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A Textbook of Manufacturing
Technology Second Edition R. K.

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A TEXTBOOK OF
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
(Manufacturing Processes)
By the Same Author:
l Thermal Engineering
l Engineering Thermodynamics
l Applied Thermodynamics
l Internal Combustion Engines
l Automobile Engineering
l Power Plant Engineering
l Elements of Mechanical Engineering
l Steam Tables and Mollier Diagram (SI Units)
A TEXTBOOK OF
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
(Manufacturing Processes)
For B.E./ B.Tech., A.M.I.E.-Section B, and Competitive Examinations
By
Er. R.K. RAJPUT
M.E. (Hons.), Gold Medallist; Grad. (Mech. Engg. & Elect. Engg.);
M.I.E. (India); M.S.E.S.I.; M.I.S.T.E.; C.E. (India)
Recipient of:
‘‘Best Teacher (Academic) Award’’
‘‘Distinguished Author Award’’
‘‘Jawahar Lal Nehru Memorial Gold Medal’’
for an outstanding research paper
(Institution of Engineers–India)
Principal (Formerly):
l Thapar Polytechnic College;
l Punjab College of Information Technology,
PATIALA
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BOSTON (USA) l ACCRA (GHANA) l NAIROBI (KENYA)
A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
© by Author and Publisher

All rights reserved including those of translation into other languages. In accordance with the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012,
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First Edition: 2007; Second Edition : 2015, Edition : 2018
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Contents
Chapter Pages
1. CONCEPT OF MANUFACTURING ... 1–38

1.1. Introduction ... 1
1.2. Manufacturing System ... 1
1.2.1. General aspects ... 1
1.2.2. Classification of manufacturing processes ... 2
1.2.3. Selection of a manufacturing process ... 3
1.2.4. Process planning ... 4
1.2.5. Analysis of manufacturing system ... 4
1.3. Types of Production ... 5
1.4. Control Systems ... 6
1.4.1. Introduction ... 6
1.4.2. System ... 6
1.4.3. Control system ... 6
1.4.4. Classification of control systems ... 7
1.4.5. Open-loop control systems (Non-feedback systems) ... 8
1.4.6. Closed-loop control system (Feedback control system) ... 9
1.4.7. Automatic control systems ... 10
1.5. Organisation, Administration and Management ... 11
1.6. Plant Organisation ... 11
1.7. Scientific Management ... 15
1.7.1. Definition ... 15
1.7.2. Principles ... 15
1.7.3. Aims ... 15
1.8. Functions of Management ... 16
1.9. Plant Location ... 16
1.10. Plant Layout ... 16
1.11. Production, Planning and Control (PPC) ... 20
1.11.1. Definitions ... 20
1.11.2. Functions of PPC ... 20
1.11.3. Advantages of production control ... 20
1.11.4. Constituents of production control ... 20
Questions with Answers ... 23
Highlights ... 34
Objective Type Questions ... 35
Theoretical Questions ... 37
(v)
( vi )
Chapter Pages
2. CASTING PROCESSES ... 39–139

2.2. Patterns ... 40
2.2.1. Definition ... 40
2.2.2. Requirements of a good pattern ... 40
2.2.3. Pattern materials ... 40
2.2.4. Types of patterns ... 42
2.2.5. Pattern allowances ... 46
2.3. Mould Making ... 48
2.3.2. Types of moulds ... 49
2.3.3. Moulding processes ... 49
2.3.4. Types of sand moulding ... 50
2.4. Core ... 52
2.4.1. Core making ... 53
2.4.2. Types of cores ... 53
2.4.3. Core prints ... 56
2.4.4. Core box ... 56
2.5. Moulding Sand ... 57
2.5.1. Properties of moulding sand ... 57
2.5.2. Types of moulding sand ... 58
2.5.3. Composition of the green sand ... 59
2.5.4. Sand testing ... 60
2.6. Melting Equipment ... 63
2.6.1. Crucible furnace ... 63
2.6.2. Reverberatory or air furnace ... 64
2.6.3. Open hearth furnace ... 65
2.6.4. Electric furnace ... 65
2.6.5. Cupola furnace ... 67
2.7. Melting and Pouring ... 72
2.7.1. Melting ... 72
2.7.2. Pouring ... 73
2.8. Gating System ... 74
2.9. Cooling and Solidification ... 82
2.10. Casting ... 91
2.11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting Process ... 91
2.12. Preparation of a Casting ... 92
2.13. Basic Rules for Good Casting Design ... 92
2.14. Casting Processes ... 93
2.14.1. Sand casting ... 93
2.14.2. Shell-mould casting ... 94
2.14.3. Plaster-mould casting ... 95
2.14.4. Ceramic-mould casting ... 96
2.14.5. Vacuum casting ... 97
2.14.6. Evaporative-pattern casting (lost foam) ... 97
2.14.7. Investment casting
(precision casting process or lost wax casting process) ... 98
( vii )
Chapter Pages
2.14.8. Slush casting ... 100

2.14.9. Pressure casting ... 100
2.14.10. Die casting ... 100
2.14.11. Centrifugal casting ... 102
2.14.12. Squeeze casting ... 104
2.14.13. Semisolid metal forming ... 104
2.14.14. Continuous casting ... 104
2.15. Defects in Castings ... 105
2.16. Cleaning of Castings ... 108
2.17. Inspection of Castings ... 110
Highlights ... 136
3. METAL FORMING PROCESSES ... 140–218

3.2. Cold and Hot Working ... 141
3.2.1. Cold working ... 141
3.2.2. Hot working ... 142
3.2.3. Comparison of cold working and hot working processes ... 144
3.3. Rolling ... 145
3.3.1. Principle and mechanism of rolling ... 145
3.3.2. Rolling stand arrangement ... 149
3.3.3. Defects in rolling ... 151
3.4. Forging ... 152
3.4.2. Advantages and disadvantages of forging ... 152
3.4.3. Classification of forging ... 152
3.4.4. Basic categories of forging ... 156
3.4.5. Methods of forging ... 158
3.4.6. Other forging processes ... 161
3.4.7. Defects in forging ... 165
3.4.8. Cleaning and finishing of forgings ... 166
3.4.9. Heat treatment of forgings ... 166
3.4.10. Design considerations ... 166
3.5. Extrusion ... 167
3.5.2. Advantages, limitations, and applications of extrusion process ... 168
3.5.3. Classification of extrusion processes ... 168
3.5.4. Hot extrusion processes ... 169
3.5.5. Cold extrusion processes ... 170
3.5.6. Extrusion force ... 172
3.5.7. Extrusion equipment ... 173
3.5.8. Extrusion defects ... 173
( viii )
Chapter Pages
3.6. Wire Drawing ... 174

3.7. Tube Drawing ... 176
3.8. Tube Making (By rotary piercing) ... 177
3.9. Metal Stamping and Forming ... 177
3.9.2. Bending ... 178
3.9.3. Deep drawing ... 179
3.9.4. Stretch forming ... 180
3.9.5. Metal spinning ... 180
3.9.6. Shear forming and flow forming ... 182
3.9.7. Blanking ... 183
3.9.8. Piercing ... 184
3.9.9. Embossing and coining ... 184
3.9.10. Roll forming ... 185
3.9.11. Rubber press forming ... 185
3.9.12. Hydromechanical forming ... 186
3.9.13. Defects in sheet metal formed parts ... 186
3.10. Shot Peening ... 186
3.11. Types of Dies ... 187
3.11.1. Classification of dies ... 187
3.11.2. Causes of failure of dies in metal working operations ... 189
3.12. Presses ... 189
3.12.1. Classification of presses ... 189
3.12.2. Cutting forces and energy in press work ... 192
3.13. Comparison of Metal Forming Processes ... 192
Highlights ... 216
4. POWDER METALLURGY ... 219–232

4.1. Definition ... 219
4.2. Advantages, Disadvantages/Limitations of Powder Metallurgy ... 219
4.3. Applications of Powder Metallurgy ... 220
4.4. Manufacture of Parts by Powder Metallurgy ... 220
4.4.1. Production of metal powders ... 220
4.4.2. Blending of metal powders ... 221
4.4.3. Pressing or compaction of metal powders ... 222
4.4.4. Sintering ... 223
4.4.5. Finishing operations ... 225
4.5. Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy ... 225
Highlights ... 231
( ix )
Chapter Pages
5. PROCESSING OF PLASTICS ... 233–259

5.1. Introduction to Plastics ... 233
5.1.1. Definition of plastic ... 233
5.1.2. Classification of plastics ... 233
5.1.3. Characteristics/properties of plastics ... 235
5.1.4. Compounding materials ... 236
5.1.5. Fiber glass reinforced plastics ... 237
5.1.6. Trade names and typical applications of
some important plastics ... 237
5.2. Processing of Plastics ... 238
5.2.2. Plastic processing methods ... 239
5.2.3. Compression moulding ... 239
5.2.4. Transfer moulding ... 240
5.2.5. Injection moulding ... 241
5.2.6. Expandable bead moulding ... 242
5.2.7. Rotomoulding ... 242
5.2.8. Blow moulding ... 243
5.2.9. Extrusion ... 244
5.2.10. Thermoforming ... 245
5.2.11. Calendering ... 245
5.2.12. Casting ... 246
5.3. Machining of Plastics ... 246
5.4. Joining of Thermoplastics ... 248
5.5. Plastic Design Rules ... 249
Highlights ... 258
6. CERAMIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS—THEIR STRUCTURE,

PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING ... 260–291
6.1. Introduction to Ceramic Materials ... 260
6.2. Classification of Ceramics ... 260
6.3. Advantages of Ceramic Materials ... 261
6.4. Applications of Ceramics ... 262
6.5. Properties of Ceramic Materials ... 262
6.6. Structure of Crystalline Ceramics ... 264
6.7. Silicate Structures ... 265
6.7.1. Types of silicate structures ... 265
6.8. Polymorphism ... 267
6.9. Glass ... 268
6.9.1. Definition and structure ... 268
6.9.2. Constituents of glass and their functions ... 268
6.9.3. Properties of glass ... 269
6.9.4. Glass furnaces ... 271
(x)
Chapter Pages
6.9.5. Fabrication of glass ... 272

6.9.6. Classification of glass ... 273
6.9.7. Uses of glass ... 276
6.9.8. The glass industry in India ... 276
6.10. Advanced Ceramics ... 276
6.11. Processing of Ceramics ... 278
6.11.2. Shaping processes ... 278
6.11.3. Drying and firing ... 279
6.11.4. Finishing operations ... 279
6.12. Design Considerations for Ceramics ... 279
6.13. Introduction to Composite Materials ... 280
6.14. Classification ... 281
6.14.1. Particle-reinforced composite ... 281
6.14.2. Fibre-reinforced composites ... 282
6.14.3. Structural composites ... 283
6.15. Production of Composite Structures ... 284
Highlights ... 289
7. WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES ... 292–361

7.2. Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Welding ... 293
7.3. Classification of Welding Processes ... 294
7.4. Forge Welding ... 295
7.5. Resistance Electric Welding ... 296
7.5.2. Resistance spot welding ... 297
7.5.3. Resistance seam welding ... 298
7.5.4. Resistance projection welding ... 299
7.5.5. Resistance butt welding ... 299
7.6. Gas Welding ... 301
7.6.1. Fusion welding—General aspects ... 301
7.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages of gas welding ... 301
7.6.3. Applications of gas welding ... 302
7.6.4. Oxy-acetylene welding ... 302
7.7. Electric Arc Welding ... 306
7.7.2. Advantages and limitations ... 306
7.7.3. Metallic arc welding ... 306
7.7.4. Carbon arc welding ... 307
7.7.5. Atomic hydrogen welding ... 308
7.7.6. Shielded arc welding ... 308
7.7.7. Arc blow ... 309
( xi )
Chapter Pages
7.7.8. Comparison between A.C. and D.C. arc welding ... 309
7.7.9. Types of welded joints ... 310
7.8. Thermit Welding ... 313
7.9. Tungsten Inert-Gas (TIG) Welding ... 314
7.10. Metal Inert-Gas (MIG) Welding ... 314
7.10.1. Differences between TIG and MIG welding processes ... 315
7.11. Submerged Arc Welding ... 315
7.12. Electro-slag and Electro-gas Welding ... 317
7.12.1. Electro-slag welding ... 317
7.12.2. Electro-gas welding ... 317
7.13. Electron-beam Welding ... 318
7.14. Ultrasonic Welding ... 319
7.15. Plasma Arc Welding ... 320
7.16. Laser Beam Welding ... 320
7.17. Friction Welding ... 322
7.18. Explosive Welding ... 323
7.19. Diffusion Welding ... 324
7.20. Induction Welding ... 324
7.21. Cold Welding ... 325
7.22. Stud-arc Welding ... 325
7.23. Hydrodynamic Welding ... 326
7.24. Under-water Welding ... 326
7.25. Oxy-acetylene Torch Cutting ... 326
7.26. Solid/Liquid-State Bonding–Soldering and Brazing ... 326
7.27. Soldering ... 327
7.27.1. Definition ... 327
7.27.2. Classification of soldering methods ... 327
7.27.3. Types of solder ... 328
7.27.4. Selection of solder ... 328
7.27.5. Flux or soldering fluid ... 328
7.27.6. Soldering equipment ... 329
7.27.7. Soldering procedure ... 329
7.27.8. Characteristics of a good joint ... 329
7.27.9. Important tips for effective soldering operation ... 330
7.27.10. Advantages of soldering ... 330
7.27.11. Applications of soldering ... 330
7.27.12. Types of soldered joints ... 331
7.28. Brazing ... 331
7.28.2. Fluxes ... 331
7.28.3. Brazing equipment ... 332
7.28.4. Brazing methods ... 332
7.28.5. Brazing procedure ... 332
7.28.6. Advantages and limitations of brazing ... 333
7.28.7. Applications of brazing ... 333
7.28.8. Silver soldering (or silver brazing) ... 333
7.28.9. Comparison between soldering and brazing ... 334
( xii )
Chapter Pages
7.29. Electrodes ... 334

7.29.1. Electrode materials ... 334
7.29.2. Electrode coatings ... 334
7.29.3. Electrode’s designation ... 335
7.29.4. Typical data on use of “mild steel electrodes” ... 335
7.30. Welding of Various Metals ... 336
7.31. Rebuilding ... 337
7.32. Hard Facing ... 338
7.33. Characteristics of Good Weld ... 338
7.34. Defects in Welds ... 339
7.35. Weldability ... 340
7.36. Testing of Welded Joints ... 341
7.37. Effect of Welding on the Grain Size of the Metal ... 341
7.38. Principles of Welding Design ... 342
7.39. Comparison of Welding and Allied Process ... 342
Worked Examples ... 344
Highlights ... 355
8. METAL CUTTING ... 362–419

8.2. Chip Formation ... 362
8.3. Types of Chips ... 363
8.4. Cutting Tools ... 364
8.4.1. Classification ... 364
8.4.2. Single point cutting tool ... 365
8.4.3. Tool elements and tool angles ... 365
8.4.4. Tool signature (or tool designation) ... 367
8.5. Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting ... 368
8.6. Chip Control ... 369
8.7. Force of a Single-point Tool ... 370
8.8. Mechanics of Metal Cutting ... 371
8.8.1. Shear zone, shear plane and shear angle ... 371
8.8.2. Chip thickness ratio ... 372
8.8.3. Velocity relationship in orthogonal cutting ... 373
8.8.4. Forces on the chip (Merchant’s analysis) ... 374
8.8.5. Stress and strain on the chip ... 376
8.8.6. Work done during metal cutting and specific cutting energy ... 378
8.8.7. Theories on mechanics of metal cutting ... 378
8.9. Friction in Metal Cutting ... 389
8.10. Thermal Aspects of Metal Cutting ... 390
8.10.2. Factors affecting temperature ... 391
8.10.3. Temperature distribution in metal cutting ... 391
8.10.4. Measurement of chip-tool interface temperature ... 392
( xiii )
Chapter Pages
8.11. Tool Wear and Failure ... 393

8.11.1. Tool wear ... 393
8.11.2. Tool failure ... 394
8.12. Tool Life ... 396
8.13. Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut ... 400
8.14. Machinability ... 401
8.15. Cutting Fluids ... 403
8.15.1. Functions of cutting fluids ... 403
8.15.2. Requirements of a cutting fluid ... 404
8.15.3. Types of cutting fluids ... 404
8.16. Cutting Tool Materials ... 405
8.16.1. Characteristics of an ideal cutting-tool material ... 405
8.16.2. Types of tool materials ... 405
Highlights ... 415
Unsolved Examples ... 418
9. MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING PROCESSES ... 420–578

9.1.1. Machining processes ... 421
9.1.2. Machine tools ... 423
9.2. Centre/Engine Lathe ... 424
9.2.2. Working principle ... 425
9.2.3. Parts of lathe ... 425
9.2.4. Size and specifications of lathe ... 427
9.2.5. Types of lathe ... 428
9.2.6. Lathe tools ... 429
9.2.7. Lathe operations ... 430
9.2.8. Lathe accessories ... 438
9.2.9. Lathe attachments ... 441
9.2.10. Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut ... 442
9.2.11. Material removal rate (MRR) ... 443
9.2.12. Machining time ... 444
9.2.13. Power required in turning ... 445
9.2.14. Thread cutting ... 450
9.2.15. Eccentric turning ... 455
9.3. Turret and Capstan Lathes ... 455
9.3.2. Limitations of a centre lathe ... 455
9.3.3. Differences between a turret lathe and a centre lathe ... 456
9.3.4. Comparison of turret lathe and capstan lathe ... 457
9.3.5. Main parts of a turret or capstan lathe ... 460
9.3.6. Types of turret lathes ... 461
( xiv )
Chapter Pages
9.3.7. Size and specifications of turret lathe ... 463

