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Andreas Öchsner

A Project-Based
Introduction
to Computational
Statics
Second Edition
A Project-Based Introduction to Computational
Statics
Andreas Öchsner

A Project-Based Introduction
to Computational Statics
Second Edition

123
Andreas Öchsner
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Esslingen University of Applied Sciences
Esslingen am Neckar, Baden-Württemberg
Germany

ISBN 978-3-030-58770-3 ISBN 978-3-030-58771-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58771-0

1st edition: © Springer International Publishing AG 2018

2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Persönlichkeiten werden nicht durch
schöne Reden geformt, sondern durch
Arbeit und eigene Leistung.
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Preface to the Second Edition

The pedagogical methodology proposed in the first edition has been well accepted
by students and the scientific community. The second edition has been extended by
more than 40 pages. Many additional examples on the refined analysis and different
modifications of extensometers have been included. Last but not least, the entire
content and the graphical illustrations have been thoroughly revised and updated.

Esslingen, Germany Andreas Öchsner

July 2020

vii
Preface to the First Edition

This book presents a novel concept for introducing the finite element method,
applied in the context of solid mechanics. It presents a major conceptual shift, i.e.,
taking away lengthy theoretical derivations from the face-to-face interaction with
students, focusing on the summary of key equations and concepts, and to practice
these on well-chosen example problems. The theoretical derivations are provided as
additional reading and students must study and review the derivations in a
self-study approach. The theoretical foundation is provided to solve a compre-
hensive design project in the context of tensile testing. A classical clip-on exten-
someter serves as the demonstrator on which to apply the provided concepts. The
major goal is to derive the calibration curve based on different approaches, i.e.,
analytical mechanics and based on the finite element method, and to consider
further design questions such as technical drawing, manufacturing, and cost
assessment. Working with two concepts, i.e., analytical and computational
mechanics, strengthens the vertical integration of knowledge and allows the student
to compare and understand the different concepts, as well as highlighting the
essential need for benchmarking any numerical result. It is beyond question that
such an approach can serve only as a first introduction to this powerful and complex
method and that further in-depth study is required for a reliable and confident
application of the finite element method.

Southport, Australia Andreas Öchsner

September 2017

ix
Acknowledgements

It is important to highlight the contribution of the students which helped to develop

the concept and content of this book. Their questions, comments, and struggles
during difficult lectures, assignments, and final exams helped me to develop the idea
for this new teaching approach. Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere
appreciation to Springer, especially to Dr. Christoph Baumann, for giving me the
opportunity to release this book.

xi
Contents

1 Introduction and Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Project Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Assessment Items and Marking Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Review of Analytical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Overview: One-Dimensional Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Partial Differential Equation-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Euler–Bernoulli Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.3 Timoshenko Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Energy-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Extensometer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5 Supplementary Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3 Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.1 General Idea of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2 Rods and Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2.1 Rod Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2.2 Truss Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.3 Beams and Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.3.1 Euler–Bernoulli Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.3.2 Timoshenko Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.3 Generalized Beam and Frame Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.4 Extensometer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.5 Supplementary Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

xiii
xiv Contents

4 Outlook: Two- and Three-Dimensional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5 Answers to Supplementary Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.1 Problems from Chap. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.2 Problems from Chap. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Symbols and Abbreviations

Latin Symbols (capital letters)

A Area
As Shear area
E YOUNG’s modulus
F Force
Fa Auxiliary force
FR Reaction force
G Shear modulus
I Second moment of area
Ip Polar second moment of area
K Global stiffness matrix
Ke Elemental stiffness matrix
L Length
M Moment
Ma Auxiliary moment
MR Reaction moment
N Normal force (internal),
interpolation function
Q Shear force (internal)
Rp Initial (tensile) yield stress
T Transformation matrix
V Volume
X Global Cartesian coordinate
Y Global Cartesian coordinate
Z Global Cartesian coordinate

xv
xvi Symbols and Abbreviations

Latin Symbols (small letters)

a Geometric dimension
b Geometric dimension
c Constant of integration
f Global column matrix of loads
fe Elemental column matrix of loads
g Standard gravity
h Geometric dimension
ks Shear correction factor
m Distributed moment (external), mass
n Node number
p Distributed load in x-direction (tension)
q Distributed load in z-direction (bending)
u Displacement
up Global column matrix of nodal unknowns
uep Elemental column matrix of nodal unknowns
x Local Cartesian coordinate
y Local Cartesian coordinate
z Local Cartesian coordinate

Greek Symbols (capital letters)

C Boundary
P Total strain energy
X Domain

Greek Symbols (small letters)

a Rotation angle, scale factor

Shear strain (engineering definition)
" Normal strain
j Curvature
m POISSON’s ratio
Symbols and Abbreviations xvii

n Natural coordinate
… Volumetric strain energy
. Mass density
r Normal stress
¿ Shear stress
/ Rotation (TIMOSHENKO beam)
u Rotation (BERNOULLI beam)

Mathematical Symbols

Multiplication sign (used where essential)

h. . .i MACAULAY’S bracket
Lf. . .g Differential operator
d Derivative symbol
@ Partial derivative symbol (rounded d)

Indices, Superscripted

. . .e Element
. . .R Reaction

Indices, Subscripted

. . .p Point
. . .lim Limit
. . .max Maximum
. . .sp Specimen

Abbreviations

1D One-dimensional
2D Two-dimensional
3D Three-dimensional
BC Boundary condition
xviii Symbols and Abbreviations

CT Compact tension
DOF Degree(s) of freedom
FE Finite element
FEM Finite element method
PBL Project-based learning
PDE Partial differential equation
Chapter 1
Introduction and Problem Formulation

Abstract This chapter briefly reviews different teaching approaches for computa-
tional statics. The major focus is on the presentation of the design project which
serves to introduce the basic application of the finite element method. The project
is taken from the context of tensile testing of engineering materials and relates to
the design of a clip-on extensometer. The mechanical model of this sensor can be
simplified to a -shaped frame structure which allows the application of classical
analytical mechanics as well as a computational approach. Thus, the design problem
also serves to review and strengthen classical applied mechanics and its comparison
with modern numerical approaches.

