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Springer Tracts in Modern Physics 284
Roman Kogler
Advances
in Jet
Substructure
at the LHC
Algorithms, Measurements and
Searches for New Physical Phenomena
Springer Tracts in Modern Physics
Volume 284
Series Editors
Mishkatul Bhattacharya, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA
Yan Chen, Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Atsushi Fujimori, Department of Physics, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Mathias Getzlaff, Institute of Applied Physics, University of Düsseldorf,
Düsseldorf, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Thomas Mannel, Emmy Noether Campus, Universität Siegen, Siegen,
Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Eduardo Mucciolo, Department of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
FL, USA
William C. Stwalley, Department of Physics, University of Connecticut, Storrs,
USA
Jianke Yang, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Vermont,
Burlington, VT, USA
Springer Tracts in Modern Physics provides comprehensive and critical reviews of
topics of current interest in physics. The following fields are emphasized:
– Particle and Nuclear Physics
– Condensed Matter Physics
– Light Matter Interaction
– Atomic and Molecular Physics
Suitable reviews of other fields can also be accepted. The Editors encourage
prospective authors to correspond with them in advance of submitting a manuscript.
For reviews of topics belonging to the above mentioned fields, they should address
the responsible Editor as listed in “Contact the Editors”.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/426

Roman Kogler
Advances in Jet Substructure

at the LHC
Algorithms, Measurements and Searches
for New Physical Phenomena
Roman Kogler
Institute for Experimental Physics
University of Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
ISSN 0081-3869 ISSN 1615-0430 (electronic)

Springer Tracts in Modern Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-72857-1 ISBN 978-3-030-72858-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72858-8
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to Jennifer, Louis and Linda.
Without you none of this would matter.
Preface
This book has been written as part of my habilitation at the University of Hamburg.
It is intended to serve graduate students and researchers to get familiar with the state-
of-the-art of jet substructure at the LHC. I have attempted to provide enough details
such that this book can serve as a work of reference for experienced researchers as
well.
The versatility of this branch of particle physics is reflected in multi-faceted
developments of algorithms and their numerous applications in measurements and
searches for new phenomena. While this versatility is the reason for the success
of this field, the inexperienced researcher may feel lost when first exposed to this
wealth of information. I advise researchers starting in this area to read the whole
book without stopping at passages which may not be immediately clear at first. After
having obtained a good overview of the possibilities jet substructure methods offer,
re-reading the book will help to deepen the knowledge and reinforce connections.
I hope that the level of detail given will help more experienced researchers to find
solutions to their problems or connections to other areas. I have tried to provide
as many relevant references as possible, to aid the interested reader in finding all
information needed to delve deeply into every topic discussed in this book.
My scientific work, leading to this book, would not have been possible without the
support of Prof. Johannes Haller (University of Hamburg), who has encouraged me to
proceed with my habilitation at the Institute for Experimental Physics. I am grateful
to Dr. Alberto Orso Maria Iorio (INFN Napoli), who has led the physics analysis
group “Beyond Two Generations” within the CMS Collaboration together with me
from 2017 to 2019. The work with this group has inspired me and led to exciting
new developments. I would also like to thank my CMS collaborators for the excellent
working atmosphere and stimulating environment. I have profited from the scien-
tific exchange at numerous conferences and workshops, most notably at the annual
BOOST conference (International Workshop on Boosted Object Phenomenology,
Reconstruction and Searches in HEP).
I am thankful for financial support by the German Bundesministerium für Bildung
und Forschung (BMBF) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German
Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy—EXC 2121 “Quantum
Universe”. I am grateful to Prof. Thomas Müller (KIT Karlsruhe) for making the
vii
viii Preface
contact with Springer, initiating that this document could be published as part of the
“Springer Tracts in Modern Physics” and to the publisher for the professional partner-
ship when creating this book. I am indebted to Prof. Johannes Haller, Prof. Michael
Spannowsky (IPPP and the University of Durham), Dr. Arne Reimers (University of
Zürich), Dr. Dennis Schwarz (HEPHY Vienna), Dr. Anna Benecke (UC Louvain)
and Andrea Malara (University of Hamburg) for proof-reading the book.
Hamburg, Germany Roman Kogler

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Phenomenology of Jet Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Introduction to Jet Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Heavy Particle Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 W Boson Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Z Boson Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Higgs Boson Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.5 Top Quark Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.6 Kinematic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.7 Kinematics of Vector and Higgs Boson Decays . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.8 Kinematics of Top Quark Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Jet Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 Sequential Clustering Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Variable R Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 XCone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.4 The Georgi Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Identifying Particle Decays with Jet Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.1 Jet Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 Angularities and Energy Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.3 Jet Grooming and N-Prong Taggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4.4 Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.5 Pileup Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 (Semi-)Analytical Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.1 Perturbative Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 Non-perturbative Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6 Event Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.1 Parton Distribution Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.2 Matrix Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.3 Parton Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.4 Matching Matrix Elements to Parton Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
ix
x Contents
2.6.5 Multiple Parton Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.6.6 Hadronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.7 Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3 Jet Substructure at the LHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 ATLAS and CMS Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Jet Reconstruction and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3 Pileup Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 Mitigation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.2 Performance Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Grooming Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Jet Substructure Tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.1 Quark/Gluon Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5.2 Vector Boson Tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5.3 Higgs Boson Tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5.4 Top Tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.5.5 Machine Learning Taggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 Standard Model Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1 Measurements of Jet Substructure Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1.1 Jet Mass of Light Flavour and Gluon Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1.2 Jet Mass of W and Z Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.1.3 Jet Mass of Top Quark Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.1.4 Jet Substructure in Light Flavour and Gluon Jets . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.1.5 Jet Substructure in W and Top Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Measurements Using Jet Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2.1 Electroweak Boson Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2.2 Higgs Boson Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2.3 Top Quark Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5 Direct Searches for New Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1 Diboson Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.1.1 WW, WZ and ZZ Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.1.2 WH and ZH Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.3 HH Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1.4 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1.5 V γ and H γ Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2 Resonances Coupling to Third Generation Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.1 tt Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2.2 tb Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3 Vector-Like Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3.1 Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3.2 Single Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.3.3 Production Through Resonance Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4 Excited Third Generation Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5 Dark Matter and Mono-X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Contents xi
5.6 Light Resonances Coupling to Quarks or Gluons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.7 Supersymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.8 Leptoquarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Acronyms
ANN Artificial neural network

aNNNLO Approximate next-to-next-to-next-to-leading-order
AO Angular ordering
BDT Boosted decision tree
BEH Brout-Englert-Higgs
BEST Boosted event shape tagger
BSM Beyond the standard model
CA Cambridge/Aachen
CHS Charged hadron subtraction
CL Confidence level
CM Centre-of-mass
CMSTT CMS top tagger
CNN Convoluted neural network
CR Control region
DDT Designed decorrelated tagger
DNN Deep neural network
ECAL Electromagnetic calorimeter
ECF Energy correlation function
EFP Energy flow polynomial
EM Electromagnetic
EMD Energy mover’s distance
EW Electroweak
FSR Final state radiation
ggF Gluon-gluon fusion
HCAL Hadronic calorimeter
HL-LHC High luminosity LHC
HOTVR Heavy object tagger with variable R
HP High purity
HTT HEPTopTagger
HVT Heavy-vector triplet
IRC Infrared and collinear
ISR Initial state radiation
xiii
xiv Acronyms
JER Jet energy resolution

