Lecture: Chordate Review

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First, watch the following video (one of the two links should work):

Chordates - CrashCourse Biology #24 - YouTube

Chordates | Crash Course biology | Khan Academy - YouTube

Second, read the “Introduction to Chordates Notes” to get an overview of the topic.

Third, complete the “Chordate Statement Sheet” using the internet, notes provided, and Chapter 29 of
the eBiology textbook provided. For the true statements, simply type the statement in words which are
easy to understand for you (If the true statement is understandable as is to you, then simply retype the
statement as is). For the false statements, correct each statement by changing a word or two and then
type the corrected statement into an easy to understand sentence. Upon completion of the assignment
you should have 43 correctly phrased statements about Chordates. The free online textbook for the
course is available at: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e

INTRODUCTION TO CHORDATES NOTES TO FOLLOW:

Chordates (Phylum Chordata)

This group includes the vertebrates (including us) as well as tunicates, lancelets, hagfish and lampreys.

Tunicates are small, relatively uncommon, marine organisms that you likely have never seen. The adult
stage lives attached to some solid substrate (sessile) and feeds by filtering food particles from the water.
It is covered by a tunic composed of a polysaccharide similar to cellulose. The tunic has two perforations
which serve as inlet and outlet for water. Within the tunic, the organism consists of little more than a
digestive tract. Their most notable ability is to be able to eject a jet of water through their excurrent
siphon when disturbed, earning them the common name sea squirts. The tunicate larva shows the four
key chordate features: pharyngeal slits, notochord, post-anal tail and nerve cord ventral to the
notochord. Larvae attach by the head and metamorphose into the adult.

Lancelets means “little blade” and refers to the shape of these aquatic organisms. Burying themselves in
sand, they filter water through pharyngeal slits and trap the food suspended in it. Segmentation is
evident in the muscles along the sides of their body. These muscles allow a simple undulating swimming
motion.

Hagfish are marine, eel-like animals. They have a notochord that extends the length of their body, acting
as a stiffening rod, and skeletal elements of cartilage. No vertebrae are present. Lacking jaws, its mouth
parts are modified for sucking. They live buried in mud or sand and eat polychaetes or other
invertebrates and scavenge on dead fish. Along the side of the hagfish are rows of slime glands. These
produce large amounts of slime as a defense mechanism against predators.
Lampreys are eel-like external parasites on fish. Like, hagfish, they have a longitudinal notochord and
cartilaginous skeleton. Lacking jaws, they have a sucker with a rasping tongue to penetrate the skin of
the host and ingest its blood. The larva is a suspension feeder that resembles a lancelet.

Sharks and rays (Class Chondrichthyes)

Chondrichthyes are fish (Gr. Ichthys = fish) whose skeleton is composed of cartilage (Gk. chondros =
cartilage). The other characteristics include jaws, paired fins, paired nares (nostrils), scales and two
chambered hearts. They are divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays and skates) and
Holocephali (chimaera, sometimes called ghost sharks).

Sharks
Sharks are covered by small, sharp scales (the skin of some sharks has, in the past, been used as
sandpaper). Rows of replaceable teeth are present in the jaws of many species and have the same
general structure as the scales. Neither the lower nor the upper jaw of sharks is attached to the skull.
This structure makes it easy for shark fishers to collect trophies to scare tourists. Although most sharks
are predators, some of the larger ones, such as the whale shark and basking shark, are filter feeders.

Some species of sharks are oviparous (lay eggs outside the mother’s body). Other species retain eggs,
but the young are born alive (viviparous). In a few species the young develop in the uterus nourished by
the mother’s blood through a placenta. An interesting feature of sharks is their process of fertilization of
eggs. Unlike bony fish, male sharks have an intromittent organ and modified appendages (called
claspers) and carry out internal fertilization.

Rays and skates

Most rays are kite-shaped with streamlined tails that may have one or more poisonous barbs or spines.
In contrast, skate tails are fleshier and heavier, and have small fins.

Skates lay eggs in leathery cases very similar to shark egg capsules. These cases sometimes wash up on
beaches and are called “mermaid’s purses.” Rays, on the other hand, give birth to live young.