The incorporation of projects in the classical curriculum structure of higher edu-

cation dates back to the late 1960s. Nowadays, some institutions even have moved
to project-based curricula in engineering [1]. Traditional teaching approaches would
introduce the finite element method based on lectures, which focus on the underlying
theory [12], and tutorials, which deepen the topic, mainly based on hand calculations
of simple problems [3]. Some universities may additionally offer computer labora-
tories where either a classical programming language (e.g., FORTRAN or C++)
[14] or a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment (e.g., Maxima, Maple,
or MATLAB) [11] is used to write small finite element routines. Alternatively, a
commercial package might be used [9, 10]. Among the commercial packages, some
allow the implementation of own computer code (e.g., new element formulations)
based on user-subroutines [2]. A more recent approach, i.e., project-based learning
(PBL), tries to incorporate these different teaching elements and to focus around a
certain design project. Such approaches are believed to facilitate the learning pro-
cess and are closer to engineering practice. In many cases, commercial finite element
packages are used and quite complex structures are investigated or even optimized
[5, 15, 16]. The analysis of complex structures is normally linked to the application
of a larger number of elements and the evaluation of results is, many times, based on
contour plots of field quantities (‘colored pictures’). The merit of this approach lies
in showing the strength of the method and to illustrate how the theory is transferred
to a commercial program. Despite the fact that there are numerous commercial finite
element packages available, the general steps to perform a finite element analysis do
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
A. Öchsner, A Project-Based Introduction to Computational Statics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58771-0_1
2 1 Introduction and Problem Formulation

not change and only the graphical interface needs to be mastered when moving from
one package to another one.
However, solely focusing on commercial packages and complex structures
involves many dangers for the finite element beginner. Without the knowledge of
the underlying theory, a generation of an appropriate and accurate computational
model (e.g., element type, mesh size, and refinement) might be difficult. Further-
more, to rely on displayed colors or values might be misleading if, for example, the
difference between nodal and integration point results is not known. Thus, a serious
introduction to the finite element method must incorporate the corresponding theory
and must enable the user to judge the quality of the obtained results.
The project-based introduction to the finite element method in this book focuses
on a simple but real engineering structure which allows to connect analytical mechan-
ics to the computational approach based on the finite element method. Doing so, the
basics of applied mechanics are reviewed, strengthened, and linked to a numerical
approach. Furthermore, the project allows to address further questions from many
other subjects such as material selection, manufacturing, costs and lightweight poten-
tial. Nevertheless, it must be highlighted that this approach is only a first introduction
to the finite element method and a reliable application requires further studies into
the underlying theory, as well as comprehensive practice.

1.1 Project Outline

The proposed design project is related to the classical tensile test (see, for exam-
ple, [8]), i.e., the most important and common test to characterize the mechanical
behavior of engineering materials. The quantities to be measured are normally the
applied force and a distance in loading direction1 . The measurements are then con-
verted to the acting stress and strain, normally expressed as so-called engineering
quantities. The force measurement is normally based on a load cell and does not
imply major problems if the capacity is chosen according to the expected force
range. The measurement of the strain is more demanding since the data recording
should happen in the gage section on the specimen and not, for example, be based
on the movement of the machine crosshead. The application of sensors, such as
strain gages or extensometers, directly on the specimen’s surface or noncontacting
optical approaches such as video or laser extensometers are the general options for
this task [4, 13]. Figure 1.1 shows a typical clip-on extensometer with knife edges
used to attach the sensor on the specimens via two clip-springs. These knife edges
ensure that the ends of the sensor legs and the corresponding part of the specimen
(gage length) perform the same movement, i.e., displacement but more or less ‘free’
rotation. Other configurations are possible where the feet would be fixed with small
screws on the specimen (quite common in fracture mechanics). The set-up of this

1 Some evaluation procedures require also a distance measurement perpendicular to the loading
direction in order to evaluate Poisson’s ratio.
1.1 Project Outline 3

Fig. 1.1 Flat tensile specimen with extensometer (SANDNER Messtechnik GmbH, Germany) [6]

type of sensor looks like a -shaped frame structure2 with an additional horizontal
mechanical protective mechanism to avoid overexpansion (elongation failure) of the
sensor.
The extensometer shown in Fig. 1.1 can be simplified to a mechanical model as
shown in Fig. 1.2. From this representation it can be seen that all three members
of the frame undergo at least a bending deformation as soon as the specimen is
elongated. Based on the configuration with knife edges, a free rotation of ends of the
extensometers legs is assumed. Furthermore, the measuring principle is indicated,
i.e., the strain in the horizontal member is recorded via a strain gage (εstrain gage ) and
must be related to the strain (εspecimen ) in the actual specimen (so-called calibration).
Thus, the engineering task is to relate the recorded signal in the extensometer to the
real strain in the specimen based on a factor or some kind of equation.
The design concept of the extensometer shown in Fig. 1.1 is clearly visible in the
three photos of Fig. 1.3. After removing the casing, it is possible to identify the strain
gages on the top beam and the corresponding wiring.
An alternative configuration based on the same measuring principle is shown in
Fig. 1.4. The beam with strain gages on both sides (i.e., one in the tension and the
other one in the compressive strain regime) does not span over the entire gage length
of this extensometer model.
A similar design to Fig. 1.1 is shown in Fig. 1.5 where the knife edges and the
mechanical protective mechanism can be clearly identified.
Based on the explanations regarding project-based introductions of the finite ele-
ment method presented at the beginning of this chapter and the peculiarities of the
sensor design as outlined in Figs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5, a structure of the design
process as outlined in Fig. 1.6 has been created. The project has been split in two
design phases. The initial design phase is restricted to classical analytical mechanics
in order to derive a general expression of the calibration curve. It is worth noting

2 Civil engineers would call it a portal frame.

4 1 Introduction and Problem Formulation

Fig. 1.2 Schematic sketch of the extensometer and tensile specimen: a undeformed and b deformed
state

that no specific numbers should be assigned to the derivation and a general, i.e., as a
function of the design variables (geometrical and material properties of the sensor),
expression should be derived. This will allow to later easily check different design
proposals in order to have a reasonable ratio between both strain values. In addi-
tion, reviewing analytical mechanics and applying it to a practical design problem
allows to strengthen the vertical knowledge integration and students should be able
to understand the different benefits and drawbacks to each method. In addition, it was
decided to avoid lengthly derivations in this first introduction to the finite element
method and to provide the derivations as additional reading for weekly self-study.
The textbooks mentioned in the literature section may serve for this purpose. Thus,
the following chapters collect only a summary of basic concepts and equations with
a focus on their application to relatively simple problems.
1.1 Project Outline 5

Fig. 1.3 Technical details of

an extensometer as shown in
Fig. 1.1 (SANDNER
Messtechnik GmbH,
Germany): a global view,
b global view with different
orientation, and c details of
the strain gages with wiring
and solder posts
6 1 Introduction and Problem Formulation

Fig. 1.4 Alternative design of an extensometer (Epsilon Technology, USA): a overall view and
b detail of the beam with strain gages

The design process as outlined in Fig. 1.6 contains components from other courses
such as material selection or manufacturing. This is not covered in this book but is a
valuable addition to the expected design reports since it relates to a complete design
approach as known from engineering practice.

