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Tourism, Hospitality & Event Management

João P. Cerdeira Bento

Fídel Martínez-Roget
Elisabeth T. Pereira
Xosé A. Rodríguez Editors

Academic
Tourism
Perspectives on International Mobility in
Europe
Tourism, Hospitality & Event Management
This book series covers all topics relevant in the tourism, hospitality and event
industries. It includes destination management and related aspects of the travel and
mobility industries as well as effects from developments in the information and
communication technologies. “Tourism, Hospitality & Event Management”
embraces books both for professionals and scholars, and explicitly includes under-
graduate and advanced texts for students. In this setting the book series reflects the
close connection between research, teaching and practice in tourism research and
tourism management and the related fields.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15444

João P. Cerdeira Bento • Fídel Martínez-Roget •
Elisabeth T. Pereira • Xosé A. Rodríguez
Editors

Academic Tourism
Perspectives on International Mobility
in Europe
Editors
João P. Cerdeira Bento Fídel Martínez-Roget
Department of Economics, Management, Department of Applied Economics
Industrial Engineering and Tourism University of Santiago de Compostela
(DEGEIT) Santiago de Compostela, Spain
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal

Elisabeth T. Pereira Xosé A. Rodríguez

Department of Economics, Management, Department of Quantitative Economics
Industrial Engineering and Tourism University of Santiago de Compostela
(DEGEIT) Santiago de Compostela, Spain
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal

ISSN 2510-4993 ISSN 2510-5000 (electronic)

Tourism, Hospitality & Event Management
ISBN 978-3-030-57287-7 ISBN 978-3-030-57288-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57288-4

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
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errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The significant increase in the international mobility of students between different

institutions of higher education is a fact that is sufficiently contrasted today. Due to
the many opportunities offered by scholarships, exchange programs, and agreements
between universities, thousands of students each year spend less than a year at
universities in other countries. The number of higher education students studying
abroad has virtually tripled in the last two decades. Although obviously some
countries have a greater role, both in the departures and arrivals of students, it is a
global phenomenon in which countries around the world participate. On the
European continent, international mobility has experienced strong growth since
the late 1980s, driven by the Erasmus program.
There is some confusion when it comes to classifying and conceptualizing the
mobility of higher education students from a tourism point of view. There are related
or similar concepts, such as youth tourism, educational tourism, and even cultural
tourism, which have probably led to this confusion. Under certain conditions,
university mobility can be considered as tourism, and the activities carried out by
students during their trips and stays for studies, traineeships, or language can be
defined as academic tourism. At the same time within academic tourism, it is
possible to differentiate between domestic academic tourism (if the move to study
takes place within the country) and international academic tourism (if the move is
abroad). One of the objectives of this book is precisely to clarify and delimit the
concept from its similarities, but also from its differences, with other related
concepts.
In the last decade, interesting research published in high-impact journals in the
field of tourism has focused on the study of academic tourism, particularly in
international academic tourism. These studies have shown that academic tourism
is a very different type of tourism from what we can consider conventional tourism.
First of all, it must be borne in mind that these are trips and whose main objective is
to carry out studies or practices related to them in the field of a university institution.
Although during the trips and stays other types of “typically” tourist activities are
carried out, there are of course objective conditions, and those are led by push and

v
vi Preface

pull motives, and the differential characteristics of academic tourism. In terms of

motivations, the pull factors acquire special relevance and relate to the reputation of
universities, the quality of education, and the flexibility of exchange programs, but
also the language, lifestyle, security of the country, host, or word-of-mouth recom-
mendations. The aspirations and expectations of students and their families, as well
as the socio-economic conditions of the sending countries, often act as important
push factors.
It is also commonly agreed that specific characteristics of academic tourism and
its impacts in the destination can be different regarding the objective of the stay, the
pull and push motives, including the characteristics and conditions for visitors. First
of all, and as just mentioned when talking about the motivations, the demand for this
type of tourism does not depend mainly on economic factors but depends on
elements such as the reputation of the host institutions, the language, the level of
security, hospitality, the variety of exchange programs, or the effect of other
students’ recommendations on making the decision to study abroad. Second, the
longer the length of stay and patterns of consumption and spending are more similar
to those of the residents themselves, the greater its economic impact than that of
conventional tourism. Thirdly, and from an environmental point of view, the longer
length of stay, together with consumption patterns and a high concern for climate
change, contributes to academic tourism offering higher levels of sustainability than
conventional tourism. Finally, academic tourism has the potential to contribute to the
innovation of the tourism sector as it is a segment of demand with greater knowledge
and a greater propensity to use new technologies.
Precisely because of these peculiarities and its potential for future growth,
academic tourism is arousing growing interest, not only among the authorities
responsible for higher education institutions around the world, but also and espe-
cially among the agents involved in the management of the tourist activity in the
different destinations that receive international students. The growing interest in
academic tourism is a major motivation for the publication of this book. Other
reasons could be the need to contribute to the knowledge of this type of tourism,
specifying the concept, analyzing the motivations of academic tourists, investigating
their impacts, and ultimately filling in the gaps arising from the non-existence of
such a publication.

Santiago de Compostela, Spain Fídel Martínez-Roget

Santiago de Compostela, Spain Xosé A. Rodríguez
Acknowledgments

First, we would like to thank the institutions that helped and supported us during the
development of this book, in particular Erasmus+ program to support staff mobility
in the higher education sector, the University of Aveiro, and the University of
Santiago de Compostela.
Second, we would like to thank the authors of the chapters for providing their
expertise, patience, and ultimately high-quality contributions.
We are also grateful for the assistance from several colleagues at the University of
Aveiro and at the University of Santiago de Compostela for sharing with us their
knowledge and experience, and to all those who undertook considerable editorial
support and deserve both recognition and our deep gratitude.
Finally, and most importantly, we would like to thank our families and friends for
being supportive while we prepared this book.

vii
Contents

1 Introduction to the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

João P. Cerdeira Bento
2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fídel Martínez-Roget and Xosé A. Rodríguez
3 Academic Tourism and Dynamics of Tourism Destinations . . . . . . . 21
Çiğdem Unurlu
4 Revisiting an Academic Tourism Destination: An Empirical
Analysis of the Role of Motivations, Attitudes, Satisfaction,
and Electronic Word of Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bartolomé Deyà-Tortella, Rebeca Mendez-Duron,
and Francisco Rejón-Guardia
5 Staff Teaching Mobility of Selected Polish Universities on the
Example of Erasmus Plus Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Alina Zajadacz, Renata Krukowska, and Małgorzata Durydiwka
6 Language Tourism in Higher Education: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . 85
Montserrat Iglesias
7 How Do Others Think About Us? The Effect of Country
Perceptions on the Behavioural Intentions of Foreign Students . . . . 101
Ana Sousa, Helena Nobre, and Minoo Farhangmehr
8 The Role of Big Data in Knowledge Co-creation for Academic
Tourism Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Ruhet Genç

ix
x Contents

9 Exchange Students’ Views on Tourism: The Impact of First-Hand

Experiences on Transversal Skills Development and Loyalty to the
Host Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Sandra Filipe, Belem Barbosa, Claudia Amaral Santos,
Margarida M. Pinheiro, Dora Simões, and Gonçalo Paiva Dias
10 Academic Tourism and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Xosé A. Rodríguez and Fídel Martínez-Roget
11 Economic Impact of Academic Tourism in European
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Elisabeth T. Pereira, João P. Cerdeira Bento, and Aisté Osteikaité
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

João P. Cerdeira Bento holds a PhD from the University of Reading, UK, and is a
senior lecturer in the Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineer-
ing, and Tourism at the University of Aveiro. He is also a research fellow at the
Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policy. He is an econ-
omist, and his research interests include the study of international trade and invest-
ment, energy and environmental sustainability, and tourism economics.