Bony fish (Class Osteichthyes)

The skeleton of this class of fish is composed of bone (Gk. osteon = bone). Other features include:
-a cover over the gills called the operculum
-skin glands that produce mucus
-a lateral line system that detects vibrations in the water
-a swim bladder (an air sac) located dorsally to the digestive system that helps maintain neutral
buoyancy
-most lay eggs and have external fertilization

The 30,000 species of bony fish include great diversity of form. Two extreme forms are the sea horse
and the gar. Gars have bony scales and are similar to the early forms of ray-finned fishes. Another
characteristic of gars that is shared with extinct bony fishes is a swim bladder that is supplied with many
blood vessels (vascularized). Because the swim bladder is connected to the pharynx by a duct, gars can
gulp air and absorb oxygen from the swim bladder. This allows gars to breathe when oxygen levels in the
water are low.
Amphibians (Class Amphibia)

Amphibians (Gk. Amphi = both; bios = life) have two main stages in their life cycle that often inhabit
different environments. Usually the tadpole stage is aquatic and the adult stage is terrestrial. In some
species both stages are either aquatic or terrestrial.

The skin of amphibians lacks scales. It is thin and highly vascularized allowing for significant gas
exchange to occur across its surface. Amphibians are therefore subject to drying (dessication),
explaining their dependence on aquatic or moist terrestrial habitats. T help prevent water loss,
microscopic, mucous-producing skin glands are present in their skin. In some species the glands in the
skin produce poisonous chemicals. Warts on a toad’s skin are specialized poison glands that produce
distasteful or poisonous secretions (contrary to myth, princesses are not immune to these poisons).

Amphibians include more than 5000 species of frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders.

Frogs and toads are by far the most diverse group of amphibians. Members of this group lack tails and
are called anurans (Gk. without tail). Toads have a warty, tough skin and a squat body and short legs.
Frogs are adapted for life in water, and have a smooth skin, streamlined shape and webbed feet. Many
frogs and toads lay eggs in streams or ponds and have an aquatic larval stage called a tadpole. Some
species carry their eggs and tadpoles on their backs, others lay eggs in moist regions of terrestrial
environments and some skip the tadpole stage entirely.

Newts and salamanders are usually more secretive than frogs and have a long body and tail. The
distinction between newts and salamanders is not a scientific one. What is called a salamander in North
America may be called a newt in Europe.

Reptiles (Class Reptilia)

The skin of reptiles is dry, waterproofed and scaly. Glands are not present and gas exchange does not
occur across the surface.

Most reptiles are terrestrial. During embryonic development, a specialized set of structures called an
amniotic egg is formed. This structure contains stored food and moisture and allows the embryo to
grow independently in a dry habitat. Reptilian eggs are similar to bird’s eggs, except that the shell is
leathery rather than stony.

Reptiles are either 4-legged (quadrupedal) or they evolved from quadrupeds.

There are three major groups of living reptiles: 1)turtles, 2)snakes and lizards, and 3)crocodilians.

Turtles are enclosed in an upper domed carapace and a lower plastron, joined at the sides by a bridge.
The shell is composed of the ribs, the vertebrae and dermal bony plates.
Tortoise is a popular term for a turtle that lives on land. All turtles lay eggs on land.
Snakes are a diverse and successful group of reptiles. Snakes evolved from 4-legged (quadrupedal)
reptiles similar to lizards. Modern snakes have no legs. Some extant snakes, such as boas, have a
vestigial pelvic girdle. The ancestor to snakes once had eyelids and external ears, both of which are not
present in snakes. Other peculiar changes that have occurred in snakes during evolution involve the
internal organs: kidneys positioned one after the other and there is only one lung. All snakes are
predators. Some are venomous.

Lizards are the most diverse group of reptiles. They include terrestrial, arboreal, burrowing and aquatic
forms. Although most are carnivorous, some are herbivorous. Most lizards are quadruped but some
species are legless, like snakes. The external ear opening is usually visible and there is a moveable eyelid
in most species.

Crocodilians are carnivorous and include gharials, alligators and crocodiles.

Gharials have long thin snouts. Alligators can be distinguished from crocodiles by the fourth mandibular
tooth: it fits into the upper jaw and it cannot be seen when the mouth is shut. When crocodiles close
their mouths, the fourth mandibular tooth is clearly visible. Also, crocodiles have longer, narrower
snouts than alligators.

Birds (Class Aves)

There are nearly 10,000 species of birds. They are bipedal tetrapods. Their forelimbs are modified as
wings. All have feathers. Feathers are specialized structures that develop from the skin. They are good
thermal insulators and are light weight and replaceable. They have an extensive system of lungs and air
sacs that allow for efficient respiration when flying. Ratites, such as ostriches, emus and kiwis are
flightless and lack the strong pectoral muscles of flighted birds as well as the prominent sternal keel, the
site of attachment for these muscles.