1.2 Assessment Items and Marking Criteria

The proposed design project can be handled as a group or individual assignment.

Obviously, there are different benefits and drawbacks to each method. Working in
groups or teams is definitely closer to the industrial context where larger projects are
nowadays handled in multidisciplinary teams. Thus, it is essential for an engineer
to be trained to work in such a context. This ability is connected to many different
soft-skills, ranging from communication and presentation skills to simplifying com-
1.2 Assessment Items and Marking Criteria 7

Fig. 1.5 Alternative design of an extensometer (NCS, China)

Fig. 1.6 Flowchart of the design process

8 1 Introduction and Problem Formulation

plex circumstances for team members from other areas of expertise. If students are
working in groups, it is important to include a self-assessment component to evaluate
the contribution of each team member. It is sometimes not too uncommon that all
team members give each other the maximum score in order to increase their final
mark. Thus, the allocated weight for any self-assessment must be carefully chosen.
Another typical occurrence is that very good students do not really like classical
group work and the corresponding evaluation as a team. These students sometimes
feel that they are carrying someone else’s load in addition to their own work package.
Another point to consider is the grouping of students in teams. Giving the students
the freedom to form their own team of x students is in general quite popular while
a random selection of students by the course convenor is less popular. However,
the latter avoids the problem that some students are not able to join a team, or at
least claim so. Once the project is completed or at least has progressed to a cer-
tain stage, the findings should be summarized and communicated [7]. In the case of
group projects, this may happen in the form of group or individual reports and/or
group presentations. Oral presentations are an important skill but group presentations
involving all the team members with only a few minutes of presentation time (e.g., 2
to 3 min) for each member are difficult to evaluate if individual marks are required.
The aforementioned comments also hold for the submission of group reports, i.e., the
top students are normally less in favor of the procedure. Thus, reports should have
at least an individual submission component for students to have the possibility to
distinguish from the other team members. In any case, it is important to not only rely
on non-supervised assessment items, i.e., design reports. To avoid that a student or
a group could ‘outsource’ the preparation of the design project, a significant super-

Table 1.1 Initial design report: elements and marking criteria (20% of total mark)
Element Comment Weight (%)
Formal Punctual submission; maximum number of pages (10; including 10
aspects everything, e.g., appendix etc.); PDF format; each page with
name and enrollment number; only electronic submission;
suitable font size and line spacing; A4 format; naming of the
file as course code_family name_first name.pdf
Initial Only freehand sketches of the sensor design; indicate all 15
sketches dimensions with variables
Analytical Use analytical mechanics (i.e., differential equation–based 50
calculations approach and energy approach) to characterize the deformation
behavior of the sensor; compare the results of both approaches;
derive a general expression, i.e., based on variables, to relate
the specimen’s deformation/strain to the measured strain in the
sensor; justify the selection of the structural members
Literature Sufficient and appropriate references 10
Peer- Assess the engagement of your group members; provide a 15
assessment small paragraph for each member and give a final mark
Table 1.2 Final design report: elements and marking criteria (30% of total mark)
Element Comment Weight (%)
Formal aspects Punctual submission; maximum number of pages (20; including everything, e.g., appendix etc.); PDF 5
format; each page with name and enrollment number; only electronic submission; suitable font size and line
spacing; A4 format; naming of the file as course code_family name_first name.pdf
Technical drawings Provide complete manufacturing drawings and specify the manufacturing process; if your sensor is 10
composed of different parts, provide assembly instructions; explain in detail how the sensor measures and
1.2 Assessment Items and Marking Criteria

records the deformation (e.g., use of strain gages); explain the fixation on the specimen
FE calculations Use finite-element ‘hand calculations’ to derive a general equation for the deformation behavior of your 50
sensor; compare and validate your results with the analytical calculations and the commercial finite element
package, which was introduced in the course; justify the element types and mesh density used; explain in
detail all chosen dimensions of the sensor; estimate the weight of the sensor
Calibration Provide clear instructions on the calibration process of your sensor 7.5
Cost estimate Predict the entire costs for a prototype, including material, manufacturing, and electronic components 7.5
Literature Sufficient and appropriate references 5
Peer-assessment Assess the engagement of your group members; provide for each member a small paragraph and give a final 15
mark
9
10 1 Introduction and Problem Formulation

vised assessment item (quiz or exam) must be included. It is also recommended that
the students must pass this assessment item (hurdle) to pass the entire course.
Based on the above reflections, the following assessment scheme is proposed:
• Initial design report (20% of total mark),
• final design report (30% of total mark), and
• final exam (50% of total mark).
The split into an initial and final design report allows to provide a qualified feedback
to the students at an intermediate stage of the semester. Furthermore, it allows to split
the calculation approach in the application of analytical mechanics (initial design)
and the finite element method (final design).
The selected marking criteria for the initial design report are summarized in
Table 1.1. It might be questioned why a course on computational methods should
include a major reference to analytical mechanics, which is the topic of a few other
courses. On the one hand, it definitely strengthens the vertical integration of knowl-
edge and shows a practical application of the classical engineering mechanics. On
the other hand, the analytical solution can serve to validate the results of the finite ele-
ment approach. It should be noted that the validation of computational results is the
most important and challenging task of an engineer. This becomes quite demanding
for complex engineering structures where no analytical solutions are available.
The marking criteria for the final design report are summarized in Table 1.2. It can
be seen that also areas of other courses are well represented (e.g., technical drawing,
manufacturing, cost assessment) in order to generate a complete design approach.