JES Jet energy scale
JMR Jet mass resolution
JMS Jet mass scale
LAR Liquid Argon
LC Light cone
LCW Local cell weighting
LHC Large Hadron Collider
LL Leading logarithmic
LO Leading order
LP Low purity
LQ Leptoquark
LSP Lightest supersymmetric particle
LV Leading vertex
MB Minimum-bias
MD Mass-decorrelated
MDT Mass drop tagger
ML Machine learning
MLP Multilayer perceptron
mMDT Modified mass drop tagger
MPI Multiple parton interaction
MPV Most probable value
NLL Next-to-leading-logarithmic
NLO Next-to-leading order
NN Neural network
NNLL Next-to-next-to-leading-logarithmic
NNLO Next-to-next-to-leading-order
PDF Parton distribution function
PDG Particle Data Group
PF Particle flow
pQCD Perturbative quantum chromodynamics
PUPPI Pileup per particle identification
QCD Quantum chromodynamics
QED Quantum electrodynamics
RG Renormalisation group
RNN Recurrent neural network
ROC Receiver operating characteristic
RPV R-parity violating
SCET Soft-collinear effective theory
SD Shower deconstruction
SISCone Seedless infrared-safe cone
SM Standard model (of particle physics)
SR Signal region
SUSY Supersymmetry
TCC Track-CaloClusters
Acronyms xv
TRT Transition radiation tracking

UFO Unified flow object
VBF Vector-boson fusion
VLQ Vector-like quark
VR Variable R
WIMP Weakly interacting massive particle
WTA Winner-takes-all
XCone Exclusive cone
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract The standard model of particle physics is a remarkably successful theory.

It has been tested by countless measurements and has withstood all attempts at its
falsification. Jet substructure techniques offer new possibilities to test this exceptional
theory and search for unknown effects.
The standard model (SM) of particle physics is one of the most successful theories
humankind has developed. Its core elements have been formulated in the 1960–70s
to explain phenomena at energy scales of a few GeV. Nowadays, more than 50 years
later, the SM has been probed by many experiments and numerous measurements
spanning energy ranges from GeV to multiple TeV. Its validity has been confirmed in
each of these measurements, with cross sections spanning many orders of magnitude.
The SM has also proven to be extremely successful in predicting new particles and
processes, spectacular discoveries accompany its development.
In our modern picture, the SM of particle physics is governed by the Lagrange
density LSM with left-handed doublets ψ L and right-handed singlets ψ R of the quark
and lepton fields. It is one of the largest successes in science that this theory could be
devised by following symmetry considerations only. This leads to a structure of LSM
which is remarkably plain, but leads to a vast phenomenology. Since any description
of nature is only a valid physical theory if it can be falsified, the success of the SM
is founded on its predictions of observable processes.
With the start of data acquisition at the CERN LHC in 2010, a new era of particle
physics has begun. The energy range of particle collisions has been extended by
about an order of magnitude relative to earlier experiments. In conjunction with a
dataset of unprecedented size, this has led to a wealth of measurements and searches
exploring regions not accessible before. A tremendous experimental effort by the
ATLAS and CMS Collaborations has climaxed in the last addition to the SM. The
Higgs boson H has been discovered in 2012 [1, 2], about 50 years after the pre-
diction of its existence. So far, all studies of this new particle suggest that it has
the properties predicted by the minimal version of the Brout-Englert-Higgs (BEH)
[3–5] mechanism incorporated in the SM [6–10]. The experimental programme
at the LHC has also brought forth numerous measurements of SM processes and
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

R. Kogler, Advances in Jet Substructure at the LHC, Springer Tracts
in Modern Physics 284, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72858-8_1
2 1 Introduction
precision measurements of fundamental parameters of the theory. Taken together,

this has resulted in SM consistency tests with remarkable precision, confirming the
validity of the theory up to scales probed by the LHC. There is an ever increasing
degree of scientific confidence in the SM.
While the SM is exceptionally successful, no explanation exists for a variety of
fundamental questions. These include the unlikeness of the Higgs boson mass from
its naive quantum-mechanical expectation, the nature of dark matter, the masses of
neutrinos, the number of fermion generations, to name a few. Especially intriguing
is the question of the nature of the Higgs boson and the dynamics of the underlying
scalar field, responsible for the spontaneous electroweak (EW) symmetry breaking.
Central to this mechanism is the top quark, the SM√particle with the largest coupling
to the Higgs field. With its centre-of-mass energy s = 13 TeV, the LHC is the ideal
machine to study these questions and probe the SM at the EW scale v 246 GeV
and above.
Broadly, there exist three different approaches to probe for effects from unknown
physics: direct searches, precision measurements and measurements of very rare
processes. At the LHC, direct searches have been focussing on finding traces of
particles predicted by beyond the standard model (BSM) theories, often with very
specific signatures. So far, these direct searches have not found any evidence for
BSM effects, even though hundreds of analyses have been carried out [11]. Precision
measurements allow for the possibility to find small deviations from SM expecta-
tions, giving indirect hints of BSM effects. Important milestones of the experimental
programme at the LHC are precision measurements of Higgs boson properties, such
as its mass, its coupling to vector bosons and fermions, and its parity. The programme
also includes measurements of the W boson mass, the top quark mass, the effective
weak mixing angle and cross sections of W , Z and jet production. Taken together,
these measurements have the potential to reveal unknown effects through compar-
isons with precision calculations and global fits of SM parameters [12–16]. The last
possibility, the observation of very rare processes, allows to probe for BSM physics
through quantum corrections entering the calculations of rare decays or production
mechanisms. Examples are B(s) 0
→ μ+ μ− [17, 18], four-top [19] or di-Higgs [20]
production at the LHC.
With the end of the data acquisition period from the end of 2015–2018, called
Run 2, LHC analyses are being completed using the full 13 TeV data corresponding
to about 140 fb−1 . It becomes apparent that none of the three approaches has resulted
in evidence for unknown effects. In this sense, particle physics at the LHC is at a
crossroads. The next data acquisition period of the LHC experiments, Run 3 , is
planned to start in 2022 and continue until the end of 2025. The total amount of
data collected by the end of 2024 will correspond to about 300 fb−1 . However, the
sensitivity of direct searches for BSM effects improves only little when doubling the
amount of data. In terms of discovery significance, the mass reach improves only by
10–20% for analyses dominated by the statistical precision of the data and even less
for analyses dominated by systematic uncertainties. Precision measurements face the
1 Introduction 3
difficulty of accurately understanding even small experimental effects and correctly