Fídel Martínez-Roget holds a PhD in economics and is a professor in the Depart-

ment of Applied Economics at the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC)
(Spain). Between 2005 and 2011, he was Secretary of the Centre for Tourism Studies
and Research (CETUR) at USC. His main areas of research are related to the analysis
of rural tourism, the impacts of tourism, and economic well-being. He was lead
researcher of the projects “Software for the calculation of the economic impact of
tourism at regional and local level” and “An indicator of tourism loyalty towards
Galicia”. He has published in international journals such as Annals of Tourism
Research, Tourism Management, Sustainability, Tourism Economics, Regional
Studies, Social Indicators Research, and EURE.

Elisabeth T. Pereira is an associate professor of economics in the Department of

Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering, and Tourism at the University of
Aveiro, where she coordinates the International Mobility for Economics studies. She
holds a PhD in Business and Economics Competitiveness from the University of
Aveiro. She is a full researcher at the Research Unit on Governance, Competitive-
ness and Public Policy. Between 2012 and 2016, she was chair of the Subject
Committee of Economics and Business of Campus Europae—European University
Foundation. Her research interests include competitiveness and innovation in

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

tourism, academic tourism, and the impact of tourism in economic growth. She is
author of several dozen articles published in international scientific journals indexed,
book chapters, and institutional reports. She is also reviewer of national and inter-
national journals.

Xosé A. Rodríguez is a professor of econometrics at the University of Santiago de

Compostela. His research interests include econometric analysis, measurement of
productivity and efficiency, mining economics, modeling and analysis techniques
applied to the tourism sector, and sustainable development. Regarding tourism
research, he has published interesting papers in leading journals, such as Annals of
Tourism Research, Tourism Management, Tourism Economics, and Sustainability.

Contributors

Claudia Amaral Santos Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, Uni-

versity of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Ana F. Antunes de Sousa School of Economics and Management, University of
Minho, Braga, Portugal
Belem Barbosa Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, University of
Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
João P. Cerdeira Bento Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engi-
neering and Tourism (DEGEIT), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Bartolomé DeyàTortella Department of Business Economics, University of las
Islas Baleares, Palma, Spain
Gonçalo Paiva Dias Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, Univer-
sity of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Małgorzata Durydiwka Department of Tourism and Recreation, Adam Mickie-
wicz University, Poznań, Poland
Minoo Farhangmehr School of Economics and Management, University of
Minho, Braga, Portugal
Sandra Filipe Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, University of
Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Ruhet Genç Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Turkish-
German University, Beykoz-İstanbul, Turkey
Montserrat Iglesias School of Tourism, Hospitality and Gastronomy, University
of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Editors and Contributors xiii

Renata Krukowska Department of Tourism and Recreation, Adam Mickiewicz

University, Poznań, Poland
Fídel Martínez-Roget Department of Applied Economics, University of Santiago
de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Rebeca Méndez-Durón Department of Business Economics, University of las
Islas Baleares, Palma, Spain
Helena Nobre Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering
and Tourism, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Aisté Osteikaité Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering
and Tourism (DEGEIT), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Elisabeth T. Pereira Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engi-
neering and Tourism (DEGEIT), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Margarida Pinheiro Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, Univer-
sity of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Francisco Rejón-Guardia Department of Business Economics, University of las
Islas Baleares, Palma, Spain
Xosé A. Rodríguez Department of Quantitative Economics, University of Santiago
de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Dora Simões Aveiro Institute of Accounting and Administration, University of
Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Çiğdem Unurlu Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
Alina Zajadacz Department of Tourism and Recreation, Adam Mickiewicz Uni-
versity, Poznań, Poland
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Book

João P. Cerdeira Bento

Due to increasing international students and academic staff mobility in higher

education, a new type of tourism known as “academic tourism” has emerged
(Rodríguez et al. 2012; Bento 2014). There is a growing interest in themes related
to academic tourism within tourism, but this tourism type remains an under-
researched topic. The rationale behind the book is to addresses specifically this
research gap in the literature and to present a wide range of chapters on academic
tourism in the domain of tourism economics, regional development planning and
business studies. The book can also be viewed as an organised guide to the state of
knowledge on academic tourism. The editors have sought contributions that attempt
to address the following (but not limited to) topics:
• Academic tourism demand and expenditure
• Economic impacts of academic tourism
• Academic tourism and sustainable tourism planning
• Academic tourism and regional development
• Academic tourism and internationalisation of higher education
• Academic tourism and dynamics of tourism destinations
Qualitative and quantitative methods and approaches to these chapters have been
welcomed. Chapters are research-based, case studies, and contain exploratory or
critical literature reviews and conceptual/theoretical analysis of academic tourism in
contemporary tourism. This, then, is the first book compilation to focus on topics and
perspectives related to academic tourism. This collection is composed by 10 chapters
and incorporates diverse writing styles from international authors sharing their
knowledge and expertise. The book encompasses contributions from scholars and
specialists in the field and grounds an international scope. This volume constitutes an

J. P. Cerdeira Bento (*)

Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism (DEGEIT),
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: jpbento@ua.pt

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

J. P. Cerdeira Bento et al. (eds.), Academic Tourism, Tourism, Hospitality & Event
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57288-4_1
2 J. P. Cerdeira Bento

essential reading for students, researchers, tourism practioners and academics in

tourism studies. The introductory chapter sets out to identify the main themes of the
edited book and covers the specific nature and scope of its elements. Additionally, it
summarizes and highlights the key findings of this collection.
Chapter 2 is based on recommendations and work undertaken by the World
Tourism Organization. This chapter specifies the concept of academic tourism by
defining it as the activities performed by people during their travels and temporary
stays, outside usual environment in higher education institutions. Taking as refer-
ence the push-pull model, the motivations inherent in academic tourism are
analysed. The push factors point out aspects specific to tourists such as the needs
for personal and professional growth and aspects related to the socio-economic
conditions of the emitting regions. The pull factors relate to aspects such as the
reputation and quality of the institutions of the destination country, the attractions,
the language or the image of the host country are indicated. Finally, this chapter also
refers to the specific characteristics of academic tourism that make its effects and
impacts different from those of other types of tourism. Among these specific
characteristics are, from the perspective of the demand side, a longer stay, spending
patterns more similar to those of the residents themselves than those of conventional
tourists, a lower environmental impact or the preference for the use of new
technologies.
Chapter 3 argues that global economies have enhanced the acceleration of human
mobility. Primarily, in order to receive world class training, learn new languages and
get new experiences, the increase of human mobility has become more striking day
by day, and this situation has brought new economies into existence. When consid-
ered from this point of view, academic tourism has attracted a great deal of attention
as a new economy. In this regard, the aim of this chapter is to expand the awareness
of the stakeholders concerning the concept of academic tourism to ensure that the
stakeholders reach their idealized aims more effectively and to make contributions to
the tourism sector and literature. Concordantly, firstly the concept of academic
tourism, which is an alternative type of tourism, is clarified, and academic tourism
will be addressed as a touristic product. Within this scope, international agreements,
projects and cooperation’s (Bologna, Socrates, Erasmus, Mevlâna) are evaluated.
After reviewing several definitions among technical, economical and holistic
approaches, the pull and push factors of academic tourism are addressed, and then
the components of academic tourism based on tourism literature are evaluated in the
five groups: (1) education tourist, (2) geographical factors, (3) educational institu-
tions, (4) industrial factors, (5) external environment.
Chapter 4 starts by considering that academic tourism is a worldwide phenome-
non experiencing significant growth. Beyond the benefits for students, host academic
institutions obtain direct economic benefits from the mobility program, and the
destinations receive indirect spillovers out of the living expenses of the students.
This chapter develops a structural equation model aimed to explain the behaviour of
students after visiting a given academic institution. Using the information on a large
sample of Erasmus students, the model helps to explain the subjects’ recommenda-
tions on both the institution and the destination, and their intention to revisit the
1 Introduction to the Book 3