References

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intentions and solutions. Eur J Eng Edu 21:121–131
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cation of user subroutines. Springer, Cham
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presented at 2000 ASEE annual conference, St. Louis, Missouri. https://peer.asee.org/8643.
Cited 10 June 2017
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haltens zellularer Modellwerkstoffe. VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf
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and beams. Springer, Cham
References 11

12. Öchsner A (2020) Computational statics and dynamics: an introduction based on the finite
element method. Springer, Singapore
13. Sharpe WN (2008) Springer handbook of experimental solid mechanics. Springer, New York
14. Trapp M, Öchsner A (2018) Computational plasticity for finite elements: a Fortran-based
introduction. Springer, Cham
15. Ural A (2013) A Hands-on finite element modeling experience in a multidisciplinary project-
based freshman course. Comput Appl Eng Educ 21:294–299
16. Zhuge Y, Mills JE (2009) Teaching finite element modelling at the undergraduate level: a PBL
approach. In: 20th annual conference of the Australian association of engineering education,
6–9 December 2009, Adelaide, Australia. https://eprints.usq.edu.au/6772/. Cited 10 June 2017
Chapter 2
Review of Analytical Mechanics

Abstract This chapter treats simple structural members based on two different ana-
lytical approaches. On the one hand based on fundamental equations of continuum
mechanics, i.e., the kinematics, the equilibrium and the constitutive equation, the
describing partial differential equations are provided, including their general solu-
tion based on constants of integration. As an alternative approach, the total strain
energy of a system is introduced and applied in Castigliano’s theorems. The covered
structural members are rods (tensile deformation) as well as thin and thick beams
(bending deformation). The provided concepts are finally applied to the extensometer
design problem.

2.1 Overview: One-Dimensional Structural Members

2.2 Partial Differential Equation-Based Approaches

2.2.1 Rods

A rod is defined as a prismatic body whose axial dimension is much larger than its
transverse dimensions [3, 4, 11, 16, 21, 27, 29]. This structural member is only
loaded in the direction of the main body axes, see Fig. 2.1. As a result of this loading,
the deformation occurs only along its main axis.
Derivations are restricted many times to the following simplifications:
• only applying to straight rods,
• displacements are (infinitesimally) small,
• strains are (infinitesimally) small, and
• the material is linear-elastic.
The three basic equations of continuum mechanics, i.e the kinematics relationship,
the constitutive law and the equilibrium equation, as well as their combination to the
describing partial differential equation (PDE) are summarized in Table 2.1.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 13
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
A. Öchsner, A Project-Based Introduction to Computational Statics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58771-0_2
14 2 Review of Analytical Mechanics

Fig. 2.1 Schematic

representation of a
continuum rod

Table 2.1 Different formulations of the basic equations for a rod (x-axis along the principal rod
)
axis), with L1 (. . . ) = d(...
dx
Specific formulation General formulation
Kinematics

du x (x)
εx (x) = εx (x) = L1 (u x (x))
dx
Constitution
σx (x) = Eεx (x) σx (x) = Cεx (x)
Equilibrium
dσx (x) px (x)
+ =0 LT1 (σx (x)) + b = 0
dx A
PDE
 
d du x
E(x)A(x) + px (x) = 0 LT1 (E AL1 (u x (x))) + px = 0
dx dx

Under the assumption of constant material (E = const.) and geometric (A =

const.) properties, the differential equation in Table 2.1 can be easily integrated
twice for constant distributed load ( px = p0 = const.) to obtain the general solution
of the problem [20]:
 
1 1
u x (x) = − p0 x + c1 x + c2 ,
2
(2.1)
EA 2

where the two constants of integration ci (i = 1, 2) must be determined based on the

boundary conditions (see Table 2.2). The following equation for the internal normal
force N x was obtained based on one-time integration of the PDE and might be useful
to determine some of the constants of integration:

du x (x)
N x (x) = E A = − p0 x + c1 . (2.2)
dx
2.2 Partial Differential Equation-Based Approaches 15

Table 2.2 Different boundary conditions and corresponding reactions for a continuum rod (defor-
mation occurs along the x-axis)
Case Boundary Condition Reaction

... ...
ux (x = 0) = 0

... ux (x = L) = u0 ...

... EA dudx
x (L)
= Nx (L) = F0
...

Fig. 2.2 Internal reactions

for a continuum rod

The internal reactions in a rod become visible if one cuts—at an arbitrary location
x—the member in two parts. As a result, two opposite oriented normal forces N x
can be indicated. Summing up the internal reactions from both parts must result in
zero. Their positive direction is connected with the direction of the outward surface
normal vector and the orientation of the positive x-axis, see Fig. 2.2.
Once the internal normal force N x is known, the normal stress σx can be calculated:

N x (x)
σx (x) = . (2.3)
A

Application of Hooke’s law (see Table 2.1) allows us to calculate the normal strain
εx . Typical distributions of stress and strain in a rod element are shown in Fig. 2.3.
It can be seen that both distributions are constant over the cross section.
To be able to realize a closed-form presentation with discontinuities (e.g. load,
material, or geometry), the so-called Macaulay bracket1 can be used for closed-
form representations. This mathematical notation has the following meaning:

0 for x < a
x − an = (2.4)
(x − a)n for x ≥ a .

1 In the German literature, this approach is named after August Otto Föppl (1854–1942).
16 2 Review of Analytical Mechanics

Fig. 2.3 Axially loaded rod:

a strain and b stress
distribution

In particular with the case n = 0


0 for x < a
x − a =0
(2.5)
1 for x ≥ a

the closed-form presentation of jumps can be realized. The first three discontinuous
functions are shown in Fig. 2.4. Furthermore, derivations and integrals are defined
by regarding the triangular bracket symbol as classical round brackets:

d
x − an = nx − an−1 , (2.6)
dx

1
x − an dx = x − an+1 + c . (2.7)
n+1

Table 2.3 shows a few examples of discontinuous loads and their corresponding
representations due to the discontinuous function given in Eq. (2.4).
In regards to the first case in Table 2.3, it should be noted that a positive singe
force (F0 > 0) results in a negative jump in the normal force distribution (N x ).