9.3.8. Common tools and attachments used on turret
and capstan lathes ... 463
9.3.9. Turret lathe operations ... 464
9.3.10. Turret lathe tooling layout ... 464
9.4. Automatic Lathes ... 465
9.4.2. Classification of automatic lathes ... 466
9.4.3. Automatic vertical multistation lathe ... 467
9.4.4. Automatic screw machines ... 468
9.5. Shaping Machine (Shaper) ... 469
9.5.1. Introduction—principle of working ... 469
9.5.2. Advantages, limitations, and applications of shapers ... 470
9.5.3. Classification of shapers ... 471
9.5.4. Principal parts of a shaper ... 472
9.5.5. Specifications of a shaper ... 473
9.5.6. Quick return mechanism in a shaper ... 473
9.5.7. Shaper work holding devices ... 476
9.5.8. Operations performed ... 476
9.5.9. Cutting tools and other tools used in shaper work ... 477
9.5.12. Material removal rate ... 480
9.6. Slotting Machine (Slotter) ... 482
9.6.2. Main parts of a slotter ... 482
9.6.3. Size and specifications ... 483
9.6.4. Slotter drive mechanisms ... 483
9.6.5. Types of slotters ... 483
9.6.6. Work holding devices ... 483
9.6.7. Slotter cutting tools ... 483
9.6.8. Slotter operations ... 483
9.7. Planing Machine (Planer) ... 484
9.7.2. Principle of working—planing operation ... 485
9.7.3. Comparison between planer and shaper ... 486
9.7.4. Types of planers ... 486
9.7.5. Principal parts of a planer ... 486
9.7.6. Size of a planer ... 487
9.7.7. Planer driving and feed mechanisms ... 487
9.7.8. Standard clamping devices ... 488
9.7.9. Planer tools ... 488
9.7.10. Planer operations ... 489
9.7.12. Machining time and material removal rate ... 490
9.8. Drilling Machines ... 490
( xv )
Chapter Pages
9.8.2. Specifications of a drilling machine ... 491

9.8.3. Types of drilling machines ... 491
9.8.4. Classification of drills ... 494
9.8.5. Twist drill nomenclature ... 495
9.8.7. Drilling machine operations ... 497
9.8.9. Machining time in drilling ... 502
9.9. Boring Machines ... 503
9.9.2. Classification of boring machines ... 503
9.9.3. Horizontal boring machines ... 503
9.9.4. Vertical boring machines (VBM) ... 504
9.9.5. Jig boring machine ... 505
9.9.6. Size of boring machines ... 506
9.10. Milling Machines ... 506
9.10.2. Milling processes—principle of milling ... 506
9.10.3. Classification of milling machines ... 507
9.10.4. Horizontal milling machine ... 507
9.10.5. Vertical milling machine ... 508
9.10.6. Universal milling machine ... 509
9.10.7. Omniversal milling machine ... 509
9.10.8. Planer type milling machines ... 510
9.10.9. Bed type milling machines ... 510
9.10.10. Drum type milling machines ... 510
9.10.11. Planetary milling machines ... 510
9.10.12. Specifications of a milling machine ... 510
9.10.13. Types of milling cutters ... 510
9.10.14. Nomenclature of a milling cutter ... 511
9.10.15. Milling operations ... 511
9.10.20. Milling machine attachments ... 518
9.10.21. Dividing or indexing head ... 519
9.11. Broaching Machines ... 527
9.11.1. Broaching ... 527
9.11.2. Advantages, limitations and applications of broaching ... 528
9.11.3. Broach ... 528
9.11.4. Types of broaching machines ... 530
9.11.5. Size of broaching machines ... 530
9.12. Sawing Machines ... 530
9.12.2. Classification of sawing machines ... 531
( xvi )
Chapter Pages
9.12.3. Sawing machine blades ... 532

9.12.4. Applications of sawing machines ... 532
9.13. Grinding and Finishing Processes ... 533
9.13.2. Grinding process ... 533
9.13.3. Advantages of grinding process over other cutting processes ... 534
9.13.4. Special features of grinding process ... 535
9.13.5. Grinding machines ... 535
9.13.6. Grinding wheel ... 542
9.13.7. Manufacture of grinding wheels ... 545
9.13.8. Wheel shapes ... 545
9.13.9. Mounting of wheels ... 546
9.13.10. Wheel truing ... 546
9.13.11. Material removal rate and machining time ... 546
9.13.12. Finishing processes ... 548
9.13.13. Honing ... 548
9.13.14. Lapping ... 550
9.13.15. Superfinishing ... 552
9.13.16. Comparison among lapping, honing and superfinishing ... 553
9.13.17. Polishing and buffing ... 553
9.13.18. Burnishing ... 554
9.13.19. Comparison of grinding and finishing processes ... 554
9.14. Coolants and Lubricants ... 555
Highlights ... 567
Unsolved Examples ... 577
10. THREAD MANUFACTURING ... 579–592

10.1. Screw Threads ... 579
10.1.1. Classification of threads ... 579
10.1.2. Elements of screw threads ... 580
10.1.3. Specifications of a screw thread ... 581
10.1.4. Forms of threads ... 581
10.1.5. Errors in threads ... 585
10.2. Processes for Making Threads ... 586
10.3. Using Die Heads ... 586
10.4. Thread Milling ... 587
10.5. Thread Rolling ... 588
10.6. Thread Grinding ... 590
10.7. Thread Tapping ... 590
10.8. Automatic Screw Machines ... 591
Highlights ... 591
( xvii )
Chapter Pages
11. GEAR MANUFACTURING ... 593–611

11.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Toothed Gearing ... 593
11.3. Types of Gears ... 594
11.4. Forms of Gear Teeth ... 595
11.5. Gear Tooth Terminology ... 596
11.6. Methods of Making Gears ... 600
11.7. Gear Manufacturing by ‘‘Casting’’ ... 601
11.8. Forming or Form Cutting ... 601
11.9. Broaching ... 602
11.10. Template Methods ... 602
11.11. Generating Methods/Processes ... 602
11.12. Gear Shaper Process ... 603
11.13. Rack Planing Process ... 604
11.14. Hobbing Process ... 605
11.15. Bevel Gear Cutting ... 607
11.16. Cutting Worms and Worm Wheels ... 608
11.17. Gear Finishing ... 608
11.17.1. Gear shaving ... 608
11.17.2. Gear burnishing ... 609
11.17.3. Gear grinding ... 609
11.17.4. Gear lapping ... 609
11.17.5. Gear honing ... 610
Highlights ... 610
12. UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES ... 612–631

12.2. Classification of Unconventional Machining Methods ... 612
12.3. Selection of Process ... 613
12.4. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) ... 613
12.5. Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM) ... 615
12.6. Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG) ... 617
12.7. Ultrasonic Machining (USM) ... 618
12.8. Electron Beam Machining (EBM) ... 619
12.9. Laser Beam Machining (LBM) ... 621
12.10. Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) ... 622
12.11. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) ... 623
12.12. Chemical Machining (CHM) ... 624
12.13. Comparison of Unconventional Machining Methods ... 625
Highlights ... 627
( xviii )
Chapter Pages
13. MACHINE TOOLS TESTING ... 632–649

13.2. Machine Tools Tests ... 633
13.3. Instruments Required for Alignment Test ... 633
13.4. Alignment Tests on Lathe ... 633
13.4.1. Levelling of the machine ... 634
13.4.2. Parallelism of spindle axis and bed ... 634
13.4.3. True running of head-stock centre ... 635
13.4.4. True running of taper socket in main spindle ... 635
13.4.5. Alignment of both the centres in vertical plane ... 636
13.4.6. Cross-slide perpendicular to spindle axis ... 636
13.4.7. Accuracy of pitch of lead screw ... 637
13.4.8. Axial slip of lead screw ... 637
13.5. Alignment Test on Drilling Machines ... 638
13.5.1. Alignment test on pillar type drilling machine ... 638
13.5.2. Alignment tests on radial drilling machines ... 642
13.6. Alignment Tests on Milling Machine ... 643
13.6.1. Eccentricity of external diameter ... 643
13.6.2. True running of internal taper ... 643
13.6.3. Work table surface parallel with arbor rising towards overarm ... 644
13.6.4. Surface parallel with longitudinal movement ... 644
13.6.5. Traverse movement parallel with spindle axis ... 645
13.6.6. Central T-slots parallel with longitudinal movement ... 645
13.6.7. Central T-slots square with the arbor ... 646
13.6.8. Test on column ... 646
13.6.9. Overarm parallel with spindle ... 647
13.6.10. Alignment of the main spindle with bore of the bracket
of the overarm ... 647
13.7. Acceptance Tests for Surface Grinders ... 647
13.8. Practical Tests ... 648
14. NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS AND CAD/CAM ... 650–666

14.1. Introduction to Modern Machine Tools ... 650
14.2. NC Machines ... 650
14.2.2. Working of NC machine tool ... 651
14.2.3. Main elements of a NC machine tool ... 651
14.2.4. Classification of numerical control (NC) machines ... 652
14.2.5. Applications of NC machines ... 653
14.2.6. Advantages and disadvantages of NC machines ... 653
14.2.7. Comparison between conventional machines and NC machines ... 654
14.3. CNC Machines ... 654
14.3.2. Functions of CNC ... 655
( xix )
Chapter Pages
14.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of

CNC machines (over NC machines) ... 655
14.3.4. Applications of CNC ... 656
14.4. Comparison of NC and CNC Machines ... 656
14.5. Direct Numerical Control (DNC) ... 657
14.6. Adaptive Control Systems ... 658
14.7. Machining Centre ... 658
14.8. Advantages and Limitations of Automation and
Computer Controlled Machines ... 659
14.9. Introduction to CAD/CAM ... 659
14.10. CAD ... 660
14.10.1. Definition ... 660
14.10.2. Advantages ... 660
14.11. CAM ... 660
14.11.2. Advantages of CAM ... 661
14.11.3. Software and hardware for CAD/CAM ... 661
14.11.4. Functioning of CAD/CAM system ... 661
14.11.5. Features and characteristics of CAD/CAM system ... 662
14.11.6. Application areas for CAD/CAM ... 663
Highlights ... 665
15. AUTOMATIC MACHINES ... 667–673

