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Shabnum Shaheen · Sehrish Ramzan
Farah Khan · Mushtaq Ahmad
Adulteration
in Herbal
Drugs: A
Burning Issue
Adulteration in Herbal Drugs: A Burning Issue
Shabnum Shaheen • Sehrish Ramzan
Farah Khan • Mushtaq Ahmad
Adulteration in Herbal
Drugs: A Burning Issue
Shabnum Shaheen Sehrish Ramzan
Department of Plant Sciences Lahore College for Women University
Lahore College for Women University Lahore, Pakistan
Lahore, Pakistan
Mushtaq Ahmad
Farah Khan Quaid-i-Azam University
Lahore College for Women University Islamabad, Pakistan
Lahore, Pakistan
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated
to
My beloved parents
Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food or herbal product fails to meet the
legal standards. Adulteration is basically found in two major fundamentals of life,
i.e., in food items and in herbal drugs. In recent years, adulteration has become an
increasing problem globally in the food as well as in herbal industry. Since food
adulteration is a huge concern in all parts of the globe, there is voluminous literature
on various aspects of food adulteration including its detection. In fact, methodologi-
cal procedures of food adulteration detection have been reviewed extensively.
Adulteration and fraudulent labeling of a foodstuff’s origin costs the global food
industry an estimated $10 to $15 billion per year. Adulteration usually refers to mix-
ing other matter of an inferior and sometimes harmful quality with food or drink
intended to be sold. As a result of adulteration, food or drink becomes impure and
unfit for human consumption.
Adulteration in herbal drugs means “a practice of substituting original crude
drug partially or whole with other similar looking substances but the latter is either
free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic properties.” The adulteration and
substitution of the herbal drugs is the burning problem in herbal industry, and it
has caused a major threat in the research on commercial natural products. The
deforestation and extinction of many species and incorrect identification of many
plants have resulted in adulteration and substitution of raw drugs. So the present
book provides a detailed textual as well as pictorial data of adulteration particu-
larly with the reference of herbal drugs which is now a burning issue in the world
as most of the world rely on herbal drugs. As per data available, over three-quar-
ters of the world population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for their
healthcare needs.
vii
Preface
Herbal plants can be defined as the plants which are used to treat or prevent a
specific disease in human beings. For millions of years, human population is using
herbal plants for multiple health issues. It has been widely admitted that human
body is just like a machine which needs maintenance from time to time; and a
diseased body is like a broken-down machine which needs to be fixed. Man has
been using herbal plants for treating the various diseases from thousands of years.
According to the WHO (World Health Organization), most of the human beings
depend upon the traditional mode of treatment for their physical health. Rural
areas of various developed and under developing countries still depend upon the
herbal drugs in order to resolve their health issues because these traditional medi-
cines are comparatively cheaper and safer than the modern formulated medicines.
People native to the areas where such herbal plants grow have come to know by
their personal experience that these traditional therapies are very useful to main-
tain the health of both man and animals. However, mostly, they remain unaware
of the effects of these medicines in the human body. Knowledge about herbal
plants provides new approaches for the improvement of modern drugs. Various
causes like no side-effect treatment, easy accessibility, and low-cost were the rea-
sons behind their popularity. About 25% of drugs are originated either directly or
indirectly from the plants. Moreover, they are also a source of raw materials for
pharmaceutical companies and represent a large proportion in worldwide drug
market. Inhabitants of rural areas also depend on the plant-based remedy in all the
developing countries. Man used plants as well as animals in order to complete his
needs. Nowadays, millions of people, for their survival, depend on the flora and/
or fauna products even in the developed countries.