Fig. 2.4 Graphical representation of the first three discontinuous functions according to Eq. (2.4):
a jump (n = 0); b kink (n = 1); c smooth transition (n = 2). Adapted from [4]
Another random document with
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 We witnessed a somewhat curious incident on our way back.
Going down the steep zig-zag road a big motor ambulance waggon
failed to take one of the sharp curves sufficiently to get on to the
straight run beyond, and was only brought up by the brake on the
extreme outer edge of the road, which, as it happened, had no
parapet at this particular spot. It was in imminent danger of going
over, a drop of at least a hundred feet.
There was no lack of help, as there was an endless line of traffic
going both ways, and it was, of course, all held up by the
occurrence, so many willing hands were forthcoming. Big stones
were carefully placed under the wheels to prevent any forward
movement of the heavy vehicle.
Then suddenly, to the surprise and amusement of everyone, the
least severely wounded occupants jumped out of the wagon, and, in
spite of their bandaged condition, vigorously assisted in pushing it
back to safety.
 CHAPTER XIV

Slow but certain progress on the Trentino front—An open secret—

The mining of the Castalleto summit.—Carried out by Alpini—
Recapture of Monte Cimone; also by Alpini—Heroic exploits—Udine
one’s pied à terre—An ideal “News centre”—The Isonzo Front—The
old days of the war correspondent as compared with the present
conditions—Well to be prepared—Returning to Udine for lunch—
Attracting attention—Unjustifiable—Things quiet at the Front—
Unusual heat of the summer—Changeable weather at Udine—Early
days of August—Increasing activity in the Isonzo Sector—Significant
fact—Communiqué of August 4th—The communiqué of the following
day—General attack by Italians all along this Front—Arrange start
for scene of action—My car companions 6th August—Magnificent
progress everywhere—Afternoon news—Capture of Monte Sabottina
announced—We make for Vipulzano—On the road—Stirring scenes
—“New” regiments—“Are we down-hearted”—The penchant for
Englishmen—A cortège of prisoners—Like a huge crowd of beggars
—Half-starved and terror-stricken strapping young fellows.
 CHAPTER XIV
The success of the counter-offensive of General Cadorna in the
Trentino had a cogent bearing on the stirring events which were to
take place a few weeks later. Meanwhile, as I have pointed out, the
Austrians, although pushed back, were by no means beaten, and
during the whole of the month of July the Trentino Front loomed
large in the communiqués.
Slow but certain progress was continually being reported, and if
nothing startling in the shape of an advance could be recorded, it
was satisfactory to note that the Italians were without a doubt holding
up the greater part of the entire Austrian Army on this Front alone.
This has been demonstrated beyond controversy, and in itself was
no mean achievement, and spoke volumes for the tenacity and
endurance of the Italian soldier, for it must not be overlooked that
this Army was not composed of the offscourings of the Dual Empire,
but its crack regiments, and commanded by its most distinguished
officers.
It was an open secret that had it not been for an error of judgment
and generalship on the Italian side, the Austrians would never have
been so near achieving success.
The sudden mise en retraite of one of the best known generals,
together with several divisional officers, bore this out, and proved
that General Cadorna will not overlook incompetency at a critical
moment, however high-placed may be the offender, or what his
previous record may be. This faculty, if one can so term it, of coming
to rapid decisions and holding by them is one of the most
characteristic traits of the Italian Generalissimo.
In the Trentino the weeks following the great push may, therefore,
have appeared quiet in comparison with what had taken place during
these exciting days, but they were by no means uneventful; on the
contrary, they were marked by two exceptionally brilliant exploits
which, as was seen, had considerable influence on operations
elsewhere, and went far to consolidating the Italian gains.
The mining and blowing up of the important Austrian position on
the Castalleto summit, east of the peak of Col dei Bos, was one of
these feats.
The work was entrusted to the Alpini, and was brilliantly carried
out, as may be imagined, for the Alpini never do things by halves.
With infinite perseverence, and in the face of continual difficulty, and
peril, a tunnel some twelve hundred yards in length was bored, an
immense charge of dynamite was exploded, and the whole of the
Austrian force that occupied the summit was buried in the wreckage.
This success restored to the Italians the command of the
Dolomites Road, and enabled them to resist all attempts on the part
of the Austrians to regain the position.
The other great event of the month was the recapture of Monte
Cimone, the mountain which towers above Arsiero. This exploit was
also accomplished by the Alpini.
The table-like summit had been in the possession of the Austrians
since the latter part of May, and had been transformed by them into
a veritable citadel, and one of the strongest points on their line of
defence in this region.
The Alpini, as was to be expected from these mountaineering
athletes, set out without hesitation to accomplish what must have
looked like the impossible to the ordinary soldier, though it was really
but a repetition of previous heroic exploits of a like nature.
It appeared to me as a layman, incredible that anything but a
chamois could clamber up the cliff-like front of Cimone—that any
human being could do it never occurred to me for a moment.
It looked a sheer impossibility, yet the Alpini did it, and in spite of
the plunging fire from machine guns on the summit, and the shells
from flanking batteries at Settecase further up the valley of the
Astico.
 Verily these soldier mountaineers have well merited the eagle
plumes that adorn their Tyrolean hats.
I have recounted these exploits, because they appeared to me to
exemplify the burning enthusiasm that animated the troops, and
made them eager to undertake anything that was asked of them.
From what one could gather, scarcely a day passed without some
unrecorded deed of daring being accomplished.
Of course it was not possible for a correspondent to learn
beforehand any details of the operations about to be carried out, so,
in the event of anything big happening, it was purely a matter of luck
being on the spot or anywhere near it.
For this reason one made of Udine a pied à terre, as it was
obvious there was nothing to be gained by motoring from place to
place on the offchance of seeing something dramatic. At
Headquarters one got to know anything there was in the shape of
news, and one could arrange one’s movements accordingly.
From the point of view of the journalist, the Censorship Club-room
was an ideal “news” centre, since it is not absolutely necessary for
him to see what he writes about—so much can be done from
hearsay—but for me, as an illustrator, it was obviously a very
different matter, and doubtless I missed many a good subject for my
pencil through not being fortunate enough to be in the vicinity when
some dramatic incident was taking place.
It has always struck me that a pen picture has therefore an
advantage over a pencil one. You can, if forced to, make it through
the medium of your ears, and your eyes are not essential for its
accuracy, as is the case with an artist’s notes.
For several weeks the correspondents were all gathered together
at Udine, and only left it occasionally for short excursions.
The Isonzo Front was, from the motoring point of view, so short a
distance away that you could start off in the car at six o’clock in the
morning, be right up to the firing line by half-past seven, see all there
was to see and be back in Udine easily in time for lunch. This, of
course, would not have been possible before the advent of the petrol
engine.
In the old days of the war correspondent, when he could only get
about by means of horses, a “trip” such as is now made easily in a
morning would have meant a real “journey” of probably a couple of
days, and providing himself with food and probably sleeping outfit as
well, so as to be prepared against all contingencies.
With the car we could, bar accidents, time our return to a minute
almost, if we wanted to; and it was really remarkable how seldom
any contretemps occurred on the road—an occasional puncture,
nothing more.
Such confidence, in fact, did the Italian correspondents place in
their cars, or the offchance of “getting something somewhere,” that
they hardly ever guarded against accidents by providing themselves
with food and drink when on an excursion, and my companions were
always surprised when I insisted on taking a parcel of creature
comforts for us all, in case we wanted them, for I had discovered
what it meant to be really hungry and thirsty.
 The least severely wounded occupants jumped out of the
wagon (see page 179)
To face page 186