estimating corresponding systematic uncertainties, a process which takes years to
complete due to the complexity of the LHC experiments.
This leaves three choices for our immediate hopes to find BSM effects: either
measure rare processes, becoming accessible only now with the large amount of
data, find novel ways to perform searches for BSM effects, or devise complementary
strategies for precision measurements. This book describes techniques related to the
internal structure of jets, offering the possibility to advance on all three of these
topics. The versatility of jet substructure techniques results from the presence of jets
in virtually every process in high energy pp collisions. The substructure of these
jets contains information about their origin and the underlying dynamics. For exam-
ple, jet substructure allows to distinguish quark from gluon jets, remove the effects
from uncorrelated radiation from multiple simultaneous pp collisions, identify jets
originating from collimated decays of W , Z , H bosons or top quarks, or reduce
the influence of non-perturbative effects and thus improve the precision of measure-
ments. Since either one or more of these aspects are important for every analysis
of LHC data, jet substructure techniques have percolated into all physics analysis
groups of the ATLAS and CMS Collaborations.1 The physics of jet substructure has
enhanced the physics potential of the LHC and will continue to do so in the years to
come.
The aim of this book is to review the most important developments in the field
of jet substructure from an experimentalists’ point of view. This encompasses theo-
retical and algorithmic developments, analytic calculations, advances in modelling,
experimental studies of substructure observables and commissioning of new tools,
measurements of substructure observables, measurements making use of them, as
well as direct searches for BSM effects with jet substructure. It is my intention to
put these developments into a larger context, showing the relevance of this relatively
young field to particle physics as a whole. The versatility of jet substructure leads
from scientific gains in precision studies of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), to
the determination of fundamental parameters of the SM, to searches for new physical
phenomena at the highest energy scales. If there are BSM effects observable at the
LHC, jet substructure techniques will play an important role to discover them.2
1 Jet substructure has also become a field of study in heavy ion collisions, which are not discussed
in this book.
2 While some aspects of LHC physics may not have direct connections to jet substructure techniques,
the advancements in this field result in new developments of reconstruction algorithms, influencing
all stages of data analyses.
4 1 Introduction
This book summarises the status of this field until about the end of 2020. Regular
meetings of theorists and experimentalists in the context of the BOOST conference
series,3 have led to a fruitful exchange, triggering developments that shaped the field.
While several publications and studies on jet substructure existed already prior to the
first BOOST conference, it marks the beginning of an exciting scientific undertaking.
The three reports from this conference series provide valuable material [21–23]. The
interested reader is also referred to recent comprehensive reviews on theoretical
[24, 25] and experimental [26] aspects of jet substructure.
3 Conferences in this series are dedicated to the physics of jet substructure, and are called Interna-
tional Workshops on Boosted Object Phenomenology, Reconstruction and Searches in HEP. They
are organised annually, where the first one was held in 2009 at the SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory at Menlo Park (USA).
Chapter 2
Phenomenology of Jet Substructure
Abstract Jet substructure techniques are devised to analyse the internal radiation
pattern of jets, thereby identifying their origin or revealing the dynamics of the strong
force. These techniques are intricately connected with jet finding algorithms, either
by modifying the clustering process, reversing it, or by storing information during
the clustering. In this chapter, an overview is given of the currently known methods,
algorithms and observables. The kinematics of heavy particle decays is discussed in
detail to gain an understanding how individual jets can capture the full information
from these decays. Theoretical methods used to calculate jet substructure observables
are introduced, as well as models to simulate the rich substructure of jets.
2.1 Introduction to Jet Substructure
Jets are collimated sprays of particles, produced in abundance in high energy particle
collisions.1 They are ubiquitous in particle collider experiments and indispensable
in studies of the underlying dynamics and interactions. Jets have played a central
role in the discovery and property measurements of many fundamental particles
like the gluon (g) [27–30] and the top quark (t) [31, 32]. They have provided key
insights into the structure of the strong force and were indispensable in the study
of H boson couplings to third-generation quarks [33–36]. Because of their large
production rate at the LHC, jets feature prominently in searches for new particles
and precision measurements of SM properties. However, important information on
the underlying particle dynamics is not only carried by the four-momenta of jets, but
also by their internal structure. Investigations of this jet substructure reveal a wealth
of physical processes and pose interesting theoretical and experimental challenges.
While relatively young, the field of jet substructure has become an important field
of research over the last decade and will gain further importance with the future data
taking periods at the LHC.
1 The text in this subsection has been taken from [26] and has been written by the author. It has been
adjusted to fit this book.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 5

R. Kogler, Advances in Jet Substructure at the LHC, Springer Tracts
in Modern Physics 284, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72858-8_2
6 2 Phenomenology of Jet Substructure
With the advent of the LHC it was realised that decays of hypothetical, very heavy
resonances can lead to highly Lorentz-boosted heavy SM particles, W , Z , H bosons
and top quarks [37–41]. Since these particles feature the largest branching fractions
into hadrons, final states with fully-hadronic decays have high sensitivity in LHC
analyses. The large boost leads to very collimated decays, where particle masses of
O(100) GeV are not large enough for the outgoing quarks to be sufficiently separated
relative to each other to be resolved into individual jets. It is the small opening angle
between the decay products that leads to fully-merged particle decays. This chapter
describes techniques for measuring jets as proxies for hadronic decays of W , Z , H
bosons and top quarks, as well as the discrimination of quark and gluon jets.
Since the first evidence for jets in e+ e− collisions at SPEAR [42], jets have had a
significant impact on the research programme of every particle collider since DORIS
through the LHC, and beyond to the design of future colliders. There is no single,
universal definition of a jet—which particles belong to a jet depend on the algorithm
used to combine particles into jets. In the beginning of jets from the mid 1970’s,
there were no jet clustering algorithms; information from the whole event was used
instead of localised energy flows. The sphericity tensor [43] was typically used to
obtain a jet axis for events with a back-to-back dijet topology. Quantitative statements
about data were obtained from event shapes, like the sphericity or thrust [44–46].
Sphericity is a measure for the isotropy of the particles produced and thrust is a
measure of the directed energy flow along an axis that maximises this flow in an
event. These event shapes can be used to characterise how compatible events are
with the assumption of two oppositely directed, collimated jets. A clear theoretical
advantage of these event shapes is that they are calculable in perturbative Quantum
Chromodynamics (pQCD). This was realised early on and the calculability, together
with experimental data, ultimately resulted√in the confirmation of the parton model
and, with data from experiments at higher s, the discovery of the gluon in three jet
events at PETRA [27–30].
When studying the dynamics of quark and gluon scattering, it became necessary
to perform quantitative analyses and calculations that go beyond event shapes. For
these to be possible, it was realised that it is mandatory to define a deterministic
set of rules on how particles are combined into jets. A schematic drawing depicting
this problem is shown in Fig. 2.1. While the sphericity axis is uniquely defined and
easily calculable, the direction and magnitude of the jet axes depend on which par-
ticles should be combined into a given jet, and how the particles are combined to
obtain the axes. An intuitive definition for a jet algorithm consists of summing the
momenta of all particles within a cone with fixed size [47]. Naive cone algorithms
are not infrared and collinear (IRC) safe—the requirement that the resulting jets be
insensitive to arbitrarily low energy particles and collinear splittings. IRC safety is a
useful theoretical requirement for making calculations in pQCD and is also a con-
venient language for describing the experimental robustness to noise and detector
granularity.
There exist many variants of cone-type algorithms, developed in the attempt to
solve the IRC unsafety of naive cone jet algorithms. This stems from the necessity of
an initial axis, which was eventually solved with the formulation of the SISCone algo-
2.1 Introduction to Jet Substructure 7
Fig. 2.1 Schematic drawing