15.2. Advantages of Automation ... 667
15.3. Transfer Machines ... 668
15.3.1. Types of transfer machines ... 668
15.3.2. Constructional features of a “transfer machine” ... 669
15.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of transfer machines ... 670
15.4. Machining Centers ... 670
15.4.2. Types of machining centers ... 671
15.4.3. Characteristics of machining centers ... 671
15.4.4. Selection of machining center ... 672
Highlights ... 672
16. JIGS AND FIXTURES ... 674–697

16.2. Definitions and Concept of Jig and Fixture ... 674
( xx )
Chapter Pages
16.3. Advantages of using Jigs and Fixtures ... 675

16.4. Main Components or Elements of Jigs and Fixtures ... 676
16.5. Principles of Jig and Fixture Design ... 676
16.6. Degrees of Freedom ... 677
16.7. Principles of Location ... 678
16.8. Locating Devices ... 679
16.9. Clamping Devices ... 682
16.9.2. Basic requirements of clamping devices ... 682
16.9.3. Principles of clamping ... 682
16.9.4. Types of clamps ... 683
16.10. Materials used for Making Locating and Clamping Devices ... 688
16.11. Types of Jigs ... 688
16.12. Types of Fixtures ... 692
Highlights ... 695
17. METROLOGY ... 698–764

17.1. Meaning of Metrology ... 698
17.2. Objectives of Metrology ... 698
17.3. Standards of Measurements ... 699
17.3.1. Line standard ... 699
17.3.2. End standard ... 702
17.3.3. Wavelength standard ... 702
17.3.4. Classification of standards ... 703
17.3.5. Relative characteristics of line and end standards ... 704
17.4. Limits, Fits and Tolerance ... 704
17.4.2. Nominal size and basic dimensions ... 705
17.4.4. Basis of fit (or limit) system ... 708
17.4.5. Systems of specifying tolerances ... 708
17.4.6. Designation of holes, shafts and fits ... 709
17.4.7. Commonly used holes and shafts ... 710
17.4.8. The Newall system ... 710
17.4.9. ISO system of limits and fits ... 710
17.4.10. Types of fits ... 710
17.4.11. Concept of interchangeability ... 711
17.5. Measuring Instruments ... 712
17.6. Gauges ... 712
17.6.1. Classification of gauges ... 713
17.6.2. Description of some commonly used gauges ... 713
17.7. Linear Measurements ... 717
17.7.1. Engineer’s steel rule ... 717
17.7.2. Calipers ... 719
( xxi )
Chapter Pages
17.7.3. Vernier calipers ... 720

17.7.4. Vernier height gauge ... 724
17.7.5. Vernier depth gauge ... 725
17.7.6. Micrometers ... 726
17.7.7. Advantages and limitations of commonly used
precision instruments ... 732
17.8. Angular and Taper Measurements ... 732
17.8.1. Angular measurements ... 732
17.8.2. Taper measurement ... 742
17.9. Screw Thread Measurements ... 747
17.9.2. Classification of threads ... 748
17.9.3. Elements of screw threads ... 749
17.9.4. Specifications of screw thread ... 750
17.9.5. Forms of threads ... 750
17.9.6. Measuring elements of a screw-thread ... 750
17.9.7. Screw thread gauges ... 755
18. ECONOMICS OF MACHINING AND MANUFACTURING ... 765–770

18.1. Economics of Machining ... 765
18.2. Economics of Manufacturing ... 768
Highlights ... 770
RECENT TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING
19. NEED FOR INTEGRATION OF DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING ... 773–807

19.2. Integration of Design and Manufacturing ... 773
19.3. Process Selection ... 774
19.4. Process Routing ... 775
19.5. Capacity Planning ... 775
19.6. Intrawork Cell Scheduling Methods ... 776
19.7. Despatching ... 776
19.8. Basic Tools for Integration ... 777
19.9. Computers and Microprocessors ... 777
19.9.1. History and development of computers ... 777
19.9.2. Definition of a computer ... 779
19.9.3. Characteristics of a computer ... 779
19.9.4. Classification of computers ... 780
19.9.5. Analog computers ... 780
19.9.6. Digital computers ... 780
( xxii )
Chapter Pages
19.9.7. Differences between analog and digital computers ... 782

19.9.8. Block diagram of a digital computer ... 782
19.9.9. Rating of chips ... 783
19.9.10. Computer peripherals ... 783
19.9.11. Storage devices ... 785
19.9.12. Hardware, software and liveware ... 787
19.9.13. Translators ... 787
19.9.14. Computer languages ... 787
19.9.15. Computer programming process for writing programs ... 788
19.9.16. Computer elements of analog computers ... 788
19.9.17. Microprocessors ... 788
19.9.18. Computer terms ... 790
19.10. Computer Networks for Manufacturing ... 794
19.10.2. Computer network ... 794
19.10.3. Local area network (LAN) ... 795
19.10.4. Manufacturing automation protocol (MAP) ... 797
19.10.5. Computer software ... 797
19.11. Information Technology ... 798
19.11.2. Data and information ... 799
19.11.3. Information system ... 799
Highlights ... 805
20. ELEMENTS OF INTEGRATION ... 808–828

20.1. Computer Integrated Manufacturing ... 808
20.2. Mechanisation and Automation ... 809
20.3. Automation and Production ... 809
20.4. Mechatronics and Concurrent Engineering ... 810
20.5. Industrial Robots ... 810
20.5.2. Objectives of using industrial robots ... 811
20.5.3. Advantages of employing robots ... 811
20.5.4. Robot components ... 811
20.5.5. Robot classification ... 813
20.5.6. Control system and components ... 815
20.5.7. Types of industrial robots ... 816
20.5.8. Terms related to the construction and operation of robots ... 816
20.5.9. Robot programming and languages ... 817
20.5.10. Intelligent robots ... 818
20.5.11. Applications of robots ... 818
20.6. Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS) ... 819
( xxiii )
Chapter Pages
20.6.2. AGVs equipment ... 820

20.6.3. Applications of AGVs ... 820
20.7. Automated Storage Systems ... 820
20.7.2. Objectives of automated storage systems ... 820
20.7.3. Automatic storage/retrieval systems ... 821
Highlights ... 825
21. PRODUCT AND PROCESS DESIGN FOR INTEGRATION ... 829–838

21.1. Product Analysis ... 829
21.2. Concepts of Process and Job ... 829
21.3. Strategies for Integrated Product and Process Design ... 830
21.4. Tools and Methods ... 831
21.5. Concurrent Engineering ... 833
Highlights ... 837
22. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING ... 839–847

22.2. Analysis and Planning Data Required ... 839
22.3. Analysis and Planning Steps and Considerations ... 840
22.4. Process Format and Content ... 841
22.5. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) Systems ... 841
Highlights ... 846
23. GROUP TECHNOLOGY ... 848–860

23.1. General Aspects ... 848
23.2. Advantage and Limitations of Group Technology (GT) ... 849
23.3. Part Families ... 850
23.4. Formation and Establishment of Component Family ... 851
23.5. Collection of Production Data ... 851
23.6. Classification and Codification ... 852
23.6.2. Basic requirements of classification and coding systems ... 852
23.6.3. Advantages of well-designed classification and coding system ... 852
23.6.4. Classification and coding for group technology ... 852
( xxiv )
Chapter Pages

Highlights ... 859
ADDITIONAL TOPICS
24. INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL ... 863–872

24.1. Inspection ... 863
24.1.2. Aims of inspection ... 863
24.1.3. Inspection standards ... 863
24.1.4. Types of inspection ... 864
24.1.5. Inspection devices ... 865
24.2. Quality Control ... 866
24.2.1. Definition and scope ... 866
24.2.2. Advantages of quality control ... 866
24.2.3. Objectives of quality control ... 866
24.2.4. Essentials or principles of quality control ... 866
24.2.5. Statistical quality control (S.Q.C.) ... 867
24.2.6. Control charts ... 867
24.2.7. Sampling ... 867
24.2.8. Advantages of sampling ... 868
24.2.9. Acceptance sampling ... 868
24.2.10. Single sampling ... 868
24.2.11. Double sampling ... 868
24.2.12. Standards and specifications ... 869
24.2.13. Quality assurance concepts ... 870
24.2.14. Functions of quality assurance ... 870
Highlights ... 870
25. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT, WORK STUDY AND MIS ... 873–899

25.1. Maintenance Management ... 873
25.2. Work Study ... 875
25.2.2. Symbols used in work study ... 876
25.2.3. Steps involved in method study ... 876
25.2.4. Recording techniques used in method study ... 876
25.2.5. Time study ... 876
25.2.6. Motion study ... 877
25.3. Job Analysis, Job Evaluation and Merit Rating ... 881
25.4. Wages and Incentives ... 882
( xxv )
Chapter Pages
25.5. Purchasing ... 887

25.6. Stores and Store-keeping ... 887
25.7. Inventory Control ... 888
25.8. Materials Handling ... 892
25.9. Financial Management and Budgeting ... 894
25.10. Network Analysis ... 895
25.11. Operation Research (OR) ... 896
25.12. Manpower Planning and Control ... 896
25.13. Forecasting ... 897
25.14. Management Information Systems (M.I.S.) ... 897
Highlights ... 898
Section: Short Answer Questions ... 1–32