destination for leisure purposes. The study finds that the intention to recommend the
host academic institution, followed by the attitude toward it, are the primary
determinants of the intention to revisit. Moreover, push and pull motivations are
fundamental in explaining the attitude toward the institution. Finally, both satisfac-
tion and electronic word of mouth (eWOM) influence the intention to revisit
indirectly, through the intention to recommend. Consequently, destinations of aca-
demic tourism should assess their visiting students’ ex-ante motivations and attitudes
toward the institution to improve satisfaction and, simultaneously, potentiate elec-
tronic word of mouth to increase the probability of revisiting. The chapter also
discusses the implications of academic tourism for leisure destinations suggesting
some lines of work for future research.
Chapter 5 makes a throughout diagnosis of trips for academic purposes from 2014
to 2017 and a prognosis for the following years up to 2020 in three selected Polish
universities: the University of Warsaw, the Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in
Lublin, and the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. Statistical data has been
obtained in cooperation with the departments of international cooperation at each
university that were responsible for organizing and providing administrative support
for the trips taken by university staff. The analyses refer to characteristics such as the
number of participants of respective trips in a given year split according to their
gender, the scientific disciplines they represented, destinations, trip duration, as well
as funding obtained for travel and the cost of stay. The section concerning prognosis
(pursuant to the time horizon in the Erasmus+ programme) includes forecasts for the
2019–2020 period, which takes into account features listed in the diagnosis by
means of two methods: No-change Extrapolation Method and Simple Moving
Average Extrapolation Method. The conclusions resulting from the analyses admin-
istered at the diagnostic and the prognosis stages allow for the identification of
tendencies connected with academic tourism of university staff within the whole
realisation of the Erasmus+ programme. There is a greater activity of women in
relation to men and more frequent trips of representatives of social sciences and
humanities in comparison with other disciplines. The majority of destinations
selected are southern European countries (Spain, Italy, Portugal), which leads to
the conclusion that the motivation for choosing a destination is linked to whether it is
appealing in terms of tourism. These results are important in the context of the
academic tourists’ arrival at specific destinations. This knowledge is especially
significant for shaping sustainable policy for developing tourism both in the areas
that generate tourist movement and where tourist traffic is received.
Chapter 6 focuses on the need of learning a foreign language which is particularly
significant among contemporary university students, since developing their commu-
nicative competences can be determining for their employability as global citizens.
Internationalisation through student mobility in the context of tertiary education is
meant to foster such development. In a higher education environment language
learning overseas can be a means to an end or a fundamental motivation for
academic travel. This chapter explores the role of language learning and language
tourism in relation to international higher education programmes worldwide. More-
over, it offers an overview of this scarcely studied tourism niche, with a special focus
4 J. P. Cerdeira Bento

on research conducted in Spain. The main outcomes deriving from market reports
and academic papers on this topic are accounted for with respect to mobility trends
and other tourism related aspects, such as services used, tourist expenditure or
behaviour. The impacts of language tourism are discussed as well, and potential
avenues of investigation are outlined.
Chapter 7 aims to analyse the influence of country image (CI) dimensions on the
intentions of foreign consumers in purchase, visit, and invest in a particular country.
The analysis focuses on the Portuguese market and inquiries about the beliefs and
emotions among international European students about Portuguese CI. It extends
research on CI by simultaneously analysing the influence of country affect and
country cognitions on foreign consumer’s buying behaviour. Through the self-
reported perceptions of more than 300 European university students, findings sug-
gest that the cognitive and the affective dimensions of CI influence European
consumer’s behavioural intentions towards Portugal. Findings also suggest that CI
dimensions might be useful to estimate the influence of each dimension on interna-
tional students’ purchase intentions, as well as to evaluate the countries as travel and
investment destinations. This chapter discusses the main findings and also suggests
directions for further research.
Chapter 8 turns to knowledge co-creation as a fundamental element in tourism
since it allows tourists and service providers to create tourism-related information
together where individuals share their tourism experiences in online platforms.
Academic mobility of students is conceptualised as a type of tourism as it meets
required factors related to the definition of tourism. Moreover, technology has led to
the emergence of large datasets called Big Data along with the software tools to
capture, analyse, storage and deployment of these datasets. Big Data is used in many
areas ranging from business intelligence analysis to statistical purposes. This chapter
underlines the importance of Big Data in academic tourism and investigates the
process of knowledge co-creation in academic tourism experiences and their accu-
mulation as Big Data. It starts with the discussion of Big Data and its specific aspects
regarding the tourism sector. The discussion moves then to the relationship between
Big Data and knowledge co-creation in academic tourism, namely how students
become capable of sharing their experiences online and how this information
accumulates into a form of demand which encourages institutions to consider the
demands of students accordingly. Later on, a model is suggested to analyse the direct
impact of knowledge co-creation process and academic touristic experiences on
tourism and hospitality services which accumulates as Big Data. This chapter
concludes that Big Data is a valuable source for knowledge co-creation which
leads to the development of institutions to live up to students’ academic tourism
experiences.
Chapter 9 builds on the main contributions in the literature that associate tourism
with student mobility, particularly in Europe, positioning tourism both as a motivator
and an enhancer of mobility’s success, namely by developing transversal skills and
loyalty to the host destination (for example, the intention to return to the host
destination for tourism or work and its recommendation to peers). This chapter
presents the analysis of a qualitative study conducted with 32 exchange students
1 Introduction to the Book 5

that have spent one or two semesters at the same Portuguese University by using
focus groups for collecting participants’ views and experiences. Data is subject to
thematic content analysis. Participants in this study agreed that they travel as much
as they can during their mobility, being an essential part of their intercultural
experience. The student’s narratives and dialogues provide evidence that travelling
contributes to developing transversal skills that are important for their self-awareness
and for their future professional careers, such as time management, money manage-
ment, and intercultural communication.
Chapter 10 recognises the importance of the tourism sector in the world economy
as a wealth-generating industry, and also the possible negative impacts that tourism
activities might have on the corresponding destinations. Precisely because tourism
activities can have undesirable effects on tourist-receiving communities, only
sustainability-based tourism policies are the best option for this sector to continue
to make a significant contribution in the future to the improvement of tourism-sight
of citizens’ lives. In this context, this chapter assesses the importance of the concept
of sustainability, and from a practical point of view the relevance and difficulties of
implementing tourism policies aimed at sustainability. It focuses on the relationship
between tourism and sustainability, and once this relationship is established, the
sustainability of the specific case of academic tourism is studied by taking into
account any existing empirical evidence. These evidences indicate that academic
tourism, due to its clearly differentiated characteristics from what can be considered
conventional tourism. These evidences allow to define and set up an empirical
procedure that allows to evaluate levels of sustainability in academic tourism. The
chapter concludes by setting out proposals aimed at improving these levels of
sustainability.
Finally, Chap. 11 analyses the economic effects of international academic tourism
in European countries. The analysis starts with presenting the theoretical concepts
surrounding the economics of academic tourism. It then reviews previous research
on the topic followed by an empirical assessment on the economic impact of
academic tourism with data comprising a panel of 30 European countries for the
period from 2000 to 2016. Results are obtained by means of the generalized method
of moments (GMM) estimator. Based on the theoretical ground, the economic
effects of academic tourism are positive and small, but the estimation results indicate
that the economic impact of academic tourism is mainly driven through the channel
of student spending. The results also highlight the interdependence between incom-
ing and outgoing international students and their mobility activities. This suggests
that more efficient and cooperative higher education institutions, which affect the
transmission of student mobility abroad, will enhance the market for academic
tourism, implying that some efforts aimed at developing these markets should be
taken.
6 J. P. Cerdeira Bento

References

Bento CJP (2014) The determinants of international academic tourism demand in Europe. Tour
Econ 20(3):611–628
Rodríguez A, Martínez-Roget F, Pawlowska E (2012) Academic tourism demand in Galicia, Spain.
Tour Manag 33(6):1583–1590

João Paulo Cerdeira Bento holds a PhD from the University of Reading, United Kingdom, and is
a senior lecturer at the University of Aveiro Department of Economics, Management, Industrial
Engineering, and Tourism. He is also a research fellow at the Research Unit on Governance,
Competitiveness and Public Policy. He is an economist and his research interests include the
study of international trade and investment, energy and environmental sustainability, and tourism
economics.
Chapter 2
Academic Tourism: Conceptual
and Theoretical Issues