of particles emerging from
the hard scattering of a high
energy particle collision. The
sphericity axis is shown as
dashed line. Published in
[26]
rithm [48]. Although this algorithm is IRC safe, it is not widely used today because
it was found that sequential recombination algorithms have several advantages over
cone-type algorithms. First used by the JADE Collaboration [49, 50], the initial
version of a recombination algorithm defined for e+ e− collisions was improved in
several steps [51, 52], to finally arrive at the longitudinally-invariant kT -clustering
algorithm for hadron-hadron collisions [53, 54]. A generalisation of this algorithm
leads to three classes, distinct only by the sign of the exponent k of the transverse
momentum pT,i in the inter-particle distance measure di j . The original kT algorithm,
with k = 1, clusters soft and collinear particles first, the Cambridge/Aachen algo-
rithm (CA) [55, 56], with k = 0, prioritises particles in the clustering solely by their
angular proximity, and the anti-kT algorithm [57], with k = −1, combines the hardest
particles first. The size of the catchment area of a jet is regulated by the jet distance
parameter R, often referred to as jet radius. The proposal of the latter algorithm is
also responsible for the disappearance of cone-type algorithms in experimental stud-
ies. When it was realised that the anti-kT algorithm results in nearly perfect conical
jets the LHC collaborations made a transition to this algorithm. Today, almost all
studies involving jets performed at the LHC use this algorithm. Even when analysing
the substructure of jets with advanced grooming or tagging techniques, the initial
step often consists of building an ensemble of particles, clustered with the anti-kT
algorithm.
So far, it has not been specified what the term particle refers to when using
particles as input to jet clustering. In fact, in jet physics, the term particle is often used
generically for different sorts of objects, whose ensemble comprises the input to a
given jet algorithm. Three different ensembles are commonly used. The partonic final
state includes all particles resulting from the parton shower before the hadronisation
starts (which is unphysical). This also include photons when these were created in
the hard interaction or emitted from charged particles during the parton shower.
The ensemble on the particle level, also called hadron level, consists of hadrons
and their decay products, including photons and leptons. The detector level input
consists of calorimeter clusters, reconstructed particle tracks or combinations thereof.

This ensemble is the only one available in real collision data recorded by particle
physics experiments. Jet algorithms using these different ensembles as input result
in parton, particle or detector level jets, respectively. Ideally, in any given event,
the jets obtained on parton, particle and detector level are as similar as possible.
Realistically, agreement can not be achieved, but a close correspondence ensures the
possibility to study the underlying partonic dynamics with the use of jets. It is this
correspondence, paired with calculability in pQCD, which makes jets indispensable
tools at high energy particle colliders. For a theoretical introduction to jets, see [24,
25, 58, 59].
Soon after their discovery, it was realised that not only the kinematics of jets
but also their internal structure carry information. The parton shower and subsequent
hadronisation leads to a characteristic multiplicity, as well as angular and momentum
distributions of hadrons inside jets, which depend on the parton that initiated the
shower. For example, the probability of a q → qg splitting is proportional to the
colour factor C F = 4/3 at leading order in QCD, while the probability of g → gg
is proportional to C A = 3. The larger value of C A results in a larger multiplicity
of hadrons and in broader jets. This lead to the suggestion of measuring jet shapes,
defined as the fractional transverse momentum profile of particles within a concentric
inner cone, smaller than the jet cone of the original jet, and pointed to their usefulness
for distinguishing quark from gluon jets [60]. Experimental results from LEP [61–
64], Tevatron [65, 66] and HERA [67–69] confirmed this and can be considered the
starting point of physics with jet substructure in particle physics.
At the LHC, jet substructure is used to identify highly boosted heavy SM particles
in fully hadronic decays, as well as light quark and gluon jets. An example of a jet
with substructure from a two-prong decay is shown schematically in Fig. 2.2. The
difficulty lies in identifying the underlying process that led to the final state, for
example distinguishing W → qq , Z → qq or H → bb from QCD splittings like
q → qg, g → gg or g → qq. Numerous algorithms have been suggested to identify
specific decays, which are part of a class of jet substructure taggers. The idea behind
many of these algorithms is related to event shapes in e+ e− collisions. By defining
N axes within a jet, it is possible to check for the compatibility of a fully-merged N -
prong decay. How these axes are found typically differs from algorithm to algorithm,
and some techniques do not even explicitly require axes. Popular concepts are an
Fig. 2.2 Schematic drawing

of particles clustered into a
single jet. Two subjet axes
are shown as dashed lines.
Published in [26]
2.1 Introduction to Jet Substructure 9
exclusive jet clustering using the particles inside a jet as input, or the maximisation
of the projection of the jet constituents’ momenta onto the desired number of axes,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
Since the opening angle between the quarks depends on the momentum of the
parent particle and its mass, larger jets (R ∼ 1) than normally employed in LHC
analyses (R ∼ 0.4) are used to reconstruct boosted heavy particle decays. A larger
distance parameter is chosen to capture the full kinematics of the decay already
at moderate momenta of 200–400 GeV. The drawback of jets with large areas is
unwanted contributions from the underlying event and from multiple proton-proton
collisions in the same or adjacent bunch crossings (pileup). These lead to a worsening
of the resolution in quantities used to identify the substructure of jets, like the jet
mass. Jet grooming and pileup removal algorithms have been developed to mitigate
these effects. Grooming algorithms aim at removing soft and wide-angle radiation,
therefore not only reducing the effects from the underlying event but also reducing the
sensitivity to the details of fragmentation. Pileup removal algorithms are designed to
identify and subtract contributions from a different interaction vertex, by eliminating
uncorrelated radiation from jets. A combination of these techniques often leads to
the best overall performance and it is an ongoing effort to understand the interplay
of pileup removal, grooming and tagging algorithms.
The theoretical and algorithmic developments have been made possible thanks to
advances in experimental methods. New technologies, like silicon pixel detectors,
high-resolution tracking detectors in conjunction with strong magnetic fields, highly
granular calorimeters with low electronic noise and lightweight materials for detec-
tor structures with little dead material inside the active detector volume have enabled
increasingly precise jet measurements and studies of internal jet structure. Modern
particle detectors at the LHC are equipped with many layers of high-resolution track-
ing detectors, strong and very homogeneous magnetic fields and finely segmented
calorimeters with an excellent energy resolution. With these technologies, the ATLAS
and CMS detectors2 are equipped to track and reconstruct individual particles pro-
duced in high energy collisions. On average about 60% of a jet’s momentum is
carried by charged hadrons, photons account for about 25% of the total jet momen-
tum and the remaining 15% can be attributed to long-lived neutral hadrons [70].
With increasing jet energy, the particle multiplicity increases, and also the fraction
of the jet’s momentum carried by soft particles. For example, on average 50% of the
momentum of a 50 GeV jet is carried by particles with a momentum less than 5%
of the jet’s momentum. It is therefore crucial to ensure that particles with energies
down to O(100 MeV) can be reconstructed in order to retain the full information on
a jet’s kinematics and internal structure.
As important as the reconstruction of the total jet energy is the measurement of the
jet constituent multiplicity and their angular distributions. While charged particles
2 The ALICE and LHCb detectors are also well-equipped to perform jet substructure studies. While
these experiments do not have access to boosted massive particles due to their data rate (ALICE)
or acceptance (LHCb), they are performing many interesting QCD studies with jet substructure.
This review will be focused on ATLAS and CMS, but the future of jet substructure will involve key
contributions from all four LHC experiments.
can be efficiently reconstructed as tracks, neutral particles only develop showers in