Additional Objective Type Questions (AQ-1–AQ-41)
(Selected from IES, IAS, GATE etc., Examinations)
Index ... (i)–(v)

Preface to the Second Edition
I take the pleasure in presenting the ‘‘Second Edition’’ of this book. The warm reception
which the previous edition and reprints have received is a matter of much satisfaction to me.
In this edition, the book has been thoroughly revised, and a new ‘‘Section’’ on ‘‘Short
Answer Questions’’ has been added to make the book still more useful to the students.
The constructive suggestions for improvement of this book are most welcome.
Er. R.K. Rajput

(Author)
Preface to the First Edition

This treatise on “Manufacturing Technology” (Manufacturing Processes) contains
comprehensive treatment of the subject matter in simple, lucid and direct language. It also
envelopes an large number of solved examples. It covers comprehensively the syllabii of vari-
ous Indian Universities on the above mentioned subject for B.E./B.Tech. courses. The book will
prove a boon to the students preparing for Engineering undergraduate, A.M.I.E. (Section B)
and competitive examinations.
The book comprises 25 chapters, covering various topics systematically and exhaustively.
All chapters are saturated with much needed text supported by simple and self explanatory
figures. “Questions with Answers”, Highlights, Objective Type Questions, Theoretical Ques-
tions and Unsolved Examples have been added at the end of each chapter to make the book a
comprehensive and a complete unit in all respects.
The author’s thanks are due to his wife Ramesh Rajput for extending all cooperation
during the preparation of manuscript and proofreading.
Although every care has been taken to make the book free of errors both in text as wells
as in solved examples, yet the author shall feel obliged if any errors present are brought to his
notice. Constructive criticism will be warmly received.
Er. R.K. Rajput

(Author)
( xxvii )
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columns of Burdach and Goll. The leading symptom manifested by
the patient was a hemiplegia of the muscular sense.156
156 Besides my case, others have been recorded by Homén, Meyer (Strassburg), and
Schrader, which are impure. In the former and latter degeneration of the pyramid
tract, in the second degeneration of the olivary fasciculus, coexisted. It is not
generally known that Westphal, in one of the first volumes of the Archives now edited
by him, found an ascending degeneration of the same tract for a short distance.
FIG. 35.
Secondary Degeneration of Interolivary Layer, Caudal or Descending

Portion: A, in caudal half of pons; B, cephalic end of oblongata; C, middle
of oblongata; D, at level of so-called upper pyramidal or interolivary
decussation; E, at level of true pyramidal decussation. The atrophy in this
level has entirely crossed the middle line; in D it is seen in the act of
crossing.
Ascending degeneration is found in a very distinct form after

compression of the cauda equina. It is limited to the posterior
columns, occupying nearly the entire area of the latter in the lumbar
cord, particularly the triangular field of Burdach's column mentioned
in the article on Tabes. In the dorsal and cervical cord it is limited to
the columns of Goll, and terminates in the clava of the oblongata at
the nuclei of those columns.
Higher lesions produce the same ascending degeneration of the
column of Goll, and in addition involve other, probably centripetal,
tracts which happen to be injured at their origin or in their course. For
example, a transverse lesion of the dorsal cord would produce
ascending degeneration for its whole length of the column of Goll
and of the direct cerebellar tract. In addition, it would, in obedience to
the law previously stated, produce descending degeneration of the
pyramid tract. This combination is almost a typical sequence of
compression myelitis of the cord, as well as of ordinary transverse
sclerosis. Recently, Gowers157 has described a secondary
degeneration in such a case of transverse lesion not previously
noticed. It is found in cases showing gross disturbance of cutaneous
sensibility, and occupies a narrow belt encircling the anterior quarter
of the circumference of the crossed-pyramid tract. It is continuous, in
my opinion, with a tract which in the upper cervical cord is situated in
a corresponding situation, and which degenerated a short distance
caudad in a case of secondary degeneration of the olivary fasciculus
described by Meyer, and in which similar sensory symptoms were
noted.
157 Diseases of the Spinal Cord, and Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1886.
FIG. 36.
Decussating Degeneration of Interolivary Layer: Dr, Darc, the crossing
degenerated fasciculi; Arc, the undegenerated fasciculi, after emerging
from the partly sclerosed raphé.
CLINICAL HISTORY.—Secondary degenerations are passive results of

other more active processes, and few clinical signs are attributable
to them. The most important of these is the contracture which is
found in old hemiplegias, and attributed, like the secondary
exaggeration of deep reflexes in such, to the descending
degeneration of the pyramid tract. Bouchard believed that it was the
retraction of the sclerotic strand which acted as an irritant on the
neighboring fibres. The development of spastic symptoms in
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and in focal lesions of the crossed-
pyramid tract is in favor of this view. On the other hand, the
occurrence of flaccid hemiplegia, and its conservation for years after
the most extensive lesions, is against it, as it is in these very cases
that the secondary degeneration is most intense. That the retraction
of a longitudinal strand exercises any serious effect on neighboring
and parallel fasciculi is questionable, as the process is slow. There
is, however, one situation where such influence is very likely to occur
—the decussations of the oblongata. In the case already referred to,
the retracting sclerosing bundles undoubtedly must have exercised a
damaging effect on their fellows of the opposite side, which,
interdigitating with them, were compelled to pass through the
sclerosing tissue. It has occurred to me that the slight sclerosis
which is sometimes observed in the crossed-pyramid tract of the
same side of a cerebral lesion, even where that lesion is strictly
unilateral, is due to a similar influence. I think it can be shown that
such sclerosis cannot be traced to the primary lesion; it begins at the
decussation, and it is more than probable that the firm constriction to
which the healthy fibres are subjected in crossing through their
shrinking fellows of the opposite side is not alone the cause of the
symmetrical yet slighter lesion, but also accounts for the observation
by Pitrés and Charcot of a slight motor weakness observed on the
same side as the hemiplegia, producing lesion in ordinary cases of
capsular hemorrhage.158
158 Some of the French observers claim that this occurs only in the early period, but a
careful study of the matter by R. Friedländer shows that the weakness of the side not
usually regarded as involved is found in the later periods, and well marked then
(Neurologisches Centralblatt, June 1, 1886).
The PROGNOSIS and TREATMENT of secondary degenerations are

practically involved in the primary lesion which gave rise to them.
The contractures attributed to secondary sclerosis of the motor tracts
is to be treated on the principles mentioned in the following section.
The Treatment of Spinal Sclerosis.
As the histological character of the different forms of sclerosis is

similar—at least in the terminal period—the causes producing them
identical even in name, and the indications furnished by leading
symptoms analogous if not identical, the treatment of these various
disorders is naturally based on the same leading principles. There
are two objects to be aimed at in dealing with these chronic
disorders: The first is the cure or arrest of the morbid process itself;
the second is the amelioration of distressing and disabling
symptoms.
It is generally recognized that a perfect cure of a sclerosis is a

consummation never to be realized by any plan of treatment now at
our disposal. The experiments of Kahler and others have shown that
spinal tissue, once destroyed, is not regenerated. The post-mortem
examination of cases of tabes which were considered as cured
during life (Schultze) has shown that the sclerosis had not been
removed; the process had merely become quiescent, and the
apparent recovery had been due to the vicarization of other nerve-
elements than those destroyed for the latter.
But if attempts at the regeneration of destroyed fibres and cells are

to be regarded as futile, the arrest of the destructive process is to be
considered as an object which offers better chances of realization,
and which is worth attempting for other than merely conservative
reasons. In a number of the forms of sclerosis described, notably in
tabes and the disseminated form, it is remarked that the axis-
cylinders lying within the morbid district are in part intact and in part
but slightly affected. Here and there groups of nerve-tubes may be
found which retain even their myelin. While subject to the
vicissitudes inseparable from their position in the midst of active
pathological changes, these channels of nerve-force, though
anatomically patent, may have their function perverted or destroyed,
just as a nerve outside of the cord may be paralyzed by pressure or
anæmia though its structure be intact. Should the active phase of the
sclerotic process be arrested, these intact or nearly intact fibres will
resume their function, and thus an apparent improvement will be
effected. The spontaneous ameliorations in the course of tabes
dorsalis and the less marked ones of diffuse sclerosis, coupled with
temporarily improved sensation in the former and improved motion in
the latter disease, show that retrogressions of this character are
possible and do occur. How is the physician to imitate the action of
nature? how to intensify it so as to secure the permanent
improvement which nature unaided does not grant? The first factor
to be considered is the removal of the cause of the disease. A
number of cases are due to exposure to wet and cold and to over-
exertion. Such exposure and over-exertion, if not already rendered
impossible by the disease, is to be discontinued. A large number of
cases of tabes—according to many authors, a majority—a
considerable number of cases of diffuse sclerosis, and not a few of
other forms, are connected with the syphilitic dyscrasia. Here, at the
very outset, we have a definite indication for treatment, and while we
may be disappointed in the results of such treatment in a large
proportion of cases, yet enough of well-assured and substantial
success has been and is obtained to render it almost a matter of
duty for the physician to try antisyphilitic measures in every such
instance.
The mixed treatment in chronic spinal disorders should be followed