One day, when visiting a position, I had forgotten to take anything

with me, but consoled myself with the idea that I should at least be
able to get a crust of bread and a drink of wine on the way.
But it turned out that we were in an outlying district, so I had to pay
the penalty of my forgetfulness by being famished all day, as one
does not like to ask anything of the soldiers if one can help it: they
usually only have sufficient for themselves, and would be too good-
natured to refuse you.
 Returning to Udine for lunch, to my mind, always gave a touch of
the unreal to the scenes you had just witnessed.
There were, as I have said, several really decent restaurants in the
town, where everything was well served, and the appointments were
quite good. These would be crowded of a day, and one always saw
many ladies at lunch-time and dinner.
At one or other of these places you could be sure of meeting
friends, and as one was usually much too hot and tired after a long
motor drive to trouble to go back to one’s rooms to change, you
would drop into a restaurant just as you were, in campaigning kit,
and covered with dust or mud.
It generally happened, therefore, that you attracted as much
attention amongst the well-dressed habitués of the place as if you
were “got up” for a fancy-dress ball.
At times, when one came back after a surfeit of horrors, it almost
seemed unjustifiable to be sitting down to a civilised meal in a
cheerful restaurant.
Of course it goes without saying that Udine was not by any means
inclined to be light-hearted, and usually the sole topic of
conversation everywhere was “la Guerra” and the operations on the
different Fronts.
There was an entire absence of excitement at all times, in spite of
the daily thrills provided us by the local press, and the arrival in the
evening of the big daily papers of Milan, Rome, etc.
When things were quiet at the Front, life in Udine was stagnant,
and I often used to wonder what the Italian correspondents could
find to write or wire about every day, for they always seemed to be
hard at it, even when the communiqués were of the very briefest
character.
Meanwhile events were undoubtedly shaping well, and day by day
one heard of minor successes in Trentino, and steady Italian
progress all along the line.
 It was only what we all expected, but there was nothing yet of a
sufficiently startling nature going on anywhere to induce one to start
on motor trips to witness long range artillery duels.
Moreover, you had got to know every mile almost of the road
leading to the front lines, and it ended by becoming as monotonous
as it had been interesting at first, as you seldom saw any change.
The guns were always booming in the distance, the “drachen”
hung motionless in the still air, and Taubes came over and were fired
on assiduously but generally without result by the anti-aircraft guns.
Fresh subjects for one’s sketch book became more and more
difficult to find. It was a period of comparative suspense so far as
one was able to judge, and as combined with this, it was a summer
of unusual heat even for Italy, a good deal of superabundant energy
was necessary to rouse you to activity when there was so little to call
for it.
Udine was also bearing out its evil reputation of having the most
changeable weather of any place in Italy. Three fine days and a
thunderstorm became a bit monotonous, however much you might
get used to it.
In the early days of August there was every indication that the
period of quiescence was coming to an end, and the communiqués
began to refer persistently to increasing activity in the Isonzo sector,
and the Trentino was barely mentioned.
The atmosphere for some days past had been charged with
rumours that big events were impending, but one got so used to
rumours here that no undue importance was attached to the latest.
You could only hope that there was some truth in it, as one was
beginning to get heartily sick of doing nothing.
Still it was a significant fact that the King and General Cadorna
had been frequently seen in this sector during the preceding week
and that important movements of troops and materiel were taking
place daily.
It was not, however, till the 4th August that there were any real
indications that rumour for once was true.
 In his communiqué of that date the Generalissimo concluded with
a line which, read in the light of subsequent events, was pregnant
with historic interest: “On the Isonzo, commencement of very active
fire with heavy shells.”
The communiqué of the following day gave the welcome
intelligence that there had been a vigorous attack in the Monfalcone
sector, and that 145 prisoners, amongst whom were four officers,
had been taken.
After this there appeared no doubt that something really important
was afoot, and this was confirmed by news that came in during the
day that a general attack by the Italians all along this Front was
rapidly developing.
There was no hesitation about leaving Udine now, and the
correspondents prepared to start at once. I arranged for a seat in the
car of Gino Piva, of the Resto del Carlino, of Bologna, and with us
was Roberto Cantalupo, of the Corriere d’Italia, of Rome.
Meanwhile one could hear the thunder of the guns in Udine, and
from the terrace of the castle the smoke of the bursting shells on the
hills was quite distinctly visible, although forty miles away, and during
the night the flashes from the guns looked like distant lightning.
On the 6th of August the whole town was agog with excitement all
day, and news arrived almost every hour with the welcome
intelligence of magnificent progress everywhere.
As it was already rather late to make a start, we decided to wait till
the following morning before leaving, in order to be better able to
judge from the news that came in the meantime which would be the
best point to make for, a somewhat important consideration.
We did not want to waste time and petrol rushing about all over
the country, and one knew from previous experience that it was
generally only at Headquarters that reliable information could be
obtained.
Out in the country nobody ever seemed to know anything of what
was going on a mile away from his own section. As it turned out, it
was particularly fortunate we deferred our departure.
 Late in the afternoon the news reached Udine that the first line of
the Austrian defences from Monte Sabottina to Monte San Michele
had been completely destroyed by the terrific bombardment of the
Italian artillery, and that the infantry were preparing to advance.
Later it was announced that Monte Sabottina itself, the key of the
defences of Gorizia, had been captured and many prisoners taken.
Events were indeed marching with startling rapidity.
We got away shortly after five in the morning, as there was no time
to lose, the way things were shaping. I learned we were to make for
Vipulzano, the Headquarters of General Capello, the commander of
the sixth corps d’armée operating in the Sabottina zone, and where
from all accounts, we should get a capital point de vue if the attack
developed further, as it is only three miles from Monte Sabottina
itself.
We went via Cormons, and, as might have been expected, there
was a big movement of troops all along the road. The offensive had
evidently been so well timed and pre-arranged that everything was
already on the spot and in readiness to proceed anywhere at a
moment’s notice. The capture of Sabottina was no haphazard slice
of luck, but the result of a well-matured coup.
We passed several “new regiments” of infantry on their way to the
trenches, and one could not fail to be greatly impressed by their
smart appearance. Well clothed and shod, their accoutrements and
arms in perfect condition, they looked fit to go anywhere and capable
of holding their own against any troops Austria could put up. The
men were bubbling over with animal spirits and enthusiasm, and we
came in for a lot of good-natured banter as we drove past.
As I was in khaki there was no mistaking my nationality, and they
seemed delighted to see an Englishman. In fact, I heard several real
cockney remarks made for my benefit by fellows who had evidently
lived in England, such as:
“Are we down-hearted?”
“Give my love to London,” which elicited much laughter from their
comrades, and cries of viva l’Inghilterra.
 In this connection I must say that the penchant for Englishmen and
everything English was quite remarkable amongst the soldiers
everywhere at the Front, and I am convinced that most of the good-
fellowship shewn to me whilst in Italy was chiefly by reason of this
sympathy rather than from anything personal.
In a village through which we had to pass we were held up for
nearly three-quarters of an hour, whilst a long column of prisoners
from Sabottina passed.
There must have been over three thousand, and it would be
difficult to imagine a more depressing spectacle than this long
cortège of weary, dispirited men, plodding moodily through the
ruined village. The convoy was guarded by soldiers, and the
inevitable carabinieri on horseback.
Had it not been for the uniformity of colour, which was, however,
but a semblance of the original field-grey, and their head-gear, there
was scarcely anything to indicate that only a few hours previously
these had all been fully armed and equipped soldiers.
It looked almost like a huge crowd of beggars going past, for most
of the bedraggled men were in rags, and very few had any
belongings, and all had a half-starved, terror-stricken appearance
that was pitiable.
As a matter of fact, many of them we learned had not eaten or
drunk anything for several days, the awful intensity of the fire of the
Italian Artillery having prevented any supplies reaching them.
Several were badly wounded, and limped along painfully or were
assisted by their comrades.
So many stories have been going around the Press of the
degeneration of the Austrian Army, that I was astonished to see that
most of the prisoners were strapping young fellows. From what I had
read, I should have expected a preponderance of old men and
weedy youths.
If these were specimens of the troops Austria is still able to put in
the field, then she cannot yet be in such a condition of délabrement
as has been stated.
 CHAPTER XV