Fídel Martínez-Roget and Xosé A. Rodríguez

2.1 Introduction

Student mobility in higher education has undergone significant growth in recent

decades, supported by the growing importance of exchange programmes and student
travel. Globally, the number of higher education students studying abroad has almost
tripled in less than 20 years, from 1.9 million in 1999 to 5.3 million in 2017, as
shown in Fig. 2.1 (UNESCO 2020). Foreign students currently account for 2.4% of
all higher education students worldwide.
In absolute terms, traditional study destinations receive the most students. The
United States stands out in first place, with nearly one million inbound internation-
ally mobile students in tertiary education in 2017, followed by the United Kingdom
and France. Australia is also a country that has traditionally received many interna-
tional students, especially thanks to the appeal of the language and the close relations
with Asian countries that allow it to attract a significant number of Asian students
(Gribble 2008). The rapid growth of international mobility in higher education is
explained above all by the boom experienced in Europe, but also in areas of Asia and
the Middle East. Countries such as China, Japan, Turkey and Malaysia have been
taking an increasing share of the market. China, with more than 900,000, is
undoubtedly the country with the most outbound international mobile students,
followed by India and the Republic of Korea. If we compare the incoming and
outgoing flows of international students in tertiary education, the United States is the

F. Martínez-Roget (*)
Department of Applied Economics, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de
Compostela, Spain
e-mail: fidel.martinez@usc.es
X. A. Rodríguez
Department of Quantitative Economics, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de
Compostela, Spain
e-mail: xoseanton.rodriguez@usc.es

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 7

J. P. Cerdeira Bento et al. (eds.), Academic Tourism, Tourism, Hospitality & Event
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57288-4_2
8 F. Martínez-Roget and X. A. Rodríguez

Fig. 2.1 Total outbound internationally mobile tertiary students studying abroad, 1998–2017.
Source: Prepared by the authors on the basis of UIS Education Statistics. UNESCO

country with the highest positive balance and close to 900,000, followed by the
United Kingdom and Australia. On the contrary, China is the country with the
highest negative balance, close to 800,000, followed at some distance by India.
International mobility in higher education is now a global phenomenon. If we
analyse the outflows, for the whole of Asia the percentage of students of tertiary
education going abroad reached 5.2% in 2017. For the African continent as a whole
the percentage was 3.6%. In the case of Latin America and the Caribbean the
percentage is 1.2%, while in North America it is less than 1%. In Europe, around
3.3% of students in tertiary education study abroad. In terms of arrivals, Oceania and
Europe, with percentages of 21% and 7% respectively, is where the number of
foreign students represents a greater percentage within the higher education students
of each of these areas. In some small countries such as Liechtenstein or Luxembourg,
foreign university students account for more than 50 per cent of enrolments, but even
in other countries with larger populations such as the United Kingdom or Australia,
they account for nearly 20%.
In Europe, international mobility has undergone significant growth, driven by the
European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and Bologna Process. The Erasmus
programme (European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University
Students), created in 1987 to facilitate and promote university mobility through
institutional cooperation between universities, has been one of the main factors
responsible for the increase in university exchanges in Europe (Pawlowska and
Martínez-Roget 2010). The Erasmus programme marks a before and after in the
internationalisation process. From that moment on, the budgetary allocations
increased, the creation of infrastructures to support mobility was promoted, and
the programme was extended to other geographical areas through new programmes
such as TEMPUS, ALFA, ATLANTIS or ERASMUS MUNDUS (Haug 2010).
2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues 9

Fig. 2.2 ERASMUS student mobility, 1987–2018 (Higher education participants: students for
studies and students for traineeships) (From the academic year 2013–2014 onwards, the data are
annual). Source: Prepared by the authors on the basis of European Commission data. Erasmus+.
Statistics

Since the launch of the Erasmus programme, international mobility has increased
significantly and continuously, from just over 3000 students in the 1987–1988
academic year to almost 350,000 in 2018, as can be seen in Fig. 2.2. During this
period, more than four million students have participated in international exchanges,
either to continue their studies or to carry out a work placement in a different
country. The number of participating countries has also increased during this period,
going from 12 countries to 33 at present, and there are agreements with a large group
of partner countries (European Commission 2020).
The mobility of higher education students implies, as its name suggests, a
movement of people away from their place of habitual residence and for a short
period of time, in which they carry out a series of activities in the destination with
economic consequences. From this point of view and under certain conditions, this
mobility could be conceptualized as tourism. The mobility of students in higher
education is driven both by internal factors, specific to the students, their families or
their regions of origin, and by external factors, related to the attributes of the host
countries. On the other hand, this mobility presents a series of specific characteristics
and creates different types of effects in the destination countries. The following
sections will firstly attempt to conceptualise the mobility of students of higher
education from a tourism point of view, secondly analyse the motivations for this
tourism mobility and finally, attempt to reflect its specific characteristics and poten-
tial effects on the destination regions.
10 F. Martínez-Roget and X. A. Rodríguez

2.2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual Clarifications

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) indicates that tourism refers to the
activity that visitors carry out and defines the visitor as “a person who travels to a
main destination outside his/her usual environment, for less than a year, for any
main purpose (leisure, business or other personal purpose) other than to be
employed by a resident entity in the country or place visited. These trips made by
visitors are considered to be tourist trips.”
When classifying tourist trips by the main reason for the trip, the UNWTO
includes education and training within the personal reasons and refers to the under-
taking of courses; following particular programmes of study (formal or informal),
the acquisition of specific skills, or the undertaking of language courses. Further-
more, the UNWTO includes under the category of visitors, students taking short-
term courses (less than 1 year), whereas indicates that those taking long-term courses
(1 year or more) should be excluded from visitors, as these would be within their
usual environment (UNWTO 2010).
From a conceptual point of view, university mobility would fit into the category
of tourist travel, since it responds to the parameters used by the UNWTO. Similarly,
university students who travel to another country for study purposes and for a period
of time of less than 1 year can be considered as visitors to that country. However,
there has been no consensus on what this mobility should be called from the point of
view of tourism and it has often been confused with, or incorporated into, other
related concepts such as youth tourism, educational tourism and even cultural
tourism (Rodríguez et al. 2012).
These concepts are, in turn, quite vague, with no clear dividing line between
them. Different studies point out, for example, the lack of a single universal
definition of youth tourism despite its growing importance and dynamism within
world tourism (Ahmed Saikia 2018; UNWTO 2008). Difficulties arise both in
specifying the term ‘young’, as well as in defining the different market niches related
to this tourism. UNWTO and WYSE (The World Youth Student and Educational)
consider that youth tourism “includes all independent trips for periods of less than
one year by people aged 16-29 which are motivated, in part or in full, by a desire to
experience other cultures, build life experience and/or benefit from formal and
informal learning opportunities outside one’s usual environment” (UNWTO 2008,
p. 1; WYSE Travel Confederation 2020).
In a paper on operational definitions of types of tourism, the UNWTO notes that
education tourism “covers those types of tourism which have as a primary motiva-
tion the tourist’s engagement and experience in learning, self-improvement, intel-
lectual growth and skills development”. According to the UNWTO, educational
tourism encompasses a wide range of activities related to academic studies, school
trips, courses related to career development, language courses or vacations to
enhance skills and sports training, among others (UNWTO 2019). Education tourism
could include travel incorporating learning elements and student tourism (Ritchie
2003). Student tourism in some countries is mostly limited to the movement of
2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues 11

Fig. 2.3 Contextualization of the concept of academic tourism. Source: Adapted from Rodríguez
et al. (2012) and McGladdery and Lubbe (2017)

young people in higher education, while in others student tourism also refers to
travel by schoolchildren (UNWTO 2008). The language tourism defined by Iglesias
(2016) as “a tourist activity undertaken by those travellers taking a trip which
includes at least an overnight stay in a destination outside their usual place of
residence for less than a year and for whom language learning is a primary or
secondary part of their trip” could also form a part of educational tourism. This is an
example of the lack of consensus regarding the nature and scope of educational
tourism, as indicated by authors such as McGladdery and Lubbe (2017).
Often, the analysis of student-related tourism in higher education is also included
in the field of cultural tourism, with the understanding that the objectives of student
mobility are not strictly limited to training related to their respective studies. They
include a set of broader aspirations or experiences. Authors such as Richards (2011)
suggest that the growth of educational tourism derives precisely from the fragmen-
tation of cultural tourism. The UNWTO defines cultural tourism as “a type of
tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover,
experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a
tourism destination” (UNWTO 2020). Motivation related to training and contact
with the culture of the destination country, which are essential in mobility within
higher education, would therefore have typical features of cultural tourism.
Ultimately, student mobility in higher education is related to other types of
tourism such as cultural tourism, youth tourism or education tourism (see
Fig. 2.3), but at the same time, since it involves the movement of students of higher
education to other universities for studies or traineeships, it has its own characteris-
tics and therefore requires a specific definition. Following Rodríguez et al. (2012) we
will use the term ‘academic tourism’ to refer to all stays lasting less than 1 year and
12 F. Martínez-Roget and X. A. Rodríguez

carried out in higher education institutions outside the person’s usual environment.
Furthermore, just as a distinction is made between international and domestic
tourism, we can speak of international academic tourism, which would include the
movement of university students between different countries, and domestic aca-
demic tourism, which would include the movement of national university students
within the same country. Academic tourism has received increasing attention in
recent years. However, most scientific studies that have analysed academic tourism
have done so from an international perspective.