the calorimeters and the possibility to resolve two separate showers depends on the
granularity of the calorimeter and the lateral shower development. Hence, it becomes
more difficult to separate two adjacent particles in dense environments, such as high
momentum jets, and the situation is aggravated by the presence of hadronic showers
from charged hadrons. Often it is impossible to build one calorimeter cluster per
neutral particle. A way to improve the angular resolution in jet substructure analyses
is to combine measurements from the tracking detectors and calorimeters. Using
combined detector measurements as input to jet algorithms, for example using a
particle flow approach [71–75], results in improved resolutions of jet substructure
observables, compared to using only tracks or only calorimeter clusters.
An important aspect of experimental analyses at the LHC is the calibration of jets,
necessitated by the non-compensating nature of hadron calorimeters, suppression of
electronic noise, tracking inefficiencies, dead material in front of calorimeters, the
influence of pileup and other effects. While the calibration of the total jet energy scale
is an important aspect in all analyses using jets, the precise knowledge of the jet mass
scale and the detector response to jet substructure observables and jet tagging algo-
rithms is specific to jet substructure analyses. Calibrating the jet energy scale results
in a change of the magnitude of the jet’s four-momentum, where the jet mass scale
comprises an additional degree of freedom that can not be constrained by the typi-
cal methods of balancing a jet with a well-calibrated reference object. The jet mass
scale is usually calibrated using jets from fully-merged, highly boosted W → qq
decays, facilitating a calibration of the peak position in the jet mass distribution.
Measurements of the jet mass distribution from light quark and gluon jets, as well
as from fully-hadronic highly-boosted W , Z and t decays allow for precise tests of
the modelling of perturbative and non-perturbative effects in jet production. Similar
measurements can also be used to study the detector response to jet substructure
observables and their modelling in simulation. A mis-modelling of variables used
for tagging, either in the detector simulation or on the level of the underlying physics,
can result in a wrong estimation of the tagging efficiency or the misidentification rate,
with important consequences for measurements. In order to overcome this limita-
tion, measurements of tagging efficiencies and misidentification rates are performed
in samples enriched with the particle decays in question. While these measurements
do not help to understand the cause of the mis-modelling or to improve the descrip-
tion of jet substructure distributions, they can be used to correct the efficiencies in
simulation. It is these measurements that have enabled the use of jet substructure tag-
gers in numerous physics analyses since the beginning of data taking at the LHC. The
increased statistical precision from a data sample corresponding to about 150 fb−1
per experiment at a centre-of-mass energy of 13 TeV can now be used to improve our
understanding of the detector response to jet substructure algorithms, the underlying
physics and the performance differences of taggers.
2.2 General Considerations 11
2.2 General Considerations
2.2.1 Heavy Particle Decays
Detailed knowledge of the decay properties of heavy particles in the SM is crucial

for devising and understanding jet substructure applications. Here and elsewhere,
heavy refers to masses at the order of the W boson mass or higher. Thus, heavy SM
particles refer to the electroweak gauge bosons W and Z , the Higgs boson H , and
the top quark t.
All of these particles have hadronic and leptonic decay modes. The top quark is
the only fermion in this list and takes a special role, since its decay is governed by the
W boson decay, t → W b. The boson decays in the SM are described by two-body
kinematics,3 while the top quark features a three-body decay. However, since in this
case the narrow width approximation for the W boson is accurate with sufficient
precision, the top quark decay can be treated as two subsequent two-body decays.
Thetotal width of a particle can be expressed as a sum over all partial widths,
= i i . This relation can be used to express the branching fraction B X →Y of a
particle X to final state Y , i.e. the probability that the particle decays into a given
final state, which is given by
X →Y
B X →Y = . (2.1)

For all heavy SM particles, the largest branching fraction is given for hadronic
decays, B X →had , making the hadronic decay channel indispensable in searches for
new physics, but also for SM measurements.
The lifetime τ of a particle is given by the inverse of the total width, τ = 1/ .
The heavy SM particles have lifetimes smaller than O(10−20 s), making all decays
prompt (i.e. not observable in an experimental setup) and thus their presence can be
inferred only from the measurement of the decay particles.
2.2.2 W Boson Decay
The W boson has been discovered in 1983 by the UA1 and UA2 experiments at
CERN [76, 77]. Its mass has been measured at LEP and the Tevatron with a value
of m W = 80.385 ± 0.015 GeV [78–80]. When neglecting fermion mass effects, the
partial widths of the W + boson can be obtained by counting arguments. The partial
width at leading order (LO) for the decay into a pair of fermions W → f f¯ can be
readily calculated when neglecting fermion mass effects,
H → W W ∗ and H → Z Z ∗ processes, with subsequent decays of the

3 The only exceptions are the
EW gauge bosons, which are four body decays. These decays are not discussed in detail here.
G F M3
W → f f¯ = C √ W , (2.2)
6 2π
where G F is the Fermi constant and MW is the mass of the W boson. The colour
factor C is 1 for decays into leptons and 3 for decays into quarks, thus one obtains
at tree level
W →hadrons BW →had 6
= = . (2.3)
W →leptons BW →lep 3
The W boson decays twice as often to hadrons as to leptons. Higher order correc-
tions and fermion masses can affect the numerator and denominator in (2.3) differ-
ently, leading to small deviations from this result. Known corrections include one-
loop quantum electrodynamic (QED) and EW corrections for massless and massive
fermions [81–88], one-loop QCD corrections for massive quarks [89, 90], QCD cor-
rections up to four loops for massless [91–93] quarks, where the two- and three-loop
corrections include quadratic quark mass effects [94], and mixed EW/QCD correc-
tions [95]. Numerical results for the calculated partial widths including all known cor-
rections are W →leptons = 680.34 ± 0.05 MeV and W →hadrons = 1409.4 ± 0.8 MeV,
resulting in a total width of W = 2089.7 ± 0.8 MeV [78]. The predicted branching
fraction of BW →had = 67.45 ± 0.04% is about one percent larger than the LO result.
These predictions agree very well with the combination of the LEP and the Tevatron
measurements, W = 2085 ± 42 MeV and BW →had = 67.60 ± 0.27% [78–80]. It is
noteworthy that the decay W + → cb is Cabibbo-suppressed with a factor of |Vcb |2 ,
which is about 1.7 · 10−3 [78]. This results in BW →cb ≈ 5 · 10−4 , and thus the con-
tribution from b quarks to the decay of the W boson is small enough to be neglected
in all practical uses of jet substructure.
The angular distribution of the fermions from the W boson decay depends on the
W boson polarisation. For W + decays, the angular distribution is at Born level [96]
1 dσ 3 2 3 2 3
∗
= f + 1 + cos θ ∗ + f − 1 − cos θ ∗ + f 0 sin2 θ ∗ . (2.4)
σ d cos θ 8 8 4
The decay angle θ ∗ is defined in the W rest frame and is the angle between the
charged lepton (or the quark) and the W flight direction in the laboratory rest frame.
The fractions f + and f − refer to transversely polarised W + bosons with helicities +1
and −1, respectively. The fraction of longitudinally polarised W + bosons is given
by f 0 . For W − bosons the fractions f − and f + are interchanged in (2.4). Since the
quark charge is impossible to reconstruct experimentally, only the absolute values are
accessible for hadronic decays. The angular distribution can then be written as [97]
1 dσ 3 3
∗
= f ± 1 + | cos θ ∗ |2 + f 0 | sin θ ∗ |2 , (2.5)
σ d|cos θ | 4 2
where f ± = f − + f + has been used. The helicity composition of W bosons depends