Mammals (Class Mammalia)

There are about 5000 species of mammals (L. mammus = breast). As the name suggests, one of their
when provided with the appropriate hormonal instructions, produce milk to feed the juvenile offspring.
Other distinctive features of mammals include hair and three auditory ossicles (bones) in the middle
ear.

Most mammals have highly differentiated teeth. The kinds of teeth present, the shape of these teeth,
and the number of each type are good indicators of the type of food eaten and whether the animal is a
carnivore, a herbivore, or an omnivore. Tooth morphology is a useful characteristic in the classification
of mammals.

Most mammals have four types of teeth:

1)incisors are the front teeth, are chisel-shaped used for biting and cutting or gnawing, and are
anchored with a single root.

2)canines (“eye teeth”) are also known as fangs or tusks. They are conical, pointed and used for ripping
and tearing. There is one canine on each side of the jaw and they are secured to a jawbone by a long
root. Herbivores lack canines.
3)premolars are used for crushing or shearing. In carnivores, the premolars are narrow with several
sharp points. In herbivores and omnivores, the premolars are somewhat wider with a flatter surface and
used for grinding. Premolars generally have two roots to anchor them to the jawbone.

4)molars are commonly called the “jaw” teeth. In carnivores, the molars are narrow and have several
sharp points for tearing meat and crushing bones. In herbivores, the molars are wider and have large flat
surfaces for crushing and grinding plant material. Molars of omnivores vary greatly among species.
Molars usually have three or more roots anchoring them to the jawbone.

Carnivores and omnivores have all four types of teeth. Herbivores have large incisors and large molars.
Some herbivores may have premolars, but it is difficult to distinguish them from the molars.

There are three basic types of mammals: monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals.

Monotremes are found in Australia and New Guinea. They lay eggs similar to those of reptiles. They
have a leathery shell and a large yolk from which the embryo grows. When the embryo emerges from
the egg it feeds on milk produced from specialized sweat glands. Nipples are not present and the milk
collects on hairs.

Marsupials occur in Australasia (200 species) and the Americas (70 species). North America has only one
marsupial – the opossum. The most distinctive feature of marsupials is their mode of reproduction.
There is no placenta connecting the embryo with its mother. The embryo is nourished during gestation
by fluid secreted by the uterus. Gestation is short and the embryo is immature when born. The young
grasp hairs in their forelimbs to pull themselves to the pouch (marsupium). Development is completed
in the marsupium.

Placental mammals are named for the placenta, a large organ formed from the combination of
embryonic membranes and maternal blood vessels. Nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolic wastes and
other substances diffuse across the placenta between the mother’s blood and the fetus’ blood,
sustaining the embryo. Development of the embryo in the protective environment of the uterus is
prolonged and placental mammals are well-developed when born. Placental mammals include horses,
deer, elephants, whales, rodents, rabbits, anteaters, cats, dogs, monkeys and many others.
CHORDATE STATEMENT SHEETS TO FOLLOW:

1. In some parts of the world the leather industry relies on lamprey.

False. There is no evidence that the leather industry relies on lamprey.

2. Sharks and rays sink when they stop swimming because they lack a spleen.
False. Sharks and rays sink when they stop swimming because they lack a swim bladder, not a
spleen.

3. Sweat and scent glands are unique to mammals.

True. Sweat and scent glands are unique to mammals.

4. Invertebrate chordates have a backbone.

False. Invertebrate chordates do not have a backbone

5. Amphibians are not vulnerable to environmental pollution because they have thick non-permeable
skin.
False. Amphibians are vulnerable to environmental pollution because they have permeable skin.

6. Feathers are considered to be a highly specialized version of reptilian body scales.

True. Feathers are considered to be a highly specialized version of reptilian body scales.

7. Reptile means double life.

False. The term “reptile” does not mean “double life”. It’s “amphibian” that means "double life

8. Marsupials are egg-laying mammals like the platypus and the echidna.
False. Marsupials are not egg-laying mammals. The platypus and the echidna, which are
monotremes, are the egg-laying mammals.

9. The breastbone offers attachment sites for muscles and protects the nerve chord and brain.
False. The breastbone, or sternum, offers attachment sites for muscles and protects the heart
and lungs, not the nerve cord and brain.

10. Amphibians circulate blood more efficiently than fish because they have a two chambered heart.
False. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart, not a two-chambered heart.