out for long periods and faithfully. Most tabic and other sclerotic
subjects affected with constitutional syphilis are in what is called the
tertiary period of that disease, when iodide of potassium is less
useful than mercury. I have never gained anything by pushing either
drug to the extreme point in advanced cases, and it should be borne
in mind that mercurialization carried too far may itself prove directly
injurious to the nerve-centres.159 In cases where gastric crises, gross
ataxia, muscular atrophy, and bladder disturbance have been of long
duration this treatment is rarely successful.160 But in the initial and
early periods of tabes and in diffuse sclerosis of slight intensity the
effect is sometimes gratifying, and of such a nature that it cannot be
attributed to a coincidence with spontaneous remissions of the
disease. In one case both knee-jerks and the pupillary reflexes
returned, to disappear on premature discontinuance of the treatment;
and on resumption one knee-jerk again returned, and has remained
demonstrable now over half a year. In a second case the fulminating
pains and the bladder disturbance disappeared, a slight indication of
the pupillary reflex developed, and the patient has remained
stationary with this gain for a period of three years.161 In a third case,
one of established ataxia, with which luetic osseous lesions
occurred, the pupillary reflex has returned twice, disappearing after
the first reappearance. In one case of combined sclerosis in which
no syphilitic antecedents could be found the paresis of the arms has
disappeared, and the ataxic paresis of the lower extremities has
improved to such an extent that the patient can stand with his eyes
closed and his feet together, and on one leg with the eyes open—
feats which a year ago he was unable to perform. None of the
changes in symptoms taking place in these cases occur
spontaneously in sclerotic spinal disorders, and they must be
attributed to the treatment. Such treatment is best carried out in
conjunction with warm bathing. The Hot Springs of Arkansas, those
at Las Vegas, New Mexico, and the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle in
Europe enjoy a special reputation in this field. The springs of
Arkansas, as regards the intrinsic character of the water, possess
advantages which are probably not excelled by any European baths,
but the therapeutical management162 is far from that ideal point of
development attained, for example, at Aix-la-Chapelle.
159 Mendel thus found in his experiments made on dogs, developing cerebral disease
from rotation with the head directed toward the axis of rotation, that dogs who had
previously received subcutaneous injections of corrosive sublimate showed an
increased vulnerability to the action of the rotary apparatus.
160 A remarkable exception is related in the section on Chronic Myelitis.
161 There was concentric limitation of all color-fields, and only central perception of
green; to-day, if anything, the color-fields of this patient are a little greater than in the
physiological average. The case was undoubtedly one of initial tabes.
162 Mercurial ointment is used by the hundredweight, to quote the expression of a

patient, and in certain establishments the sufferers from the common taint plaster
each other from head to foot, as with mud, with this panacea for most of those ills
which flock to the springs. Still, there seems to be no doubt that enormous quantities
of mercury are borne well by those who use the baths, and who under other
circumstances are susceptible to its most undesirable effects.
Optic-nerve atrophy, according to the best authorities, constitutes a

contraindication to the use of mercury in any form. It may be laid
down as a general rule that the more rapidly the symptoms indicating
a sclerotic process are developed, and the more recent its advent,
the more energetically should the treatment be pushed. Mercurial
inunctions and the so-called heroic doses of iodide are to be
employed. But in cases progressing slowly and of long antecedent
history what may be called a dilute plan is more apt to yield good
results. Small doses of mercury,163 given steadily for years, and
iodide of potassium, administered in well-tolerated doses for periods
of ten days, alternating with corresponding periods of intermission,
have, in my opinion, delayed or arrested the progress of tabes and
other forms of sclerosis for the long periods referred to in the
preceding sections.164 Although the antisyphilitic measures adopted
in sclerosis of syphilitic origin are the most important, and the
prognosis of no such case can be regarded as hopeless as to
recovery or duration until they have been tried, other procedures,
detailed under the head of Peripheral Treatment, should not be
neglected. While some very severe cases improve rapidly on
antisyphilitic treatment, other much less severe and more recent
cases, in which the same cause is assigned with equal reason, are
not affected by it in the slightest visible degree. The reason for this
difference is unknown, but it necessitates the bearing in mind that by
limiting the treatment to the etiological indication valuable time may
be wasted in which the symptomatic indications could be profitably
followed.
163 The tablet triturates of biniodide of mercury or corrosive sublimate furnished by
Fraser & Co. of New York I have found peculiarly useful; one one-hundredth or more
of a grain may be thus administered every two to four hours.
164 I am now employing the same treatment in some cases showing no syphilitic
history. If any medicinal measures can act upon connective-tissue proliferation, it is
these very ones.
In cases of sclerosis due to other causes than syphilis a number of

medicinal agents have been recommended as calculated to affect
the central disease directly. Ergot is recommended in sclerotic
troubles, particularly tabes, by a large number of writers. It is
admitted that this substance can produce tabes itself, so that its
administration in the large doses recommended by some is not
without its possible dangers. I have seen a patient well advanced in
the disease who had received the drug for three weeks
consecutively in such quantities165 that on estimates made I came to
the conclusion that he had received more than some of the persons
in whom Tuczek discovered the development of ergotin tabes.
Favorable results are reported ensuing after its use in the early
stages, particularly where signs of irritation preponderated, such as
lightning-like pains, hyperæsthesia, and frequent erections; and it
has been suggested that the beneficial action is due to an effect on
the blood-vessels, which are supposed to be congested in the
beginning of the disease. Proof of such congestion has not been
furnished: the vessels are usually sclerosed and their lumen
narrowed. In view of the undeniable danger which attends the
administration of ergot in tabes, it may be properly insisted that its
indications be more precisely formulated than has yet been done. It
is commonly noticed in the natural progress of tabes that the
lightning-like pains disappear, usually about the time the anæsthesia
becomes greater. The anatomical parallel is supposed to be the
destruction of the nerve-tubes whose previous irritation caused these
pains. If, as is claimed—and it seems to be substantiated—ergotin
does produce amelioration of the lightning-like pains, it would prove
a damaging revelation which showed that it did so in imitation of the
natural process; that is, by increasing the sclerosis.
165 An expert ophthalmoscopist found that the retinal vessels, which were somewhat
dilated in this patient, were not influenced by the treatment.
The first drug to which an influence was assigned upon the sclerotic
processes, and which has maintained its reputation longest, is nitrate
of silver.166 Its claim to being regarded as a remedy may be best
characterized by the fact that an author who is far from being
prejudiced against it, and who recognizes the claims of Wunderlich,
its advocate, speaks of it as a valuable placebo.167 I have never
obtained any effects from this drug in the scleroses, or from the
chloride of gold, which has been also recommended for these
affections, nor have I seen any in cases where either or both had
been faithfully tried by others for years. The same is to be said of the
chloride of barium, which has been warmly extolled on the basis of a
very limited trial in disseminated and diffuse sclerosis.
166 One of the first patients on whom Wunderlich tried this drug died while I studied at
Leipzig. He had extensive argyria and sclerosis of the posterior columns.
167 Leyden, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 359.
The direct application of the galvanic current to the spine is

recommended, more particularly by Erb and Neftel.168 I am unable to
state anything regarding currents derived from as many as twenty of
Siemens cells and applied in the ascending direction, as the latter
recommends beyond an experience which occurred in the practice of
a colleague, who, alarmed by the event to be related, referred the
patient subjected to this treatment to me. The patient suffered from
tabes dorsalis, the symptoms being limited to the lower extremities,
the ulnar distribution, and the pupils. The belt was in the lower
thoracic region; the ataxia and lightning-like pains were not great.
After a single application of an ascending current from twenty-two
cells, continued for ten minutes, the patient suddenly felt a severe
dull pain in the occiput and terrible lancinating pains in the
distribution of the occipital nerves. With this there occurred
scintillation before the eyes, and at the subsequent examination I
found that the belt sensation had moved into the neck. The
coincidence was so close, and sudden changes in the distributional
area of tabic symptoms are otherwise so uncommon, that I attributed
the observed change to the treatment.
168 In describing a case in which this measure not only ameliorated lancinating pains
and vesical symptoms, but also, applied to the head, relieved the diplopia—usually a
spontaneous occurrence, according to both American and European writers—this
writer takes occasion to state that in the year 1869 tabes dorsalis was practically
unknown to American physicians (Archiv für Psychiatrie, xii. p. 619). Duchenne
described progressive locomotor ataxia in that and the preceding year; the necessity
of referring to the unfamiliarity of American physicians with a disease not at the time
recognized on either side of the Atlantic is hence not apparent. Leyden (op. cit., vol. ii.
p. 325) candidly admits that the German medical profession was at first averse to
recognizing Duchenne's limitation: this reproach cannot be laid at the door of
American physicians, as I can distinctly recollect the demonstration of several well-
marked cases exhibiting the characteristic symptoms then known, in the year 1870.
The disease obtained recognition in American textbooks and journals as early as in
those of any other land.
Erb does not recommend such powerful applications. But the most
sanguine electro-therapeutist must admit that the action of galvanic
currents on the spinal cord is an exceedingly uncertain one. It is
questionable whether weak ones deflect sufficient current-loops to
reach the cord and to exert any material effect. As to currents
powerful enough to produce an effect, it is not known, except in the
loosest and most empirical way, what that effect is. The procedure
followed by Erb is to use large electrodes, the cathodal one being a
little smaller than the anodal, the former being placed stabile, over
the upper cervical sympathetic ganglion of one side, the latter labile,
on the opposite side of the vertebral spines, moving gradually
downward, the session not exceeding three minutes. This is
repeated daily or every alternate day.169 It would prove a strong proof
that this treatment really affected the morbid process in a remedial
direction if any of the exact signs of the disease were to be modified
by it, be it ever so slightly. If, after galvanization of the cervical cord
and the sympathetic nerve, the initial myosis of tabes were
temporarily lessened or the reflex contraction to light restored for
ever so short a time, a brighter future would dawn for electro-
therapeutics than seems now to be in store for it.170
169 Why, if the procedure be really remedial or efficiently palliative and devoid of evil
consequences, it is not recommended to be repeated oftener I am at a loss to explain
or understand. There are some factors involved in practical electro-therapeutic which
it is scarcely possible to discuss without encroaching on delicate ground.
170 In healthy persons the extent of the knee-jerk is increased by the spinal ascending
galvanic current, and possibly this observation may lead to the establishment of a
rational basis for its use in cases where the reflex is abolished or diminished.
Peripheral Treatment.—A number of therapeutical applications are