strongly on their production mechanism. For example, in certain BSM scenarios only
Fig. 2.3 Distribution of the 102
1/ σ dσ/dα
opening angle α between the
W → qq' p W = 200 GeV p W = 400 GeV
two quarks from W decays,
calculated in the laboratory f0 = 1 f0 = 1
rest frame. Distributions are f± = 1 f± = 1
shown for longitudinal (solid 10
p W = 800 GeV
lines) and transversal
f0 = 1
(dashed lines) W boson
f± = 1
polarisations, for different
momenta p W 1
10− 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
α
longitudinally polarised W bosons are produced via the decay of a heavy resonance.
The helicity fractions for W bosons produced via SM processes at the LHC depends
on the transverse momentum of the W boson and receives non-negligible QCD
corrections [98–101]. At high transverse momenta, the W − bosons are predominantly
left-handed and W + bosons are mostly right-handed [102–104].
The opening angle α between two quarks from the W boson decay obtained in
the laboratory rest frame is the figure of merit for jet substructure applications, as
it controls the degree of collimation. The distribution of α is shown in Fig. 2.3 for
longitudinally and transversely polarised W bosons with three different simulated
values of the momentum. For transverse polarisations, the distributions have more
pronounced tails due to decays collinear to the W boson flight direction. This can
lead to differences in identification efficiencies in jet substructure analyses, due to
lost decay products. Additionally, the shapes of jet substructure observables which
take angular correlations into account can be different for different polarisation states.
2.2.3 Z Boson Decay
The Z boson was discovered in 1983 by the UA1 and UA2 collaborations [105, 106].
With a mass of m Z = 91.1875 ± 0.0021 GeV [107], it is about 10 GeV heavier than
the W boson. At LO in EW perturbation theory, the decay width of the Z boson into
a fermion-antifermion pair is
G F M3
Z → f f¯ = C √ Z (|gV, f |2 + |g A, f |2 ) , (2.6)
6 2π
where fermion masses have been neglected. The mass of the Z boson is given by
M Z , and gV, f and g A, f are the vector and axial-vector couplings of the Z boson
to the fermion f , respectively. Due to electroweak unification, the coupling of the

Z boson to fermions is very different from the one of the W boson. Inserting gV, f
and g A, f , one obtains the following branching fractions at LO: B Z →ν ν̄ = 20.4%,
B Z → + − = 10.2% and B Z →had = 69.2%. Again, the branching fraction to hadrons
is dominant, with more than two thirds of all Z bosons decaying hadronically. Note
that there is a sizeable branching fraction of 15.2% into bb, which often results in
a non-negligible background in analyses targeting the H → bb decay. Owing to
the Z bosons’ importance in electroweak precision tests, higher order corrections to
the partial widths have been calculated in EW two-loop order [108–111], including
mixed EW/QCD one-loop diagrams [112–116], leading three- and four-loop correc-
tions in the large top quark mass limit [117–124], factorisable final state two-loop
QED and four-loop QCD radiation [125–127], and mixed EW/QCD one-loop non-
factorisable vertex corrections [128–133]. Including all corrections, the branching
fractions become B Z →ν ν̄ = 20.105 ± 0.004%, B Z → + − = 10.092 ± 0.002% and
B Z →had = 69.804 ± 0.059% [111], in excellent agreement with experimental mea-
surements [15].
Similar to the W boson case, the angular distribution in the centre-of-mass frame
of the decay fermions can be calculated [134],

1 dσ 3 2 ∗ 2(c2L − c2R ) ∗
= f− 1 + cos θ − 2 cos θ
σ d cos θ ∗ 8 c L + c2R

3 2 ∗ 2(c2L − c2R ) ∗
+ f+ 1 + cos θ + 2 cos θ
8 c L + c2R
3
+ f 0 sin2 θ ∗ , (2.7)
4
where the angle θ ∗ is defined equivalent to (2.5). The couplings to left- and right-
handed chiral states are given by c L and c R , respectively. Since the Z boson couples
to both, left- and right-handed fermions, in principal the decay angle distributions of
the outgoing quarks differs for left- and right-handed Z polarisation states. However,
due to the inability of distinguishing quarks from anti-quarks, only absolute values
| cos θ ∗ | can be measured and the decay angle distribution becomes identical for left-
and right-handed polarisations,
1 dσ 3 3
∗
= f ± 1 + | cos θ ∗ |2 + f 0 | sin θ ∗ |2 , (2.8)
σ d|cos θ | 4 2
where the dependence on c L and c R drops out. It follows that the decay angle dis-
tribution is identical to the one for W bosons, (2.5). Thus, similar as for W bosons,
transversely polarised Z bosons show a more pronounced tail towards larger opening
angles α when compared to longitudinally polarised Z bosons. The only difference
between the α distribution from W and Z boson decays arises from the mass dif-
ference m W and m Z , resulting in a shift towards somewhat larger values of α in the
case of Z bosons at a given momentum (the shift is between 0.1 and 0.01 radians
for momenta between 200 and 2000 GeV). Similar as for W bosons, the differences
in the angular distributions between longitudinal and transverse polarisations can
lead to differences in efficiencies in jet substructure analyses, thus depending on the
production mechanism of the Z boson.
2.2.4 Higgs Boson Decay
The Higgs boson is the youngest member of the family of SM particles. It has been
predicted already in 1964 [3, 4], but its existence has been verified only in 2012
by the ATLAS and CMS Collaborations [1, 2]. It has a mass of m H = 125.09 ±
0.24 GeV [135] and is therefore the second-heaviest particle of the SM. While it
has not been measured with a precision comparable to the one achieved for the
W and Z bosons, all evidence points to it being the SM Higgs boson [7]. Its total
and partial decay widths have been calculated in the SM up to, and including four-
loop massless QCD corrections and two-loop electroweak corrections, see [136–
138] for a complete discussion and references therein. Its branching fractions are
shown in Fig. 2.4. The numerical values of the branching fractions together with
their theoretical uncertainties are given in Table 2.1. The total width, assuming no
invisible decays,4 is H = 4.10 ± 0.06 MeV, for m H = 125.09 GeV.
The fully hadronic decay of the H boson comprises of direct decays into two
quarks, decays into two gluons through loop effects, and decays into pairs of W and
Z bosons with subsequent hadronic decays. In total, the hadronic branching fraction
is B H →had = 80.25 ± 0.86%. Especially relevant for jet substructure applications
is the H → bb decay with a branching fraction of 58.09 ± 0.73%. Here, the pres-
ence of two b quarks facilitates experimental identification using the long lifetime
of B hadrons. The second largest hadronic decay is H → W W ∗ → 4 quarks, with
a branching fraction of 9.79 ± 0.15%. This decay can in principle be distinguished
from QCD branchings due to its four-prong nature, with two quarks having an invari-
ant mass around the W boson mass. Equivalent considerations can be made for the
H → Z Z ∗ → 4 quarks decay, however, this decay has only a branching fraction of
1.29 ± 0.02%. The third largest branching fraction for hadronic decays originates
from the loop-induced H → gg decay, with a rate of 8.18 ± 0.42%. However, at high
boosts, this decay is nearly indistinguishable from QCD branchings and therefore
has not been specifically targeted in substructure analyses so far.
Due to the spin-0 nature of the Higgs boson, it has only a single polarisation
state and exhibits an isotropic decay in the centre-of-mass frame. Therefore differ-
ent production mechanisms do not introduce an angular dependence of the decay
fermions.
4 Except for invisible decays in the SM, namely H → Z Z ∗ → ν ν̄ν ν̄ with a branching fraction of
0.11%.
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The capital city of the Philippine Islands.
See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
MANILA: A. D. 1898 (April-July).

Destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
Blockade and siege.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JULY).
MANILA: A. D. 1898 (July-September).

Capture by the Americans.
Relations of Americans with Filipino insurgents.
General Merritt's report.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
MANILA: A. D. 1900.
Regulation of the sale of liquors.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1900 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
MANITOBA SCHOOL QUESTION.

CANADA; A. D. 1890-1896; and 1898 (JANUARY).
MARCHAND'S EXPEDITION.

EGYPT: A. D. 1898 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
MARCONI, Guglielmo:
Development of wireless telegraphy.

