systems of

19th-century India through her writings and activism.
IA
Educated by her father in Marathi, Sanskrit, and

English, Shinde was ahead of her time in both thought
and action. Her most notable work, "Stri Purush
Tulana" (A Comparison Between Women and Men),
published in 1882, stands as one of the earliest
feminist texts in modern India, critiquing the social
inequalities and double standards faced by women.
Despite facing societal backlash, her work, which
remained largely unrecognized until its rediscovery in
1975, has since been hailed for its bold critique of
gender relations. Shinde's association with Jotirao
434
and Savitribai Phule and her involvement in the
Satyashodhak Samaj underscored her commitment to
social reform. She passed away in 1910, leaving
behind a legacy of courage and advocacy for women's
rights.
M.S golwalkar Madhav Sadashivrao Golwalkar, popularly known as

Guruji, was the second Sarsanghchalak of the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Born on
February 19, 1906, in Nagpur, Maharashtra, he came
from a Marathi Karhade Brahmin family. Golwalkar
SS
pursued his education in science, obtaining a Bachelor
of Science degree from Banaras Hindu University
(BHU) and later a master's degree in biology. Initially
apolitical, his interests gradually turned towards
spirituality and religion. He was deeply influenced by
E
nationalist leader Madan Mohan Malaviya and the
teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Golwalkar became a
PR
key figure in the RSS, shaping its ideology and
expansion. He authored the book "We, or Our
Nationhood Defined" and the compilation "Bunch of
Thoughts", which outlined his vision of a Hindu nation.
Golwalkar passed away on June 5, 1973, leaving a
X
controversial legacy due to his views on nationalism

and his role in the RSS.
E
Vernier Elwin Verrier Elwin was an English-born Indian

anthropologist, ethnologist, and tribal activist, born on
S
August 29, 1902, in Dover, England. Initially arriving

in India as a Christian missionary in 1927, Elwin's life
IA
took a dramatic turn as he immersed himself in the

study of Indian tribal cultures, particularly the Gonds
and Baigas of central India, and later the tribes of
Northeast India. He abandoned his missionary work,
influenced by Gandhi's philosophies, and became a
staunch advocate for tribal rights and their way of life.
Elwin authored several books, including "The Tribal
World of Verrier Elwin," which won the Sahitya
Akademi Award, and "The Muria and Their Ghotul,"
reflecting his deep engagement with tribal societies. He
was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1961 for his
435
contributions. Elwin passed away on February 22,
1964, after a heart attack, leaving behind a legacy of
compassionate ethnography and advocacy for India's
tribal communities.
Hamid dalwai Hamid Dalwai was a visionary Indian social reformer,

journalist, and author born on September 29, 1932,
in Mirjoli, Bombay Presidency, British India. He is best
known for his relentless fight for the rights of Muslim
women and his advocacy for a uniform civil code to
ensure equal rights for all citizens, irrespective of
SS
religion. Dalwai's early life was marked by his
education at Ismail Yusuf College and Ruparel College,
Mumbai, which laid the foundation for his future
endeavors. He founded the Muslim Satyashodhak
Mandal to promote social reforms within the Muslim
E
community, particularly focusing on the abolition of
practices like triple talaq. Despite facing opposition,
PR
Dalwai's commitment to secularism and women's
rights remained unwavering. His literary contributions
include works like "Lat" (The Wave) and "Indhan" (Fuel)
in Marathi, and "Muslim Politics in Secular India" in
English, reflecting his deep engagement with issues of
X
social justice and reform. Dalwai passed away on May

3, 1977, leaving behind a legacy of courage and
progressive thought.
E
Allan Octavian Allan Octavian Hume, born in Westminster, London

S
Hume in 1829, was a British civil servant and a political

reformer known for his significant contributions to
IA
Indian self-governance and ornithology. Educated at