From all over the world, more than 422,000 flowering plant species exist, from
which almost 5000 species are used for medicinal purposes. Statistics say that the
value of herbal drug trade has increased annually about 12–15%. Above 80% of the
world population rely on these traditional plants for their various diseases. Herbal
products are traded globally and are major sources of global economy, and its
demand has been increasing both in developing and in developed countries. Through
the literature review, it becomes evident that above 1000 companies are now engaged
ix
x Preface
in synthesizing the herbal products and their annual revenue may exceed US$60
billion. Statistics indicate the rapid growth in herbal markets, approximately at 15%
per annum, and the number of consumers who are interested in herbal medicines
from various countries is increasing. Pakistan is a rich country in flora because of
appropriate soil condition, diverse climate, and many ecological regions. Traditional
medication system is dominant in Pakistan. Around 50,000 Hakims use herbal
plants and run their own clinics in urban and rural areas all over Pakistan. People
prefer traditional medication due to the several reasons like absence of allopathic
doctors and fear of harmful effects of modern medicine. Pakistan has a vast history
of research on herbal plants. The local communities of Pakistan have traditional
knowledge and practices of most plants belonging to the region. The traditional
knowledge about plants has been transferred from one generation to another by oral
demonstration or personal experience. The local inhabitants use native herbal plants
for their primary healthcare.
The term adulteration means mixing or replacement of original herbal drugs with
its resembled, less inferior plant which has different chemical or therapeutic proper-
ties. Substitution or adulteration in traded herbal raw material is a common practice.
Adulteration or substitution in herbal medicine is a burning issue of the herbal
industry. The reasons behind this fact are extinction of required species, deforesta-
tion, or maybe incorrect taxonomical identification. Adulteration may be accidental
or intentional. Faith in herbal method of treatment has lessened down due to adul-
teration. Even adulteration in herbal samples is major drawback behind their pro-
motion. According to the Adverse Event Report, adulteration is not only due to the
planned herb but also due to the unplanned herbs. Herbal dealers or herbalists have
adopted some methods to create such high-quality adulteration which cannot be
determined without performing microscopic examination or chemical analysis. One
of the weaknesses behind the acceptance of herbal product formation is the lack of
quality control and standardization. It is quite difficult to establish the specific qual-
ity control standards due to the complex nature and innate unpredictability of chem-
ical constituents of herbal drugs. Adulteration of marketed herbal samples remains
the severe issue in domestic as well as in export markets due to the correct botanical
identification and confused nomenclature of traded herbal drugs. The morphologi-
cal and microscopic investigation and chemical profiling and DNA barcoding of
original as well as marketed samples are the multiple parameters to measure and
prevent adulteration. So it is a need of time to develop some sensitive, more effec-
tive, classical, as well as modern approaches for the authentication of herbal drugs
as adulteration is one of the weaknesses behind the acceptance of herbal product
formation. So our project is basically based upon the awareness of adulteration not
only to the scientific community but also to the local users of the herbal drugs not
only in Pakistan but also throughout the world where these herbal drugs are used as
medicines, and our research project is also based on the parameters by which we can
prevent this issue by using classical as well as modern scientific tools. The present
book is based on the ethnomedicinal surveys of many herbal markets of Pakistan,
collection of various samples from many herbal shops used for many ailments, and
then comparison of these herbal samples by the original herbal plants collected
Preface xi
from the field. Various techniques like taxonomic, phytochemical, organoleptic, and
DNA barcoding are used to determine adulterants in the marketed herbal samples.
We have many original case studies regarding this as this adulteration practice is
very common in many countries particularly in developing countries, which can
cause many harmful effects to human’s health and humanity also. So the present
book data is a significant contribution particularly in the herbal trade markets as this
highlights those particular herbal plants which are facing adulteration problem and
also estimates the extent of adulteration and substitution of the commonly used
herbal drugs in local as well as scientific community.
First of all, I bow my head before almighty Allah with humble thanks who has
enabled me to do this hard job. My all loves for Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH), a
torch of guidance for all mankind forever.
I deem it a real privilege and source of pleasure to express my profound and
cordial attitude to my mentor “Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan” for his keen interest, sug-
gestions, guidance, encouragement, and support throughout the period of this
research work and book writing. I would like to thank him for his great understand-
ing and support during this whole period.