made to the periphery where the symptoms of the sclerotic process
are localized. The rationale of such applications is based on the
assumption that peripheral conditions are capable of modifying the
nutrition and functions of the cord. This is proven not alone by a host
of observations made on the normal cord, but is also disastrously
illustrated in the part played by surface chilling in the etiology of
many acute and chronic diseases of the cord. Notwithstanding this
latter, a large and influential body of German neurologists
recommend cold baths and cold spinal douches in these affections. I
have seen such excellent results from the use of warm baths that I
am compelled to plead, in defence of my ignorance of the effect of
cold ones, that I have never dared to use them. In numerous cases
the beneficial effect of a warm bath is almost instantaneous. Warmth
in any shape, whether atmospheric or in the shape of baths, is
usually agreeable to patients suffering from the various forms of
sclerosis. Cold, on the other hand, is disagreeable, aggravates the
symptoms, and in many cases at least hastens the progress of the
disease. A winter spent in the latitude of New York or Boston means
so much ground lost by the patient, and a sojourn during the colder
months in Southern California, New Mexico, Florida, or the West
Indies enables the patient to avoid this loss. As regards the choice of
climate and baths for sclerotic patients, I should be inclined to
roughly formulate the indications as being identical with those of
chronic rheumatism. The reaction against the use of warm baths in
Germany, where they once were popular,171 is due to the
employment of too high temperatures. Hot baths, in the strict sense
of the term, including the various forms of vapor-bath, act badly.
They increase instead of calming the irritative symptoms, as
moderately warm baths do, and they entail too sudden a change in
the bodily state. That, for the present, it is advisable not to adopt
unreservedly either the extreme plan once in vogue or the equally
extreme one which constitutes the reaction against it, is shown by
the observations of Richter of Dalldorf, who records some
discouraging results obtained by the use of cold baths in cases of
tabes dorsalis. It is but necessary to refer to the fact that the
lancinating pains of the latter disease, the rigidity of diffuse myelitis,
and the spasms of lateral sclerosis are usually most severe in cold
weather, and that the diseases mentioned appear to be rare in warm
countries, to show the need of caution in using a therapeutical
measure so similar in its action, even if it be but momentary and
followed by a reaction, to those which provoke or aggravate the
original disease. Eulenburg has seen five recoveries in tabes, and
under such different plans of treatment that the latter is not credited
by him with the good result. Three were treated with warm baths,
one with cold baths, and one with nitrate of silver. It is seen here that
the warm baths were used with good results more frequently than
the cold.
171 The mud-baths of Cudowa in Gallicia had a very high reputation.
One of the most singular delusions of modern therapeusis—nerve-

stretching—has, following the prediction made by several on both
sides of the Atlantic, become obsolete. Introduced by Langenbuch, a
surgeon, and attacking the disease at the sciatic nerve—a point
where, as well-versed students knew, it was not located—the
operation was looked upon with distrust from the beginning. The
enthusiasm with which it was taken up by surgeons and by the
interested portion of the laity—ever hopeful as tabic patients are of
new drugs and methods of treatment—has led to a large number of
trials, now numbering several hundred, and from which the useful
lesson can be gathered that the good ripens slowly. Nerve-stretching
in an organic disease of the spinal cord may take its place among
the needless vivisections; it has not influenced the progress of a
single case in any essential feature. On the contrary, it has more
than once been directly responsible for acute myelitis, spinal
hemorrhage,172 and pyæmia. In a number of cases reported by
Langenbuch,173 Benedict, Erlenmeyer, Schweminger, Debove, and
W. J. Morton, the ataxia of the patient has been reported as relieved;
in one case, exhibited by the latter operator before the American
Neurological Association, this appeared quite evident, but not
because the disease proper had been influenced, but for the same
reason that prevents the development of marked ataxia in combined
sclerosis. Just as the lateral-column lesion inhibits the ataxia which
is due to the posterior-column lesion, so the motor paresis produced
by stretching the sciatic nerves neutralizes the manifest features of
the ataxic gait. As soon as the paresis is recovered from, the ataxia
returns in its original form, unless, happily, one of the common
spontaneous changes for the better occur. As a therapeutic
procedure nerve-stretching is to-day properly limited to affections of
the peripheral nerves.
172 Zacher, Archiv für Psychiatrie, xv. p. 430.
173 Westphal showed after the autopsy of Langenbuch's first successful case that
there had been no spinal lesion whatever.
One of the most useful peripheral remedies in the sclerotic

processes is the faradic wire brush. It is both an anodyne and
remedial for anæsthesia. A number of the tabic patients to whom I
referred as not having deteriorated within long periods are provided
with a portable faradic battery, and apply the brush to the spots
affected by terebrating pains the moment these commence,
obtaining instantaneous relief. As has been shown by Rumpf,174 the
cutaneous space-sense becomes more delicate in healthy and
improved in tabic patients under its continued use. And while the
inco-ordination of tabes is in part independent of the disturbance of
cutaneous sensibility, yet if the latter can be refined the ataxic
disturbance may be mitigated—a result occasionally obtained
through the methodical use of the wire brush.
174 Report of a discussion, Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1885, p. 526.
It is frequently found that sufferers from tabes dorsalis and other

forms of sclerosis accompanied by ataxia walk much better in their
stocking feet and in slippers than they do in the conventional street
shoe or boot. The reason for this is obvious. The patient's gait is
impaired by the disease, and, whether the ataxia be a pure co-
ordinatory trouble or no, subjective uncertainty regarding contact
with the ground which is experienced by most ataxic patients is an
aggravating factor. Our modern foot-clothing, with its inflexible soles
and raised heels, handicaps the patient as it were, depriving him of
the use of what little tactile sensibility may be left him.175 The use of
low-heeled shoes with thin and flexible soles is therefore
advantageous.
175 The question whether tabes dorsalis is a disease of civilization has not been
raised in any treatise I am acquainted with. Myelitis, both acute and chronic, occurs,
however, rarely in the lower animals, as do also central dilatation of the cord and
congenital defects of the latter. Posterior sclerosis I can find no record of in veterinary
pathology. The influence of the repression of normal aids to locomotion by the foot-
gear of civilized life as a possible predisposing factor in the etiology of ataxic troubles
is a legitimate subject of inquiry. The lateness of the infant of civilized parents in
acquiring the art of skilled locomotion may be in part, as philosophers claim, a penalty
of exuberant development of the higher and inhibitive centres. But what part has the
artificial obliteration of solar sensibility and pedal flexibility played in this inherited
feature? What is its influence in establishing a pathological vulnerability?
The tremors of sclerotic affections, particularly those accompanying

the disseminated forms, are from their distressing character
prominent objects of special treatment. The bromides have been
given with alleged good effect which I am unable to confirm. Curare
has caused the tremor to disappear for two days in one of
Erlenmeyer's patients. I have seen good results from the descending
galvanic current applied in long sittings to the head and neck, sliding
in to the point of tolerance, and sliding out before discontinuing. The
mydriatics, atropine, and particularly hyoscyamin, often remove
tremor radically for the time being; unfortunately, it is necessary to
give them in almost toxic doses to obtain this effect. Recently, Feris
recommended veratrum in doses of half a milligram repeated every
four to five hours. It acted very well in every case in which I tried it,
but, as it became necessary to increase the dose, the same
objection was encountered as in the case of hyoscyamin. All these
measures should be used as emergency remedies only; they cannot,
in the nature of the case, prove curative, while their continued use
produces a physiological indifference to their effect, and to that
extent decreases their value as the case progresses.
MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SYMPTOMS AND COMPLICATIONS.—Among the

most distressing features of many sclerotic affections is pain, which
is usually associated with sleeplessness. The fulminating variety
may be often relieved by the use of the actual cautery applied over
the affected level of the cord and along the course of the nerve
involved. But in the majority of cases morphine will have to be
resorted to. Erb cautions against the use of this anodyne in cases
where there is much reflex irritability of the cord, as morphine is said
to increase this irritability when administered in small doses, and to
reduce it again only when larger ones are administered. It is the
latter alone which are serviceable with pain, and I have not yet seen
any bad effects in the direction apprehended by Erb from such doses
as it is necessary to give. That the physician administering it should
be always on guard against the possible formation of a drug habit it
is unnecessary to add. But it is also unnecessary to add what
alternative he shall adopt when his choice lies between the lesser
evil of the opium or morphine habit and the terrible martyrdom which
some patients would be compelled to submit to if not allowed to
indulge in it.176 The evil effect of opium and its preparations on the
visceral functions is to be neutralized, as far as possible, by the
administration of laxatives and bitter tonics.
176 Few sufferers from spinal disease use anodynes habitually; opium and its
preparations are not fascinating to the majority of persons. On the other hand, there
are two cases of tabes dorsalis now under my observation in which the patients have
been compelled to use hypodermic injections of Magendie's solution for two and three
years without any materially bad effect.
The deep-seated diffuse pains, such as are found in disseminated