SCIENCE, RECENT: ELECTRICAL.
MARIANNE ISLANDS:
Sale by Spain to Germany.

CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.
MARITIME CANAL COMPANY.

CANAL, INTEROCEANIC.
MARITIME POWERS.

NAVIES; and WAR BUDGETS.
MARITIME WARFARE, Convention relative to.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
MARRIAGE LAWS, Hungarian.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1894-1895.
{303}
MARYLAND:
New election law, establishing a qualification of the suffrage.
A new election law, said to have been driven through the
Legislature by partisan pressure, and for the purpose of
disfranchising the majority of colored citizens, was passed by
both houses on the 20th of March, 1901. It is said to be
"considerably more fair than the North Carolina and similar
laws in States farther south. It disfranchises by means of
regulations which practically make it necessary for a voter to
be able to read his ballot. The illiterate are denied any
assistance when they go into the booths, and all emblems are
omitted from the ticket. The color line is not drawn. It is
believed that there are about 32,000 negroes and 16,000 whites
who will not be able to vote under this law. Practically all
of the negroes are supposed to be Republicans, while it is
estimated that the whites are divided about evenly between the
parties."
MASHONALAND:
Embraced in Rhodesia.

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1894-1895.
MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
Recovery of the original manuscript of Governor Bradford's
History of Plymouth Colony, sometimes called "The Log of the
Mayflower."
"It has long been well known that Governor Bradford wrote and
left behind him a history of the settlement of Plymouth. It
was quoted by early chroniclers. There are extracts from it in
the records at Plymouth. Thomas Prince used it when he
compiled his annals, Hubbard depended on it when he wrote his
'History of New England,' Cotton Mather had read it, or a copy
of a portion of it, when he wrote his 'Magnalia,' Governor
Hutchinson had it when he published the second volume of his
history in 1767. From that time it disappeared from the
knowledge of everybody on this side of the water. All our
historians speak of it as lost, and can only guess what had
been its fate. …
"In 1844 Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, afterward

Bishop of Winchester, One of the brightest of men, published
one of the dullest and stupidest of books. It is entitled 'The
History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America.' It
contained extracts from manuscripts which he said he had
discovered in the library of the Bishop of London at Fulham.
The book attracted no attention here until, about twelve years
later, in 1855, John Wingate Thornton … happened to pick up a
copy of it while he was lounging in Burnham's book store. He
read the bishop's quotations, and carried the book to his
office, where he left it for his friend, Mr. Barry, who was
then writing his 'History of Massachusetts,' with passages
marked, and with a note which is not preserved, but which,
according to his memory, suggested that the passages must have
come from Bradford's long-lost history. That is the claim for
Mr. Thornton. On the other hand, it is claimed by Mr. Barry
that there was nothing of that kind expressed in Mr.
Thornton's note, but in reading the book when he got it an
hour or so later, the thought struck him for the first time
that the clue had been found to the precious book which had
been lost so long. He at once repaired to Charles Deane, then
and ever since, down to his death, as President Eliot
felicitously styled him, 'the master of historical
investigators in this country.' Mr. Deane saw the importance
of the discovery. He communicated at once with Joseph Hunter,
an eminent English scholar. Hunter was high authority on all
matters connected with the settlement of New England. He
visited the palace at Fulham, and established beyond question
the identity of the manuscript with Governor Bradford's
history, an original letter of Governor Bradford having been
sent over for comparison of handwriting.
"How the manuscript got to Fulham nobody knows. Whether it was

carried over by Governor Hutchinson in 1774; whether it was
taken as spoil from the tower of the Old South Church in 1775;
whether, with other manuscripts, it was sent to Fulham at the
time of the attempts of the Episcopal churches in America,
just before the Revolution, to establish an episcopate here,
—nobody knows."
George F. Hoar,
address, May 26, 1897,
on the Return of the Manuscript to Massachusetts.
After the discovery of the manuscript, several attempts to

bring about its return to America were made: by Justin Winsor,
in 1860, and again in 1877; by Mr. Motley, in 1869; and by
others. At length, Senator Hoar, after delivering an address
at Plymouth, in 1895, on the anniversary of the landing of the
Pilgrims, went abroad, with his interest in the matter warmly
stirred up, and took steps, in concurrence with Ambassador
Bayard, which led to the enlistment of potent influences on
both sides of the sea in favor of the restoration of the
precious piece of writing to its proper home. There were many
difficulties in procuring the necessary legal authority for
the surrender of the manuscript by the Bishop of
London,—difficulties not created wilfully, but by questions
and processes of law; but they were all overcome, with kindly
help from everybody concerned, and, on the 12th of April,
1897, the coveted manuscript book was formally delivered to
the United States Ambassador, Mr. Bayard, for conveyance to
the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It was
delivered by Mr. Bayard in person, on the 26th of May
following, in the presence of the Senate and the House of
Representatives of Massachusetts, sitting together in the
chamber of the latter, with many guests invited for the
occasion. The ceremonies of the occasion included the address
by Senator Hoar from which the above account is taken.
The manuscript volume is now deposited in the State Library of

Massachusetts at Boston. A new edition, carefully reproducing
the text of the history from it, with a full report of the
proceedings incident to its return to Massachusetts, was
printed in 1900, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Commonwealth, by order of the General Court. The following
remarks on the manuscript are from the Introduction to that
edition:
"By very many it has been called, incorrectly, the log of the
'Mayflower.' Indeed, that is the title by which it is
described in the decree of the Consistorial Court of London.
The fact is, however, that Governor Bradford undertook its
preparation long after the arrival of the Pilgrims, and it
cannot be properly considered as in any sense a log or daily
journal of the voyage of the 'Mayflower.' It is, in point of
fact, a history of the Plymouth Colony, chiefly in the form of
annals, extending from the inception of the colony down to the
year 1647. The matter has been in print since 1856, put forth
through the public spirit of the Massachusetts Historical
Society, which secured a transcript of the document from
London, and printed it in the Society's Collections of the
above-named year."
{304}
MASSACRES:
Of Armenians in Constantinople.

TURKEY: A. D. 1896 (AUGUST).
MASSACRES:
Of Chinese by the allied troops.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST 5-16).
MASSACRES:
Of Chinese in Manchuria by the Russians.

MANCHURIA: A. D. 1900.
MASSACRES:
Of Christian missionaries and converts in China.

CHINA:
A. D. 1895 (AUGUST);
1898 (MAY);
1898-1899 (JUNE-JANUARY);
1899;
1900 (JANUARY-MARCH), (MAY-JUNE); and
1901 (MARCH).
MATABELES.
Matabeleland.

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1894-1895; and
(RHODESIA); 1896 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
MATTHEW, The Gospel of:

Discovery of a fragment of an early copy.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
MAYFLOWER, The so-called Log of the.
See (in this volume, page 303)

MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
MAZET INVESTIGATION, The.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1899 (APRIL-DECEMBER).
MEAT INSPECTION BILL, The German.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (MAY).
MEDICAL SCIENCE, Recent advances in.

SCIENCE, RECENT: MEDICAL AND SURGICAL.
MEHTAR OF CHITRAL, The.

INDIA: A. D. 1895 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
MEIJI STATESMEN.

JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).
MENA, The tomb of.

MENELEK II., King of Shoa and Negus of Abyssinia.

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.
MERENPTAH I., The funeral temple of.

MERRIMAC, The sinking of the collier, at Santiago.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).
MERRITT, General: Report of capture of Manila.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
MESOPOTAMIA, Recent archæological research in.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA.
MESOPOTAMIA:
Projected railways.