I offer my great regards to my coauthors for their sincere cooperation, hard work,
and throughout support. Special thanks to my parents, husband, and children for
their moral support and encouragement.
My appreciations are for my lab students and lab attendants for their hard work
and support.
Dr. Shabnum Shaheen
xiii
Contents
xv
xvi Contents
Sehrish Ramzan is a PhD scholar in Biological Sciences and a plant scientist. Her
PhD work is focused on the adulteration of herbal drugs. Till yet, she has published
ten research articles in national and international journals and is member of many
societies. Her research interests include biodiversity, plant systematics, adultera-
tion, and medicinal plants.
Farah Khan did her postdoctorate from Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
(2011). She is professor/chairperson at the Department of Botany, LCWU, Lahore.
She is a member of many research journal editorial boards. So far, she has super-
vised 62 research theses including 2 PhDs and has published 52 research papers in
impact factor, HEC, and UGC recognized international and national journals and 34
abstracts/proceedings in different international and national conferences and semi-
nars. Furthermore, she has on her record 31 poster (research) presentations and 4
monographs published by international publishers. She has won many awards
including a gold medal by IFT and PK.
xix
xx About the Authors
xxi
xxii List of Figures
Table 2.1 Some common food articles, their adulterants and their
effects on humans����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Table 3.1 Most Commonly used DNA Markers in Plants Identification��������� 32
Table 3.2 Disadvantages of Most Commonly used DNA Markers
in Plants Identification���������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Table 6.1 Standardization tools to overcome constraints in herbal drug
preparations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
Table 7.1 Some medicinal plant sources and traditional uses in Pakistan������� 66
Table 7.2 Medicinal wealth of Pakistan����������������������������������������������������������� 70
Table 7.3 Medicinal plants of the Miandam Area (Pakistan) with their
medicinal properties, and biological, ecological and
chorological characteristics�������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Table 8.1a Cinnamomum verum Presl. vs Canella winterana (L.) Gaertn.������� 86
Table 8.2a Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Eberm. vs
Cinnamomum obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees���������������������������������������� 87
Table 8.3a Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. vs
Gymnema lactiferum (L.) R.Br. ex Schult���������������������������������������� 88
Table 8.4a Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. vs Sphaeranthus africanus L.�������������� 89
Table 8.5a Artemisia maritima Linn.vs Artemisia absinthium L.���������������������� 90
Table 8.6a Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. vs Averrhoa carambola L.���������� 91
Table 8.7a Achillea millefolium L. vs Adhatoda vasica Nees���������������������������� 93
Table 8.8a Morus nigra L. vs Morus alba L.����������������������������������������������������� 95
Table 9.1 List of commonly used herbal drugs throughout the world����������� 142
xxix
List of Plates
Plate 10.1 Cinnamomum verum Presl. (a) Light green leaves with
3 mid ribs. Canella winterana (L.) Gaertn (b) Dark green
leaves with single mid ribs������������������������������������������������������������ 171
Plate 10.2 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm.
(a) Alternate leaves. Cinnamomum obtusifolium (Roxb.)
Nees. (b) Oblong to acute leaves �������������������������������������������������� 171
Plate 10.3 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. (a) ovate leaves.
Gymnema lactiferum (L.) R.Br. ex Schult. (b) ovate but
pubescent leaves���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Plate 10.4 Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. (a) Small toothed leaves.
Sphaeranthus africanus L. (b) large pubescent leaves������������������ 172
Plate 10.5 Artemisia maritima Linn. (a) dull green leaves.
Artemisia absinthium L. (b) bright green leaves���������������������������� 172
Plate 10.6 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (a) Orangish red flower.
Averrhoa carambola L. (b) Purplish pink flower�������������������������� 173
Plate 10.7 Achillea millefolium L. (a) Narrow pointed leaves.