University College Hospital, Hume embarked on a
career in the Indian Civil Service in 1849, where he
demonstrated a deep commitment to social reforms,
including the introduction of free primary education
and advocacy for women's education. His political
legacy is most notably marked by his founding of the
Indian National Congress in 1885, a pivotal step
towards India's independence movement. Hume was
also an avid ornithologist, with his literary
contributions including the journal Stray Feathers
436
and The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, making
substantial additions to the scientific understanding of
the subcontinent's avifauna. His ornithological work
led to the identification of several new bird species and
the establishment of the South London Botanical
Institute. Hume's legacy is celebrated in both the
political and natural sciences fields, with his efforts in
founding the INC and contributions to ornithology
earning him the title of the "Father of Indian
Ornithology" and a lasting gratitude from India for his
services.
SS
E
PR
X
E
S
IA
437
SS
E
PR
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SS
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1

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) - Architect of Nonviolence.................................... 6

Swaminarayan/Sahajanand Swami (1781-1830) - Divine Reformer: Fostering

Blending Tradition with Scientific Innovation...................................................101

the Economic History of India..........................................................................200

Ananda Mohan Bose (1847-1906) - Educational Reformer and Nationalist:

Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928) - Social Reformer: Envisioning a Casteless and

Dinabandhu Mitra (1830-1873): A Literary Pioneer of Colonial Bengal............. 358

Champion of Nationalism................................................................................ 361

Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati (1858-1922) - Championing the Cause of Women's

Freedom Struggle............................................................................................ 375

Movement in South Africa:

● 1893: Gandhi went to South Africa to work as a lawyer. There he had

his fellow Indians. Therefore, he decided to protest against racial

● 1916: He established the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad so that his

● 1917: Champaran satyagraha - marks Mahatma Gandhi’s first

○ Young India was a weekly paper or journal in English started by

oppressive policies of Britishers such as the Rowlatt Act and the

Chauri-Chaura Incident. After the non-cooperation movement ended,

named Harijan which means "People of God".

● They are the twin cardinal principles of Gandhian thoughts.

○ Relative truth of truthfulness in word and deed.

○ Freedom for the meanest of his countrymen.

● The word swadeshi is a conjunction of two Sanskrit words - ‘Swa’ means

own country. But it can be loosely translated in most contexts as

country respectfully addresses him as the father of the nation or Bapu.

Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of independent

Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency of INC sessions

1929: Nehru was appointed as President of the Indian National Congress's

at midnight on New Year's Eve 1929.

incomplete and vague.

The Japanese attack, Cripps Mission, and Quit India movement

Jawaharlal Nehru: The first Prime Minister of India

august and his inaugural address is called ‘Tryst with Destiny’.

Menon in charge of integrating the states, in which they were successful.

most people were content with a few constitutional reforms.

positions as a method of opposing British rule.

● He became the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee in

princely states align with the freedom movement.

He threw open its membership to people across the political spectrum. It

After India achieved independence on 15 August 1947, Nehru became the

○ Legal rights for women—including the ability to inherit property and

○ Enacted many laws to criminalize certain practices like caste-based

● He was responsible for the liberation of Goa after years of failed

negotiations with the Portuguese.

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar popularly known as

On British Rule in India:

● He criticized Britisher for not improving the conditions of the

On Caste System and Untouchability:

○ He rejected the theory of the Aryan invasion (upper caste were

Dasas and Dasyus) because according to him, there was no historical

from different parts of Virata Purusha. In Manusmriti, untouchables

father and the Brahmin mother. This shows the pollution of

not touch the fellow human being is nothing but madness’.

religion of my birth. I am reborn. I reject religion which treats me inferior.’

○ Hindus are a race of losers who continue to lose to other religions.

a religion but madness and it cannot be a missionary religion.

Difference between Gandhi’s and Ambedkar’s views

Assembly and played an important role in framing the Indian Constitution.

● He considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy (Article 32) as the soul of

of life’ and he supported the parliamentary form of democracy.

● Ambedkar was against caste-based discrimination in society.

○ He contested in 1937 from Bombay to the Central Legislative

○ He also contested from Bombay (north-central) after independence in