2.3 Travel Motivations of Academic Tourists

The UNWTO notes that young people consider travel an essential part of their daily
lives. For young people, more than a brief escape from reality, tourism is a way of
learning, of getting to know other people and other cultures and a way of developing
both personally and professionally (UNWTO 2016).
The WYSE Travel Confederation with the support of the Association for Tourism
and Leisure Education (ATLAS) conducted a survey in 2002, which was repeated in
2007, with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of international youth and
student travel. In total they obtained 2300 responses in 2002 and over 8500 in 2007.
The four main motivations pointed out by the young people for their trips were
“explore other cultures”, “increase my knowledge”, “experience everyday life” and
“interact with local people”(UNWTO 2008). Yunusovich (2018, p. 2) to answer the
question why do young people travel? Pointed out “the main motivation, as a rule, is
the study of other cultures, followed by the search for new sensations, raising the
level of knowledge—all this demonstrates the desire to push with “other” people
and territories”.
Motivation can be defined simply as the desires and needs, both biological and
psychological, that determine a person’s behaviour and activity (Devesa et al. 2010;
Yoon and Uysal 2005). It is widely accepted that motivation is one of the central
elements in determining tourism behaviour (Caber and Albayrak 2016; Alegre et al.
2011; Heitmann 2011). Devesa et al. (2010) pointed out that motivation determines
the reasons for travelling, the specific destination of travel and the results obtained
with the trip. Therefore, investigating the reasons why people travel contributes to
understanding tourism as a psychological phenomenon and helps in making deci-
sions related to it (Park and Yoon 2009).
There is a broad consensus that tourism motivation depends on two forces. People
travel either because they are pushed by internal factors, specific to them (push
motivation), or because they are pulled by external factors, related to the attributes of
the destination (pull motivation) (Fieger et al. 2017; Whyte 2017; Xu and Chan
2016). Push factors refer to intangible or intrinsic desires, such as the desire for
evasion or escape, the need for rest and relaxation, adventure, the need for social
interaction or the desire to learn. Pull factors refer to tangible resources and tourism
products of the destination, such as natural, cultural or technological resources and
2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues 13

the attractions of a given destination such as the tourism image or the hospitality of
the local population (Huang et al. 2018). There is no consensus in explaining the
relationships between push and pull motivations (Xu and Chan 2016). Some authors
suggest that push and pull factors are related in a simple way (Klenosky 2002), while
others indicate that pull factors can reinforce push motivations (Devesa et al. 2010;
Yoon and Uysal 2005), and others note that push factors precede and influence pull
factors (Wong et al. 2017; Caber and Albayrak 2016; Dann 1981).
The push-pull motivation model is one of the most widely used in the analysis of
tourists’ motivations, and is also a tool widely used by researchers when analysing
student mobility motivations (Li and Qi 2019; Jiani 2017; Lee 2017; Li and Bray
2007; Mazzarol and Soutar 2002; McMahon 1992). In the area of student mobility,
push factors would be related to elements that are specific to students and, as
Rodríguez et al. (2011) point out, to elements from their countries of origin,
considered by students as being unsatisfactory, which push them to study elsewhere.
The pull factors would be related to elements specific to the destination country.
In a review of the literature related to the factors that contribute to students’
decisions to study abroad, push factors are usually noted such as the possibilities of
professional and personal growth, the habits and preferences of students, the income
levels in the students’ country of origin, or the availability of educational opportu-
nities in the home country. Meanwhile, pull factors are frequently referred to as
elements such as the climate of the destination, the language, the distance, the
reputation of the institutions, staff expertise, courses offered, or the word-of-mouth
(WOM) recommendations (Ahmad et al. 2016; Cubillo and Cerviño 2006; Mazzarol
and Soutar 2002).
Table 2.1 contains a summary of the papers published in the last decade and a
selection of the most relevant motivations of higher education students when going
abroad to study. In general, the results of this sample of studies confirm the push and
pull motivations noted above. Push factors include personal aspects related to the
students’ or their parents’ own aspirations and economic aspects related to the
standard of living in the countries of origin. Pull factors include the reputation and
image of the host institutions, the word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendations, the
language, the cost of travel or the image and lifestyle of the destination country,
among others.
Different studies have analysed the importance of tourist motivation in tourist
behaviour. In particular, motivation has been identified as one of the main deter-
mining factors of satisfaction and in the tourist’s loyalty (Brandano et al. 2019;
Albayrak and Caber 2018; Antón et al. 2017). In the area of student mobility, there is
also evidence of the relationship between student motivations, satisfaction and
loyalty. Chau and Cheung (2018), in a study among students attending higher
education institutions in Macao, found that academic motivation and student engage-
ment were positively related to academic satisfaction. Similarly, in a study of
international students at the University of Bergen, Norway, Jamaludin and Sam
(2018) found that destination motivation (pull), orientation to mainstream and
heritage culture, together with psychological adaptations, were the most important
14 F. Martínez-Roget and X. A. Rodríguez

Table 2.1 Studies on higher education mobility and motivations

Geographic
References area Push motivation Pull motivation
Li and Qi China Career choice and career devel- To gain a recognised doctoral
(2019) opment; parent expectations and qualification; supervisors; over-
peer influence seas academic experience;
overseas living experience
Ahmad United Arab Seeing and learning experiences Reputation of Institutions; qual-
et al. Emirates ity of education; images of the
(2016) (UAE) city; recommendations from
various group
Cao et al. China Impact from parents; language Future career prospects; quality
(2016) and intercultural training of of host institutions; mobility
home institutions; economic sit- cost; climate environment in
uation of home country host country; geographical
distance
Nilsson Sweden Personal development; experi- Courses taught in English; cost
(2015) ence as a merit later in life; cul- of living; reputation of institu-
tural experience tions and programs
Lesjak Europe/ Professional and personal Infrastructure; image; lifestyle;
et al. (Erasmus) growth commercialization
(2015)
Rodríguez Spain/ Habits and preferences; income Universities reputation; cost of
et al. (Erasmus) levels travelling; word-of-mouth
(2012) recommendations
Rodríguez Europe Income per capita Country size; cost of living;
et al. (Erasmus) distance; educational back-
(2011) ground; university quality; lan-
guage; climate
Lam et al. Malaysia Improve job opportunities; to Academic and research quality
(2011) find a better environment to of the institution; institution’s
study academic infrastructure and
facilities

variables influencing their decision to revisit and to recommend the destination to

others.
The motivation of academic tourists conditions their behaviour in the destination,
specifically the satisfaction and loyalty of these tourists. Satisfied tourists are usually
loyal tourists, who recommend the destination to others through WOM, which
translates into a very effective and cheap marketing strategy. In a context such as
the current one in which universities compete to attract students to their centres
(Verbik and Lasanowski 2007), university managers and tourism managers in
general should take into account these results with the aim of responding to students’
motivations and thus achieving high levels of satisfaction and loyalty among them.
2 Academic Tourism: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues 15