and diffuse sclerosis, are not as markedly relieved by opium as the
terebrating and lightning-like variety. Frequently spastic or other
signs of increased reflex excitability are associated with them; and
as both are favorably influenced by the bromides, the latter are
doubly indicated in such conditions.
With pains of a rheumatic character static electricity has been

recommended. It undoubtedly relieves such pains, as skilfully-
applied galvanism would. Its chief effects, it seemed to me from a six
months' trial with it, are on the imagination and hopes of the
patient.177
177 A large apparatus of the new and improved make was at my disposal at the
nervous department of the Metropolitan Throat Hospital. It was very popular with
sufferers from rheumatism, who had been allowed to accumulate in the class before I
took charge, and with a paretic dement who suffered with the rheumatoid pains often
found with diseases such as his.
The bromides and camphor178 are recommended for the obstinate

priapism found in some cases of early tabes and transverse myelitis.
I have seen better results from warm hip-baths and general baths in
this condition than from any drug. As a general rule, the exercise of
the sexual function, where not already forbidden by the results of the
disease, should be limited as much as possible. The frequency of
normal seminal emissions in a given case is a guide to the amount of
indulgence in this direction which may be permitted. Where there is
the slightest indication of irritative or destructive lesions in the upper
lumbar cord sexual acts should be entirely prohibited, for under
these circumstances no greater injury could be done the weakened
centres than to permit them. This is particularly noticed in those
cases of tabes dorsalis which are marked by satyriasis in the early
period.
178 Particularly the monobromate of camphor.
The treatment of the bladder trouble and of bed-sores is carried out

in the manner described in the section on Acute Myelitis. For bed-
sores Hammond recommends the application of a stabile galvanic
element consisting of a plate of silver and one of zinc, the two being
united by a wire isolated in the usual way. The silver plate is laid on
the bed-sore; the zinc plate, covered by a piece of moistened cloth,
is laid on the unbroken skin somewhere in the neighborhood. The
result is a weak current under whose stimulant effect the healing
process takes place very rapidly. I have seen excellent results that
had been obtained by this means in indolent ulcers of the leg. It does
not, however, seem to have been tested with the malignant variety of
bed-sore.
With regard to the management of muscular atrophies by electricity,

massage, and strychnia, the same rules are to be followed which are
laid down in the section on the Myopathic Atrophies. It is only to be
specially remarked that few authorities encourage the administration
of strychnia in sclerotic affections, and fewer still in such large doses
as could be of any benefit in a wasting process.
Faradization of the affected eye-muscles is often useful in diplopia.

The current may be applied by means of a cup-shaped eye-
electrode, or, better, by using a finger as an electrode.
The moral management of sufferers from sclerotic spinal affections is

very important. The popular notion about spinal disease generally is
such that the announcement made to a patient that he is suffering
from any form of it is as alarming as would be the discovery of a
tumor in his brain or a cancer in his stomach, and exerts a
depressing effect. This it should be sought to avoid. A large number
of sufferers from sclerosis live longer and suffer less than a portion of
those afflicted with rheumatic and gouty affections; and the physician
is justified in obtaining the desirable effect which a hopeful or
resigned state of the mind undoubtedly has on the body, by laying
great stress on this undeniable fact.
CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL

CORD.
BY WILLIAM HUNT, M.D.

The writer was asked to contribute a short article upon Concussion
of the Brain and Spinal Cord for this work, as these injuries are apt at
first to come under the notice, if not charge, of the general
practitioner. The article will therefore not be an exhaustive one, and
there will be little but the details of personal experience and less
quoting of authorities. Much has been written recently upon the
subject both in volume and in pamphlet.
Diverse views of equally competent judges of the matter have been

put forth, and the brains and spinal cords of the partisans appear to
have received as severe a shaking up as the real recipients of the
lesions, if absolute lesions there be.
This, in fact, is the point of controversy, for there are those who
seem to deny that there can be a jarring or shaking of the cerebro-
spinal mass sufficient to cause positive symptoms without producing
positive lesions, whilst others are as firm in their convictions that
pronounced symptoms may follow a mere disturbing ripple of the
nervous elements. How is the question to be settled? The slightly
shocked or injured recover rapidly, whilst some who only appear to
be as slightly injured or shocked at first, go on to death, during the
progress to which event there is no doubt as to the existence of
lesion and no difficulty in finding it at the autopsy. Hence, say the
lesionists, the first ones had it, but got well, whilst the non-lesionists
affirm that it never existed in them.
The logician would think that these differences in opinion were only
differences in degree about the same thing, but, nevertheless, the
question is one for serious discussion, and is of much greater
importance than would appear to be the case to the average layman.
This importance lies in the medico-legal aspects of the suits arising

out of the alleged injuries and their consequences. Judges, lawyers,
and doctors know them well. In doubtful cases authorities of equal
eminence are quoted, and the results of trials are equally as doubtful
as to whether justice or injustice has been done. These remarks, as
will be seen, are especially applicable to injuries of the spine, but
they also may have place in the consideration of consequences
arising from concussion of the brain.
Concussion of the Brain.
Whatever doubts there may be as to concussion of the spine, there

are none, I believe, who deny the appropriateness of the expression
as to the brain, it being, by its anatomical relations, so much more
exposed to shock than the spine.
We understand that pure concussion, uncomplicated with fracture,

refers to a condition caused by external violence, direct or indirect,
which communicates a jar or shock to the cerebral mass, and which
expresses itself by certain well-defined symptoms. The nervous
system and the circulation are most manifestly involved, but in a
pure case it may be said that all of the symptoms arise from central
nervous disturbance. Even could it be shown that they were
dependent on temporary congestions, these congestions, I think it
will be admitted, would be due to vaso-motor derangements.
The anatomical appearances after early death from concussion of

the brain are often insufficient for us to comprehend the fatal result,
for we know that the organ will bear, both from disease and other
kinds of injury, vastly greater inroads upon its structure and
surroundings without causing death. Often there is mere localized
cerebral congestion, with no ruptures of vessels; then there are slight
extravasations shown as points or dots of blood in the nerve-matter;
and, again, there is what is called the bruised brain. Sometimes
there is nothing abnormal whatever to be found. Most of these
cases, under modern criticism, have been justly shut out from the
record as having no value; for it has been shown that the post-
mortem examinations of them have been very imperfect, the brain
only having been inspected, whereas the chest, the abdomen, or the
spine might readily have revealed the cause of death.

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Textbook of Oncofertility Research and Practice A

BENGALURU l CHENNAI l COCHIN l GUWAHATI l HYDERABAD

© by Author and Publisher

Printed and bound in India

& Bengaluru 080-26 75 69 30

& Hyderabad 040-27 55 53 83, 27 55 53 93

Published in India by & Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84

Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd. & Ranchi 0651-220 44 64

1. CONCEPT OF MANUFACTURING ... 1–38

2. CASTING PROCESSES ... 39–139

2.14.8. Slush casting ... 100

3. METAL FORMING PROCESSES ... 140–218

3.6. Wire Drawing ... 174

4. POWDER METALLURGY ... 219–232

5. PROCESSING OF PLASTICS ... 233–259

6. CERAMIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS—THEIR STRUCTURE,

6.9.5. Fabrication of glass ... 272

7. WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES ... 292–361

7.29. Electrodes ... 334

8. METAL CUTTING ... 362–419

8.11. Tool Wear and Failure ... 393

9. MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING PROCESSES ... 420–578

9.3.7. Size and specifications of turret lathe ... 463

9.8.2. Specifications of a drilling machine ... 491

9.12.3. Sawing machine blades ... 532

10. THREAD MANUFACTURING ... 579–592

11. GEAR MANUFACTURING ... 593–611

12. UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES ... 612–631

13. MACHINE TOOLS TESTING ... 632–649

14. NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS AND CAD/CAM ... 650–666

14.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of

15. AUTOMATIC MACHINES ... 667–673

16. JIGS AND FIXTURES ... 674–697

16.3. Advantages of using Jigs and Fixtures ... 675

17. METROLOGY ... 698–764

17.7.3. Vernier calipers ... 720

18. ECONOMICS OF MACHINING AND MANUFACTURING ... 765–770

RECENT TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING

19. NEED FOR INTEGRATION OF DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING ... 773–807

19.9.7. Differences between analog and digital computers ... 782

20. ELEMENTS OF INTEGRATION ... 808–828

20.6.2. AGVs equipment ... 820

21. PRODUCT AND PROCESS DESIGN FOR INTEGRATION ... 829–838

22. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING ... 839–847

23. GROUP TECHNOLOGY ... 848–860

Questions with Answers ... 854

24. INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL ... 863–872

25. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT, WORK STUDY AND MIS ... 873–899

25.5. Purchasing ... 887