Adhatoda vasica Nees. (b) long broad leaves�������������������������������� 173
Plate 10.8 Morus nigra L. (a) Leaves of Morus nigra. Morus alba L.
(b) Leaves of Morus alba �������������������������������������������������������������� 173
xxxi
Chapter 1
Adulteration A Global Issue
Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food or herbal product fails to meet legal
standards. Adulteration is basically found in two major fundamentals of life.
1. Adulteration in food items
2. Adulteration in herbal drugs
These substances may be other available food items or non-food items. Among
meat and meat products some of the items used to adulterate are water or ice, car-
casses, or carcasses of animals other than the animal meant to be consumed
(Gaur 2008) (Fig. 1.1).
In recent years, adulteration has become an increasing problem globally in the
food industry and for consumers. Since food adulteration is a huge concern in all
parts of the globe, there is voluminous literature on various aspects of food adul-
teration including its detection. In fact, methodological procedures of food adul-
teration detection have been reviewed extensively (Druml et al. 2015). Adulteration
and fraudulent labeling of a foodstuff’s origin costs the global food industry an
estimated $10 to $15 billion per year. Adulteration usually refers to mixing other
matter of an inferior and sometimes harmful quality with food or drink intended to
be sold. As a result of adulteration, food or drink becomes impure and unfit for
human consumption (Fig. 1.2).
The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act provides that food is “adulter-
ated” if it meets any one of the following criteria (https://www.law.cornell.edu/
uscode/text/21/342):
• it bears or contains any “poisonous or deleterious substance” which may render
it injurious to health;
• it bears or contains any added poisonous or added deleterious substance (other
than a pesticide residue, food additive, color additive, or new animal drug, which
are covered by separate provisions) that is unsafe;
• its container is composed, in whole or in part, of any poisonous or deleterious
substance which may render the contents injurious to health;
• or it bears or contains a pesticide chemical residue that is unsafe. (Note: The
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes tolerances for
pesticide residues in foods, which are enforced by the FDA).
Food also meets the definition of adulteration if:
• it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe food additive;
• it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe new animal drug;
• it is, or it bears or contains, an unsafe colour additive;
• it consists, in whole or in part, of “any filthy, putrid, or decomposed substance”
or is otherwise unfit for food;
• or it has been prepared, packed, or held under unsanitary conditions (insect,
rodent, or bird infestation) whereby it may have become contaminated with filth
or rendered injurious to health.
Further, food is considered adulterated if:
• it has been irradiated and the irradiation processing was not done in conformity
with a regulation permitting irradiation of the food in question (the FDA has
approved irradiation of a number of foods, including refrigerated or frozen
uncooked meat, fresh or frozen uncooked poultry, and seeds for sprouting
(Adullah and Rehbein 2014).
• it contains a dietary ingredient that presents a significant or unreasonable risk of
illness or injury under the conditions of use recommended in labeling (for exam-
ple, foods or dietary supplements containing aristolochic acids, which have been
linked to kidney failure, have been banned (21 USC §331, Federal Food, Drug,
and Cosmetic Act (Grossman 2008);
• a valuable constituent has been omitted in whole or in part or replaced with
another substance; damage or inferiority has been concealed in any manner; or a
substance has been added to increase the product’s bulk or weight, reduce its
quality or strength, or make it appear of greater value than it is (this is “economic
adulteration”);
• or it is offered for import into the United States and is a food that has previously
been refused admission, unless the person reoffering the food establishes that it
is in compliance with U.S. law (Fig. 1.3).
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civilised world, and surprise can hardly be felt when we remember
that a sentence of mutilation was carried out in England little more
than 300 years ago. Camden’s Annals for the year 1581 contain
an account of the mutilation of one Stubbs, for publishing an
attack upon Queen Elizabeth’s proposed marriage with the Duke
of Alençon. The historian was an eyewitness of the scene, which
has been utilised by Sir Walter Scott in the Fortunes of Nigel,
chap. xiii.