2.4 Characteristics and Impacts of Academic Tourism

Youth tourism is one of the fastest growing and most dynamic markets in the global
tourism sector. According to UNWTO forecasts, annual youth tourism trips will
reach nearly 300 million by 2020. Eusébio and Carneiro (2015) note that youth
travellers are in the first phase of their travel career, and the experiences they have
today may potentially affect their future travel behaviour. For this reason, the youth
tourism market is regarded as the one of the most important tourism markets. Youth
tourism is a market with great potential, both for the tourism industry in general and
for the economy of the countries and the university system in particular. Under-
standing the behavioural patterns of this tourism and maintaining an enduring
relationship with international students becomes an essential task for higher educa-
tion providers (Pham et al. 2019), even more so in a context as competitive and
changing as that of today.
Tourism by young people has a number of characteristics and generates different
impacts than tourism in general. The UNWTO in the report “Youth Travel Matters–
Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel” indicates youth travel is a
different type of travel and young travellers like to develop their own identity and
travel style, want to help people and make a contribution to the places they visit, and
contribute to spread tourism outside major gateways. These are tourists who use the
new travel technologies from an early age and who consult a wide range of
information sources in planning their trips. Furthermore, young people are “experi-
ence hungry” and they want to explore other cultures, increase their knowledge and
experience everyday life in the destination (UNWTO 2008).
If we focus on academic tourism, Rodríguez et al. (2012) note that academic
tourism is different from other types of tourist mobility because firstly, the objective
of the stay is to take part in studies organized by higher education institutions
(i.e. universities). Secondly, the duration of stay is typically much longer than in
other types of tourism and the type of accommodation used by academic tourists is
typically very different from that of a conventional tourist. Finally, academic tourism
has a consumer patterns more akin to those of residents and a high capacity to
generating new visits. In turn, Corradi (2017), referring to Erasmus mobility,
similarly notes that it is characterised by the longer duration of the stay and the
high cultural level of the participants. Furthermore, and taking into account the age
ranges of the participants, this mobility includes both adults and autonomous people,
and is therefore different from dependent and subordinate mobility, carried out for
example by students during their school excursions. The author points out that
staying in a city for several months allows the Erasmus student to participate in
local life and is another of the differential characteristics of this mobility.
It is only very recently that tourism related to studies has been approached in a
different way. Until very recently, many countries did not have a specific policy for
student and youth tourism and did not identify it as a separate market or collect
statistical information (UNWTO 2006). It is now acknowledged that this market
niche is very important for educational institutions, tourism-related businesses,
16 F. Martínez-Roget and X. A. Rodríguez

official tourism organisations, and governments themselves. The motivations and

specific characteristics of youth tourism in general and academic tourism in partic-
ular condition their behaviour and consequently their effects and impacts. In general,
there seems to be a consensus that this type of tourism generates positive economic,
social, cultural, and environmental impacts, and even impacts in terms of innovation
(UNWTO 2016).
From an economic perspective, these tourists tend to stay much longer and
therefore spend more than the average tourist, generating a greater economic impact.
In an analysis focused on Galicia (Spain) it was found that the lengths of stay of
academic tourists were much longer than other foreign visitors (in terms of overnight
stays, one foreign student is equivalent to 18 conventional tourists) and their average
expenditure was over four times greater than that of conventional tourists (Martínez-
Roget et al. 2013). Young and academic tourism often attract other visitors to the
destination, which magnifies the economic impacts. Another important feature from
an economic and viability standpoint is that these tourists are more likely to return to
the destination in the future (Eusébio and Carneiro 2015). In addition, these tourists
have patterns of behaviour that are closer to local consumers, so the economic
impacts of their spending tend to be more concentrated in the local economy,
reducing leakage (Pawlowska 2011). In the same direction, the UNWTO (2016)
indicates that unlike tourists in general, young travellers spend a higher percentage
of their travel budgets at the destination and also try to avoid chains, spending their
money directly on local suppliers, which reduces leakage and increases local impact.
It also seems, and there is evidence from the economic crisis of 2008, that in difficult
times young people continue to travel, making the market more resilient to crisis
situations.
In addition to the economic effects, academic tourism generates positive socio-
cultural impacts and can even contribute to environmental protection and innovation.
Yunusovich (2018) points out that during their travels, young people increase their
personal, cultural and linguistic values. As a result of travel, young people become
more tolerant and friendlier, which has a number of advantages from a socio-cultural
perspective. In the same line, the UNWTO (2016) notes that youth tourists benefit
culturally from their travels and they themselves contribute to the places they visit by
engaging in greater social interaction with local communities. From the point of
view of sustainability, young people are generally more aware of and committed to
environmental protection. Furthermore, as their journeys are characterised by longer
stays, the environmental costs of transport are lower (Gössling et al. 2018). In this
way, academic tourism can contribute to sustainable development. Finally, academic
tourism can also contribute to innovation within the tourism sector since being at the
forefront of change, leadership and innovation is precisely one of the characteristics
of young people and academic tourism.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The stem of the young morning-glory sweeps slowly through the
air in circles, in search of some support.
You remember that the curious dodder acted in this same way,
and that its movements reminded us of the manner in which a blind
man feels about him.
When the morning-glory finds just the support it needs, it lays hold
of it, and twists about it, and then climbs upward with great
satisfaction.
I want you to watch this curious performance. It is sure to amuse
you. The plant seems to know so well what it is about, and it acts so
sensibly when it finds what it wants.
But if it happens to meet a glass tube, or something too smooth to
give it the help it needs, it slips off it, and seems almost as
discouraged as a boy would be who fails in his attempt to climb a
slippery tree or telegraph pole.

Fig. 123

The bean is another plant whose stem is not strong enough to

hold it erect without help. But, unlike the morning-glory, the stem of
the bean does not twist about the first stick it finds. Instead it sends
out many shorter stems which do this work of reaching after and
twining about some support. In this same way the pea is able to hold
up its head in the world.
 Fig. 124

Other plants are supported by their leafstalks. These twist about

whatever sticks or branches they can find, and so prevent the plant
from falling. The picture (Fig. 124) shows you how the garden
nightshade climbs by its leafstalk. The beautiful clematis clambers all
over the roadside thicket in the same way.
The English ivy and the poison ivy, as we have learned already,
climb by the help of roots which their stems send out into the trunks
of trees and the crevices of buildings.
The stems of the Virginia creeper and of the Japanese ivy give
birth to smaller stems, such as you see in the picture below. When
the tips of these reach the wall, or the tree trunk up which the plant is
trying to climb, they broaden out into little flat, round plates, which,
like tiny claws, cling to the surface (Fig. 125).
 Fig. 125

I hope your teacher will tell you where you can find one of these
two plants, for in the country the creeper is plentiful, and the
Japanese ivy is planted freely in our cities; and I hope you will go
and see how firmly these little flattened stems cling to the wall or to
the tree trunk. Try gently to pull off one of these determined little
stems, and I think you will admire it for its firm grip.
There are other than climbing plants whose stems are not strong
enough to stand up straight without help.
Think of the beautiful water lily. If you have ever spent a morning
in a boat (as I hope you have, for it is a delightful way to spend a
morning) hunting water lilies, you will remember that these flowers
float on top of the water; and when you reach over to pick them, you
find the tall flower stems standing quite erect in the water.
But what happened when you broke them off, and held them in
your hand?
Why, these long stems proved to have no strength at all. They
flopped over quite as helplessly as the morning-glory vine would do if
you unwound it from the wires up which it was climbing; and you saw
that they had only been able to stand up straight because of the help
the water had given them.
 SOME HABITS OF STEMS