11. Most mammals are placental mammals.

True. Most mammals are indeed placental mammals.

12. Adult tunicates may be immobile but its larvae are not.
True. Adult tunicates may be immobile but its larvae are not.

13. Cartilaginous fish are usually predators and lack any bone in their body.
True. Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, are usually predators and lack any bone in their
body.
14. Birds are cold-blooded and have hollow bones.
False. Birds are warm-blooded, not cold-blooded, and they do have hollow bones.

15. The nerve cord thickens towards its posterior end and forms a brain.
True. The nerve cord thickens towards its posterior end and forms a brain.

16. Most taxonomists believe birds are simply reptiles with feathers.
True. Most taxonomists believe birds are simply reptiles with feathers.

17. Immediately after birth placental mammals can be found clinging to a nipple in the mother’s pouch.
False. Immediately after birth, marsupial mammals can be found clinging to a nipple in the
mother’s pouch, not placental mammals.

18. Paired appendages have contributed to invertebrate success.

False. Paired appendages have contributed to vertebrate success, not invertebrate.

19. External fertilization is when the male deposits sperm within the female’s body.
False. External fertilization is when the male deposits sperm outside the female’s body, often in
water.

20. The bat is one of a few mammals capable of flight.

True. The bat is one of a few mammals capable of flight.

21. Lampreys and hagfishes are fish with jaws.

False. Lampreys and hagfishes are jawless fish.

22. Dinosaurs are considered early reptiles.

True. Dinosaurs are considered early reptiles.

23. Amphibians have four chambered hearts as do crocodiles and alligators.

False. Amphibians have three chambered hearts, not four. Crocodiles and alligators do have four
chambered hearts.

24. Salamanders, toads, and newts are examples of amphibians.

True. Salamanders, toads, and newts are examples of amphibians.

25. Monotremes include opossums, koalas, and kangaroos.

False. Monotremes include the platypus and the echidna, not opossums, koalas, and kangaroos.

26. Cartilage is tissue that resembles bone but it is more brittle and less flexible.
False. Cartilage is tissue that resembles bone but it is more flexible and less brittle.

27. Reptiles do not use their skin as a respiratory organ since their lungs work well.
True. Reptiles do not use their skin as a respiratory organ since their lungs work well.

28. Eels and tuna are examples of cartilaginous fish.

False. Eels and tuna are examples of bony fish, not cartilaginous fish.

29. Lampreys can release large amounts of slime as a defense against predators.
True. Lampreys can release large amounts of slime as a defense against predators.

30. Lungs replace gills in most adult reptiles.

True. Lungs replace gills in most adult reptiles.

31. Birds and mammals have high metabolic rates.

True. Birds and mammals have high metabolic rates.

32. Reptiles have a tough scaly skin and reproduce by external fertilization culminating in an amniote
egg.
False. Reptiles have a tough scaly skin and reproduce by internal fertilization culminating in an
amniote egg.

33. In vertebrates the embryonic notochord is normally replaced by a backbone.

True. In vertebrates, the embryonic notochord is normally replaced by a backbone.

34. Jawed fishes include the cartilaginous fish and the bony fish.
True. Jawed fishes include the cartilaginous fish and the bony fish.

35. Vertebrates have an exoskeleton.

False. Vertebrates have an endoskeleton, not an exoskeleton.

36. Reptiles include toads, lizards, snakes, turtles, alligators, and crocodiles.
False. Reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles, alligators, and crocodiles, not toads.

37. The brain is highly developed in mammals providing them with greater learning capabilities.
True. The brain is highly developed in mammals providing them with greater learning
capabilities.

38. Lancelets and sea squirts make up the invertebrate chordates.

True. Lancelets and sea squirts make up the invertebrate chordates.

39. Cartilaginous fish are the most diverse vertebrates.

False. Bony fish are the most diverse vertebrates, not cartilaginous fish.

40. The placenta functions in gas, nutrient, and waste exchange between the mother and embryo.
True. The placenta functions in gas, nutrient, and waste exchange between the mother and
embry.

41. Eels and lampreys are cartilaginous fish.

False. Eels are bony fish and lampreys are jawless fish.
42. Bats’ bodies have adapted to their particular lifestyle.
True. Bats’ bodies have adapted to their particular lifestyle.

43. Fertilization in amphibians is internal thus they require water so the sperm can swim to the egg.
False. Fertilization in amphibians is external thus they require water so the sperm can swim to
the egg.