The commencement of the battle for Gorizia—We approach scene of

action—Sheltered road—Curious “Chinese” effect—Headquarters of
the 6th Corps d’Armée—Cottage of British Red Cross—Our cordial
reception by General Capello—A glorious coup d’oeil—Wonderful
spectacle—The Socialist Minister Leonida Bissolati—More good
news received—The scene before us—Explanation of word
“Monte”—Continuous line of bursting shells—Country in a state of
irruption—No indication of life anywhere—Not a sign of troops—My
motor goggles—Curious incidents—“Progress everywhere”—Colonel
Clericetti announces good news—Capture of Gorizia bridge-head—
Excited group of correspondents and officers—Arrange start at once
with two confrères for fighting Front—Our plan—The thunder of the
guns—The rearguard of advancing army—Our pace slackened—
Miles and miles of troops—Wonderful spectacle of war—Mossa—Go
on to Valisella—Machine guns and rifle fire—Ghastly radiance—
General Marazzi’s Headquarters—Not allowed proceed further—
Decide make for Vipulzano—Arrive close on 10 o’clock—Bit late to
pay visit—General invites us to dinner—Large party of officers—
Memorable dinner—Atmosphere of exultation—News Austrians
retreating everywhere—Thousands more prisoners—Dawn of day of
victory—I propose a toast—On the terrace after dinner—Battle in full
progress—Awe-inspiring spectacle—Little lights, like Will-o’-the-
Wisps—Amazing explanation—Methodical precision of it all—
Austrian fire decreasing gradually—Time to think of getting back to
Udine and bed.
 CHAPTER XV
As we got nearer the scene of action it was as though we were
approaching a thunderstorm; the roar of the guns was absolutely
continuous.
The road now began to present a very curious appearance. For
several miles it was bordered on either side with high screens of
straw matting hung from poles, and wide strips of the same material
were hung across the centre; the object of this being to hide
movements of troops and convoys from the view of the Austrian
gunners or the prying eyes of airmen.
Quite a “Chinese” effect was produced by this curious screening of
the road. These “postiches,” as I believe they are called, have long
been used on the Western Front, but it was the first time I had seen
them here.
The sensation of driving through these “sheltered” roads was
almost eerie, as you knew that any moment a shell fired at random
might come through the matting, as it was all in full view of the
Austrian batteries.
This, in fact, not infrequently happens, I was told, when the artillery
is particularly active. The idea of the enemy evidently being to
attempt to create a feeling of insecurity and check the va et vient
along the road, but in this they have not succeeded, as the roads are
used as freely as ever.
In other places the screens and traverses were made of
brushwood, which appeared to me to be perhaps more effective, as
they were not so visible at a distance as the square patches of
yellow matting.
The headquarters of General Capello, the commander of the 6th
Corps d’armée, were in a large and picturesque house standing in its
own grounds on a slight acclivity off the road, and about as near to
the operations as one could get that day; in fact, a battery was
stationed in a vineyard within a hundred yards of the building, and
was firing with clockwork regularity the whole time we were up there,
whilst the Austrian shells in reply were bursting much too near to us
to be pleasant.
A cottage on the opposite side of the road had been taken by the
British Red Cross Society, and fixed up as an emergency station.
One of their big ambulance waggons, with an English chauffeur in
khaki, was waiting outside.
The General received us with marked cordiality, and readily gave
his permission for us to go wherever we chose in the vicinity, but
there was no need to go far, for, as it turned out, one could not have
hit on a spot better situated for getting a panoramic view of the
battlefield.
There was a broad terrace at the back of the house, from which
one obtained a glorious coup d’oeil of the whole area from Monte
Sabottina to the Carso, and here we found a group of staff officers
keenly watching the wonderful spectacle with the aid of a powerful
telescope on a tripod.
There were two civilians amongst them who looked strangely out
of keeping with the martial surroundings. One of these, an elderly
man, was the famous Socialist Deputy, now a Cabinet Minister,
Leonida Bissolati, who was making a tour of the Front, accompanied
by his private secretary, Cavaliere Eusebio Allamandola. There was
also another Deputy present, Signor Arci, but he was in the uniform
of a sub-lieutenant of artillery.
Everyone was very elated, as well they might have been
considering the way things were shaping for the Italians, the General
telling us that further good news had been received that morning and
that still more prisoners had been taken.
So far as one could judge the action was still in the nature of a
colossal artillery duel, but the scene before us was so vast that it
took some little time to grasp the full import of what was taking place.
I will depict it roughly in order to convey some idea of our position.
On our left was Monte Sabottina. In front of us was Monte San
Gabriele. The richly wooded undulating plain of Friuli, dotted with
villages, stretched away from below the terrace.
In the distance, a couple of miles or so away, was the Podgora
Ridge, bristling with gaunt tree-stumps; beyond it you could just
distinguish the houses of Gorizia. To the right was the Carso and
Monte San Michele, some five miles away.
It may be mentioned here that the word “Monte” in Italian does not
necessarily signify a “mountain” as it is understood in English. The
Italian “Monte” is a very elastic term, and, according to the dictionary,
may mean a mountain, a hill, or a heap. Monte San Michele in the
Carso, for example, is an ant-heap as compared with, say, Monte
Cristallo in the Alps, but they are both referred to as “Monte.”
I mention this because so many people I have met speak of the
Carso and the lower Isonzo round Gorizia as a mountainous region,
whereas the elevations there are merely in the nature of “foothills.”
However, to revert to the spectacle we had before us at Vipulzano.
From Monte San Gabriele to Monte San Michele, a distance of,
roughly, nine miles, was one continuous line of bursting shells of
every calibre; it never ceased for a moment, and this we were told
had been going on without a lull for forty-eight hours.
The whole country appeared to be in a state of irruption, and
columns or smoke of various colours and fantastic shapes were to
be seen rising everywhere like embryo volcanoes.
All this, combined with the incessant thunder of the guns near and
far, and the crash of the explosions, was positively blood-curdling.
Meanwhile the Austrian artillery was returning shell for shell
apparently, and the Italians were not having it all their own way,
though, as it turned out, the Austrian defensive had no backbone to
it, and its weakness was becoming more and more evident as time
went on.
 Seen through the telescope, the desolation of the countryside was
revealed in all its horrors. At a first glance it was a rich and smiling
landscape bathed in the glorious sunshine of an Italian summer
morning, but one soon discovered that the white houses of the
villages were now but heaps of ruins.
There was no indication of life in them anywhere—the God of war
reigned supreme.
Along the roads there was not a sign of troops nor of any military
activity, yet hidden in the dense woods, we were told, masses of
troops were concealed waiting the signal to advance as soon as the
artillery had finished its work.
I was making a sketch when a shell burst somewhat nearer to the
terrace than was agreeable, and shortly after came another.
To my surprise then an officer hurried across to us and said, in
French, that the General would feel very much obliged if I would sit
in a less exposed position, as the sun was catching the glass of the
motor goggles I was carrying on my cap, and was attracting the
attention of an Austrian battery opposite.
 And day by day one heard of minor successes in Trentino (see page 188)
To face page 198