B ESIDE the stems which stand erect without help (like that of the
corn), and those which climb by means of some support (like
those of the morning-glory and bean), and those which are held up
by the water (like that of the water lily), there are stems which slant
upward (like that of the red clover), stems which lie upon the ground
(like that of the snowberry), and stems which creep (that is, which
run along the ground), and which strike root, and so give rise to new
plants (like those of the white clover and strawberry).
With the new plants you meet, try always to notice to which of
these different classes their stems belong; for later, when you wish to
use the botany and to learn the names of the plants, this habit of
noticing things will help you greatly.
Then, too, with every new plant, you should find out whether its
stem is round or square, and whether it is smooth or hairy, or if it is
at all thorny.
The thorns and hairs which some plants scatter over their stems
protect them from animals and insects, which might otherwise do
them an injury.
By the thorns little snails are prevented from climbing up the stems
and eating away the green leaves above; and the cows and horses
are pretty sure to leave the thorny plants well alone. It is easy to
understand why we find thistle plants growing thickly in the pasture,
which is nearly bare of everything else. Long ago these thistles
clothed themselves in an armor of prickles, and ever since they have
been successful in waging war against the cattle.
Sometimes a tree will cover its lower part only with thorns. Why is
this, do you suppose?
This is because only the lower branches are within reach of the
cattle. Only these have any need of a suit of thorns. The wild pear,
which grows in Europe, is such a tree as this.
A stem that is covered with hairs, and also one that is sticky in
spots, serves to protect its flowers from an attack by ants, or by other
insects that might do them harm; for these flowers, you remember,
hold the golden dust which works such wonders when carried to
another flower. And you recall, that, when bees go to plants for the
sweet stuff from which honey is made, they carry this flower dust
from blossom to blossom. But if the sweet stuff is given up to greedy
insects, then this good work is not done; for the bees get disgusted,
and stop visiting the plants which do not take more pains to please
them. And so oftentimes the plant covers its stem with hairs or with
sticky drops, so that the meddlesome little thieves cannot get up to
the blossom at all.
So if you pick a flower which leaves your fingers sticky, you must
remember that the plant is only doing its duty in trying to please the
bees.
Although I have seen these plants do so many queer things that I
am learning not to be surprised at their clever ways, I must own that I
was a little astonished to see how anxious one of them was to save
itself unnecessary trouble.
There is a plant called the “amphibious knotweed.” This is a rather
difficult name, I know. This word “amphibious” is applied to
something that can live both in water and on land; and this plant
grows sometimes in the pond or river, and sometimes on the shore.
When on land, its stem is covered with the hairs which serve to
keep meddlesome insects from climbing up to its pretty balls of pink
flowers. In the water there is no danger of any such attack from
insects; and so when it happens to grow in the pond or river, this
knowing little plant does not trouble itself to clothe with hairs its stem,
but leaves this quite smooth.
Next summer I hope you will hunt up the amphibious knotweed,
and will compare the smooth water stem with the hairy one that
grows on land.
 STEMS AND SEED LEAVES

T HE smaller plants usually have green stems. The larger ones

have brown, woody stems, such as you see in bushes and trees;
for the trunk of the biggest tree in the world is nothing but a great
stem.
The delicate green stems die down to the ground during the cold
winter. Sometimes the whole plant dies, the root below as well as the
stem above ground. But often the root (or what we usually call the
root) lives, and sends up a fresh stem the next year.
But the woody stems live through the winter, and put out fresh
leaves and branches the next spring.
Without a magnifying glass, it is difficult to see of just what the
green stems of the small plants are made up; and these you can
pass by for the present. But if your teacher will cut across the stem
of a large rose, you can see here an outer covering, the green skin;
within this, a ring of woody material; and in the center of the stem, a
soft white stuff called “pith.”
When we were reading about seed leaves, I told you that by the
stem and leaves of a plant you could tell whether it brought into the
world more than one seed leaf.
Now, when a stem like that of the rose is divided into three well-
defined parts,—the skin, or bark, outside; next the woody part; and
the soft white pith in the middle,—then you can be pretty sure that
the plant had more than one seed leaf.
 Fig. 126

This picture (Fig. 126) shows you a section of a cornstalk. Here

you do not see the three parts that were so plain in the rose stem, for
the woody part is not gathered together in a ring: it is scattered
through the soft part, so that you cannot distinguish the one from the
other.
Running lengthwise you see the scattered bundles of woody
threads, the cut ends of which give the dotted look on top.
Now, such a stem as this of the corn shows you that the plant was
born with only one seed leaf.
Try to remember the difference between these two stems.
This next picture (Fig. 127) shows a part of the trunk or stem of the
fir tree.

Fig. 127

The dark outside circle is the bark.

The rings within this are the wood. Each year one of these woody
rings is added to the tree, the last ring of all lying next to the bark; so,
if you count these, you can find out how many years the tree has
lived.
In the center we see the soft stuff called pith.
What do these three divisions show?
The trunk of the palm in the next picture (Fig. 128) is like the stem
of the corn. The wood is not gathered in rings, but is scattered
through the soft part in thread-like bundles, so that we cannot tell just
the age of the tree.

Fig. 128

And what else do you know about the palm?

Why, you know that it came into the world with but one seed leaf. If
it had had more than one, its stems would have had woody rings
such as we see in the fir.
In the schoolroom you cannot see palms and firs; but you can find
a log in a wood pile which will show you just such woody rings as
prove that the fir tree had more than one seed leaf.
And you can look at a stalk brought from the cornfield that will
show you how the trunk of the palm tells us that this tree began life
with only one seed leaf.
 “WELL DONE, LITTLE STEM”

I T is wonderful how much there is to learn about everything.

We began this book with an apple, and I had no more idea than
you that that apple was going to keep us busy for days.
And then the apple reminded us of its cousins, the pear and plum
and peach and cherry and rose. And if we had not stopped short, we
should have been introduced to so many more cousins that we
should have had neither room nor time for anything else.
From fruits we went to seeds.
At first it seemed almost as though we ought to finish up the seeds
in two or three readings; but this did not prove to be the case.
The mere naming of the different ways in which seeds went
traveling, covered so many pages that it was all we could do to find
time to tell how a few of the baby plants were cared for, and how
they made their way out of the seed shell into the world.
But when we came to roots, we felt there would be no temptation
to loiter by the way, for roots seemed rather dismal things to talk
about. Yet it took some little time to show the different uses of a root,
and to talk about air roots and water roots, as well as earth roots. It
was not altogether easy to make clear just how the little root hairs
keep acids on hand in which to melt the solid earth food which their
throats are too delicate to swallow. And it was quite a long story
when we came to the dodder, which roots in the stems of living
plants, and steals all its food from them; and to those orchids whose
long roots swing from tree branches and draw their nourishment
from the air.
About stems, however, even I felt a little discouraged; for though it
is from the stem that all other parts of a plant grow, yet it is not
looked upon generally as an interesting object when studied by itself;
and I dare say you children still feel that stems are less amusing
than fruits, or seeds, or roots.
Still we can hardly help admiring the way in which a stem, when it
lies underground, like that of the lily or the Jack-in-the-pulpit, makes
its food so carefully all through the summer, and waits so patiently
through the long winter in order to help its plant to burst into flower,
and to ripen into fruit as soon as possible, and without more labor
and food hunting when the spring comes.
When a stem, like that of the morning-glory, sweeps slowly and
carefully through the air in search of something to lay hold of in its
efforts to climb upward, and when, on finding this support, it makes
such good use of it, we feel inclined to say, “Well done, little stem.”
And when a stem on land knows how to keep off meddlers, yet
has the wisdom not to take unnecessary trouble when afloat, like
that of the amphibious knotweed, then we feel that a plant gives its
stem, as well as its other parts, a large supply of common sense.
There is a great deal more that might be said on this subject. What
a plant lives on, what it eats and drinks and breathes, is very
interesting to learn about. And of course the food taken in by the
roots must be carried upward through the stem. But to write simply
about this is difficult. As much as I think most of you can understand,
I will tell you when we take up leaves.
 Part IV—Buds