[38]A Moorish beehive is made from the bark of the cork-tree.
In the summer months, when the sap rises, a vertical incision
about four feet long is made through the cork to the inner bark,
and the part to be removed, having been cut above and below, is
hammered with a heavy mallet. The cork is separated from the
stem of the tree, and being elastic, is taken off entire. Two circular
pieces of cork are inserted in the orifices at each end and
fastened with wooden pegs. The bees close with wax the cracks
which may appear. The hive is warm, and keeps out both wet and
sun.
[39]Mr. Reade was Consul, Mr. Green Private Secretary. The
latter, as Sir William Kirby Green, succeeded Sir John Hay as
Minister to the Court of Morocco in 1886.
[40]Jebel Kebír, now known as ‘The Hill.’
[41]These were troops from the seat of war not yet disbanded.
The Sultan evidently desired to impress Mr. Hay with the strength
of his army.
[42]The duties on the export of wheat and barley were never
added to those noted above, in spite of Sir John’s constant and
unceasing endeavours.
[43]In allusion to the manner in which, in ancient times, Jews
and Christians in Morocco were put to death. The victims were
suspended by large iron hooks through the flesh of their backs;
one of these hooks was still to be seen on a gate of the city of
Marákesh in 1846; or a spit was run through their bodies, and
they remained transfixed till death put an end to their tortures.
[44]The late Sultan Sid Mohammed, the descendant of Sultan
Mulai Ahmed, was a good mathematician, and also very clever as
a mechanist. He mended and cleaned his own watches. When I
presented H.M. with a breech-loading gun, and at his request
took it and the lock to pieces, I bungled in putting them together.
H.M., taking the gun from me, at once re-adjusted it.—J. H. D. H.
[45]On the site now occupied by the chief mosque.
[46]Pauper, or holy man.
[47]A delicate paste, partaking of the nature of Italian paste,
but round in form, the best being no larger than dust shot.
[48]Ovis musimon.
[49]Cedrus Atlantica and Callitris quadrivalvis.
[50]Yet, according to Marmol, it may be inferred that by this
pass the ‘Almoravides’ entered Western Barbary from Numidia.
[51]On this, as on all his other Missions, the members of Sir
John Hay’s family and his ‘private friends’ were his personal
guests, the ‘officials’ travelled at the expense of Government.
[52]Sultan Mulai Hassan.
[53]A white but much sunburnt Moorish servant of Sir J. H. D.
H.
[54]Though this permission was then granted, the laying of the
cable was delayed until 1886-87.
[55]His son, then Consul at Mogador.
[56]The ‘arum arisarum,’ called ‘yerna’ by the Moors, is used
by the inhabitants of Western Barbary as an article of food in
times of great scarcity, though it is held by them to be poisonous
without careful preparation. The tubers when collected are cut up
in small pieces, which they wash in many waters and then steam,
as they do their ‘siksu,’ after which they pound them into meal, of
which they make cakes, mixed if possible with a little ‘dra’ (millet)
meal. They also make this arum meal into a kind of porridge. This
food appears to contain few nourishing qualities, and those who
are reduced to live on it suffer much in health.
[57]Journal of Society for Psychical Research, March, 1891, p.
40.
[58]Mashallah.
[59]The loan referred to was that raised in England in 1862 to
enable the Sultan to pay the Spanish war indemnity. See chapter
xv. p. 218.
[60]Then Spanish Minister in Morocco.
[61]Sheríf of Wazan.
[62]Though Ordega acknowledged that the dead Moor had
received two hundred lashes.
[63]Moorish Minister for Foreign Affairs.
[64]German Minister.
[65]‘Mellah,’ the Jewish quarter in all Moorish towns.
[66]Baba, father.
[67]A large covert a short distance off.
[68]Evil Genius.
[69]Moors have a superstition that in hunting the lion the man
who first reports having seen the ‘S’ba’ (lion), and mentions the
word, will be the first victim.
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