I did not require to be asked twice; one well-aimed shell of the

calibre they were using would, I knew, have made short work of the
Headquarter chateau.
There is a certain monotony in watching an artillery duel, and as it
was quite uncertain how long this one would last, my companions,
after we had been there about a couple of hours, decided that the
best thing to do was to return to Udine to get off their “copy,” and as I
had some sketches I wanted to work up this suited me also.
“Progress everywhere” was reported the following morning, and
there was an air of suppressed excitement in the town. Everyone
seemed to have the idea that we were on the eve of important
events. And so it turned out.
About four o’clock in the afternoon I went to the Censorship to
have tea, and on the stairs I met Colonel Clericetti; he was positively
beaming with joy. “Have you heard the news?” he exclaimed in
English and wringing me effusively by the hand (for two pins I think
he would have embraced me!)
“We have captured the Gorizia bridgehead, and it is rumoured that
at any moment the troops may get into Gorizia itself.”
This was indeed wonderful tidings, and I felt I must be off again at
once if possible to get some sketches. In the Press-room there was
an excited group of correspondents and officers discussing the
victory.
My confrères with whom I had made the excursion the previous
day were not there for the moment, so in order not to lose time, I
looked round for someone else who might have a vacant seat in his
car, and was not only lucky enough to find one, but also with two
men who were starting immediately.
I hastened back to my lodgings to put together a few things in my
rucksack, as one could not tell how long we might be away or what
might happen.
The news was spreading like wildfire through the town. On the
place Vittorio Emanuele, a crowd was beginning to gather; on all
sides one heard the name of Gorizia.
In the main street the inhabitants were already preparing to put up
flags. It was like the sun coming out after a storm; an air of relief
after the tension of so many long months was discernible on every
face.
Owing to some trouble with the car and my companions being
delayed by telegrams they had to send, it was getting towards
evening by the time we got away, but we found the road was pretty
free to start with; so we made up for lost time by dashing along at top
speed.
My car mates were Rino Allessi, of the Secolo, of Milan, and
Giovanni Miceli, of the Prensa, of Buenos Ayres also an Italian
correspondent, but for the nonce representing this South American
paper.
 Both of them spoke French and were jolly good fellows, though for
the matter of that, all the Italian correspondents up at Udine were
charming, and one could not have come across a more genial and
good-natured group of men anywhere.
Our plan was, of course, to get as near the fighting as possible,
and with this idea we were making for Mossa, which is about a mile
and a half from the Gorizia bridgehead, and where we had been
informed we should find the Headquarters of General Marazzi, the
Divisional Commander, from whom we hoped to get permission to go
on further.
When we had passed Cormons the thunder of the guns, which we
had heard all the way, appeared to increase in intensity till it
resembled a continuous roll of thunder, and always getting nearer.
The road now began to be congested, clouds of dust told us we
had caught up with the rearguard of the advancing army, and our
speed had to be slackened considerably. In places, in fact, we were
hung up altogether, but it was no use worrying about it; our pace was
being regulated, we found, by a monster gun just ahead, drawn by a
traction engine.
There seemed to be miles and miles of troops, infantry, cavalry,
and artillery.
The sun was setting, and in the waning light the interminable
column presented a spectacle of war that I shall never forget.
We were challenged by a patrol just before we got to Mossa, but
had no trouble whatever, as our passes were quite in order.
We learned that the Divisional Headquarters were at Valisella,
quite close by, but away from the main road, so we made our way
there. To get away from the dust for a little while was indeed a relief;
we had been almost choked with it, and looked like millers.
It was now almost dusk, and we were so close to the fighting that
we could hear the machine guns and rifle fire in between the reports
of the guns.