BUDS IN WINTER

W HEN school opened in September, all the trees were covered

with leaves; and some of these trees were bent with their
burden of pears and apples and peaches, while others were hung
with prickly chestnut burrs or with acorns or walnuts.
But now all is changed. The woods look gray and bare; for nearly
all the leaves have fallen save those of the oak, which are still
holding fast to the branches. These oak leaves are brown and stiff
and leathery. They crackle and rustle when the wind blows through
them.
In the city squares you see the same change,—bare branches in
place of green leaves.
At this season it is hardly worth while, perhaps you think, to go to
the woods or to the park; for there is nothing to be seen,—no leaves,
no flowers, almost no fruits. Better wait till spring for any such
expedition.
Here you are wrong. Provided you know what to look at, and how
to look at it, there is no month of the year when the woods and parks
are not full of interest.
And so at this season, when the trees are bare of leaves, better
than at any other, certain things can be studied.
I have asked your teacher to bring to school to-day branches from
the different trees which are looking so cold and lonely. It is nearly
always possible to find the horse-chestnut, the maple, or the cherry;
and we will talk especially about these branches.
 On your way to school, perhaps you pass every day a horse-
chestnut tree; but its branches are so far above your heads that you
may never have noticed that in winter the leafless twigs bear just
such buds as you see in the picture (Fig. 129), and on the branch
which is before you.
The largest bud grows on top. This is where the beautiful flower
cluster that comes out in May lies hidden.
The smaller buds that grow lower down the stem hold only leaves.
You see that these buds grow in pairs, one bud opposite another,
and always above a sort of scar on the twig. This scar was made last
fall by the breaking-off of a leaf.
Perhaps you fancy that these buds have only just made their
appearance.

Fig.
129

If you have any such idea as that, you are quite wrong. Last
summer, when the leaves were large and fresh, the little buds, that
were not to unfold for nearly a year, began to form, growing
somewhat larger as the weeks went by, and folding themselves
tightly in the brown, leathery wrappings that were to keep them safe
from the cold of winter.
I should like you to pull off these wrappings, and see how well the
horse-chestnut tree defends from cold its baby leaves.
First you find about seven of these outside wrappings. The very
outer ones are thick and brown, and covered with the sticky stuff that
makes them proof against rain.
The next ones are brown and thick where their tips are exposed to
the air, while the inner ones are green and delicate. But altogether
they make a warm, snug covering for young leaves and flowers.
As for the baby leaves themselves, they are all done up in a furry
stuff that keeps them from catching cold, even if a gust of wind or a
few drops of rain should manage to make a way through the
waterproof and almost air-tight wrappings.
So you see that the leaves and branches and young flowers of a
plant or tree are looked after just as carefully as is the seed within
the seed case, or the baby plant in its seed shell.
 A HAPPY SURPRISE

Fig.
130

H ERE you see a branch from the red maple (Fig. 130).
On the flowering shoots three buds grow side by side. The
middle, smaller one holds the leaves. These leaves do not appear
until the two outer, larger buds have burst into flower clusters; for the
flowers of the red maple appear before its leaves.
I want you to bring to school as many different kinds of branches
as you can find, and I hope you will examine them all very carefully.
Notice the position of their buds, and whether these grow close
together or are scattered far apart, and whether one bud grows just
opposite another; and look for the marks left by the leaves which
broke off last fall.
 When the buds are large enough, you will find it interesting to pull
them apart (but you must do this with great care) and see how
beautifully wrapped are the baby leaves and flowers.
I chose the branch of the horse-chestnut for special examination,
because its large buds show their contents plainly.
When a bud grows on the tip of a stem, its work is to carry on that
stem; but when it grows just above a leaf scar, you can be sure that
it is a young branch. Such a branch may bear either leaves or
flowers, or both.
But buds do not all grow up at the same time, or necessarily at all.
The strongest ones are the first to open. The others may keep
quiet for some time, not unfolding, perhaps, unless some of the
earlier ones are killed. In this case, the waiting buds try to fill the gap,
and carry on the good work of clothing the tree with leaves and
flowers.
Sometimes they wait over till another year, and occasionally a bud
never opens at all.
You all enjoyed planting seeds, and watching them grow under
your very eyes.
Now I am going to propose to you a scheme which has given me
quite as much pleasure as my pot gardens.
When the buds on the winter branches have swelled the least little
bit, after a few warm days in February perhaps, go to the woods and
cut several branches in places where no one will miss them, and
take them home and put them in warm water, in a warm, bright
corner, and see what happens.
It will be a real joy to you, watching these little buds get bigger and
bigger, till the outer wrappings are forced apart, and either thrown
well aside, or pushed off altogether; and you will be filled with delight
when the delicate baby leaves begin to stretch themselves, or, better
still, when the pure, beautiful flowers burst from the brown, dead-
looking twigs.
 Get branches of cherry, apple, peach, and pear; and bring in the
pussy willow, the maple, the Forsythia, the spicebush, and, if you
can find it, the mountain laurel; and if you do not pass many
moments of almost breathless pleasure watching the wonders these
budding branches are so eager to reveal, you are not the children I
take you to be.
 SOME ASTONISHING BUDS

T HERE are some plants which do not put any winter wraps on
their delicate buds; and, strangely enough, these buds do not
seem to suffer for lack of clothing.
In a warm country this would not surprise us. If we were going to
spend the winter in the West Indies, we should not carry our furs with
us, for we should not meet any weather cold enough to make them
necessary; and so perhaps in the West Indies the buds have no
more need of winter clothing than we ourselves.
But if we were to spend the Christmas holidays somewhere in our
Northern mountains, if we were going for skating and coasting to the
Catskills or the Adirondacks, we should not fail to take with us our
warmest clothes.
And yet, if we walked in the Adirondack woods, we should meet
over and over again a shrub bearing naked buds, their folded,
delicate leaves quite exposed to the bitter cold.
This shrub is the hobblebush, the pretty flowers of which you see
on p. 246.
I do not understand any better than you why this hobblebush does
not tuck away its baby leaves beneath a warm covering. Neither do I
understand how these naked leaves can live through the long, cold
winter. I should like very much to satisfy myself as to the reason for
this, for they do live and flourish; and I wish that such of you children
as know the home of the hobblebush (and it is common in many
places) would watch this shrub through the winter, and see if you can
discover how it can afford to take less care of its buds than other
plants.
There is one tree which seems to shield its buds more carefully in
summer than in winter. This tree is the buttonwood. It grows not only
in the country, but in many of our city streets and squares. You know
it by the way in which its bark peels in long strips from its trunk and
branches, and by the button-like balls which hang from the leafless
twigs all winter.
If you examine one of these twigs, now that they are bare of
leaves, you see the buds quite plainly; but if it is summer time, when
the leaves are clinging to the branch, you see no buds, and suppose
that they are not yet formed.
But here you are wrong.
“How can that be?” you ask. You looked carefully, and nowhere
was there any sign of a bud.
But you did not look everywhere, after all.
If very carefully you had pulled off one of the leaves, you would
have found the young bud tucked safely away beneath the hollow
end of the leafstalk. This leafstalk fitted over it more neatly than a
candle snuffer over a candle (Fig. 131).

Fig. 131

Try this for yourselves next summer. I think you will be pleased
with this pretty arrangement.
We learned that the potato, even though it is buried in the earth
and does not look like it, is really one of the thickened stems of the
potato plant.
The “eyes” of the potato look as little like buds as the potato itself
looks like a stem. Yet these “eyes” are true buds; for, if we leave our
potatoes in the dark cellar till spring, the “eyes” will send out slender
shoots in the same way that the buds on the branches of trees send
out young shoots.
As I told you before, the usual place for a bud is just between the
stem and the leafstalk, or the scar left by the leafstalk; but if a stem
is cut or wounded, oftentimes it sends out buds in other than the
usual places.
This habit accounts for the growth of young shoots from stumps of
trees, and from parts of the plant which ordinarily do not give birth to
buds.
Some buds never open while fastened to the stem of the parent
plant; but after a time they fall to the ground, strike root, and send up
a fresh young plant.
The tiger lily, the plant that grows so often in old gardens, bears
such buds as these. We call them “bulblets” when they act in this
strange fashion.
Perhaps even more surprising than this is the fact that leaves
sometimes produce buds.

Fig. 132

In certain warmer countries grows a plant called the Bryophyllum.

If you look carefully at the thick, fleshy leaves of this plant, along its
notched edges you will see certain little dark spots; and if you cut off
one of these leaves and pin it on your window curtain, what do you
suppose will happen?