TURKEY: A. D. 1899 (NOVEMBER); and
JEWS: A. D. 1899.
MEXICAN FREE ZONE, The.
"The Department of State has received through Consul-General

Barlow a report of the Free Zone, compiled by the Secretary of
the Treasury of Mexico, giving a history of the original
creation of the zone and defining its limits, and the
privileges and restrictions applicable thereto. The Free Zone
is a narrow strip of territory extending along the northern
border from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, with a
latitudinal area of about 12½ miles to the interior, and
embracing a portion of the States of Tamaulipas, Coahnila,
Chihuahua, Sonora, and the territory of Lower California. It
was established many years ago [1861] by the Central
Government, as a compromise or concession to the States
bordering the Rio Grande, as a protection against smuggling
from the United States. The principal cities of the zone are
Matamoras, Camargo, Mier, Guerrero, Laredo, Porfirio Diaz
(Piedras Negras), Juarez, and Nogales. The total population
does not exceed 100,000 people. According to the official
reports, there exist within the limits of the free zone no
industries worth mentioning, which is explained by the fact
that all industrial products manufactured in the zone when
sent into the interior of the country are required to pay the
regular duties charged on imports into the country; and, on
account of the protective tariff of the United States, it is
impracticable to export such products to that country. Thus
the manufacturing industries would have to depend upon the
home consumption, which is not sufficient to maintain them.
All merchandise imported into the zone destined for
consumption therein is admitted on a basis of 10 per cent of
the regular tariff duties, but such merchandise when reshipped
into the interior of Mexico is required to pay an additional
duty of 90 per cent, making, in connection with the 10 per
cent already paid, the regular tariff duty of Mexico. In his
report the secretary of the treasury, Senor Limantour, makes
this statement: 'Many distinguished financiers and eminent
statesmen are opposed to the Free Zone, but all recognize the
fact that, on account of existing circumstances in the
northern frontier, its sparse population, without resources in
agriculture, industry, or mining, the privilege could not be
abolished without compensation, and the problem lies in
choosing some other advantage without prejudice to the rest of
the country.'"
Bulletin of the American Republics,

August, 1898.
"The franchise granted the Free Zone consisted, in the

beginning, in not levying any duty upon imported articles;
afterwards, however, some small duties, purely local, were
established, and the ordinance of 1887 established as a fixed
basis 3 per cent on the value of the duties according to
tariff—a basis which was raised to 10 per cent by the
ordinance of 1891. By subsequent decrees the duties were
raised l½ per cent for the municipality and 7 per cent for
stamps for internal revenue, the result of all this being that
the merchandise introduced into the Free Zone from abroad now
paid 18½ per cent upon the importation duties according to
tariff. … As the records of the frontier custom-houses of the
north make no distinction in the duties, those for the Free
Zone as well as those for the interior appearing in the same
classification, it is impossible to know exactly what the
treasury loses by the 90 per cent rebate on the duties of the
merchandise destined for consumption in the Free Zone; but,
admitting as an exaggerated estimate that the total
consumption of the Free Zone represents in duties $400,000
($177,600) a year, with the 10 per cent charge on this amount,
the average annual loss would be $365,000 ($162,060).
{305}
"The institution of the Free Zone obliges the Mexican

Government, in order to prevent the introduction clandestinely
into the interior of merchandise proceeding therefrom, to
maintain a body of fiscal guards at an annual expense of
$562,525.95 ($249,762). The guards of the custom-houses must
not be reckoned in this account; for these, with or without
the Free Zone, are necessary to prevent the smuggling which
would be carried on from the United States, and which is even
now done. In case of abolishing the Free Zone, it would not be
possible to completely suppress the fiscal guards; lessened in
number and with a distinct organization, they would have to be
maintained, especially since in case of their abolition the
entire duties would be charged (that is to say, 90 per cent
more than is now levied), and this would be inducement enough
to provoke attempts at smuggling. This body of guards, fiscal
as well as administrative, supplies the place of an interior
custom-house (although it does not levy duties), as it reviews
in certain instances the merchandise shipped through the
frontier custom-houses and in a military capacity guards the
roads leading to and from the frontier to prevent smuggling.
It has a system of fixed sections situated at convenient
locations between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, and of
flying detachments continually patrolling the strip of
territory named. Experience has demonstrated the usefulness of
the body, for instances of smuggling by wagons, carts, or
animals can be said to no longer exist."
Of smuggling, "there are two divisions to be made, as follows:

Smuggling to the interior of the Republic and smuggling to the
United State, of America. The first was at one time of
importance, since it was practiced on a large scale. Bands of
smugglers, resorting at times to violence, conducted
merchandise to the interior, but since the Republic entered
the period of peace the Government has been able to take
measures to end this illegal traffic. The custom-houses, which
formerly scarcely produced enough to pay the employees, now
render from $4,000,000 to $5,000,000 annually from import
duties.
"Smuggling from Mexico to the United States of America has

never been practiced to any great extent."
United States Consular Reports,

August, 1898, page 619.
----------MEXICO: Start--------
MEXICO: A. D. 1892-1895.
Boundary surveys.
The international commission which had been engaged since 1892

in resurveying the incorrectly marked boundary between Mexico
and the United States from San Diego, California, to El Paso,
Texas, finished its work in 1895. Another commission began in
the same year to resurvey the remainder of the boundary, along
the Rio Grande from El Paso to the Gulf.
MEXICO: A. D. 1895.
Boundary dispute with Guatemala.
There was a quite serious threatening of war between Mexico

and Guatemala in 1895, consequent upon a disputed boundary
line. The mediation of the United States brought about a
settlement, which gave the disputed district to Guatemala, and
provided for an arbitration of indemnities, the United States
Minister to Mexico being selected as arbitrator.
MEXICO: A. D. 1895.
Census of population.
Its distribution.
"The population of Mexico appears to be, from our … census …

in 1895, 12,570,195, which would give 16.38 for each square
mile; but from my personal knowledge of the country, I am
quite sure that it is not less than 15,000,000. It is very
difficult to take a correct census in Mexico, because there is
not the proper machinery in operation for that purpose, and
especially because a great many districts are inhabited by
Indians, who are impressed with the fear that if they inscribe
themselves in the census they will be taxed or drafted into
the military service, and they try to avoid registration.
"A great many of our people live in such remote districts that
they are practically cut off from communication with other
portions of the country, and in fact are almost isolated; and
this constitutes still another difficulty in the way of taking
a correct census. … The upper lands being the healthiest, most
of the population in Mexico is settled in the central plateau;
a relatively small portion lives in the temperate zone, while
the torrid zone is very thinly populated. I imagine, at a
rough calculation, that about 75 per cent. of the population
make their abode in the cold zone, from 15 to 18 per cent. in
the temperate zone, and from 7 to 10 per cent. in the torrid
zone.
"From the synopsis of our censuses, … it appears that the

population in Mexico has duplicated during the last century,
and although that increase does not keep pace with the
increase in the United States, because this has been really
wonderful, it compares favorably with the increase in other
countries."
M. Romero,
Mexico and the United States,
volume 1, pages 89-90
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons).
MEXICO: A. D. 1896.
Amendments to the Constitution.

CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO.
MEXICO: A. D. 1896.
Re-election of President Diaz.
By a popular election held on the 28th of June, 1896, followed

by a vote of "electors" cast July 13, Porfirio Diaz was chosen
President of the Republic of Mexico for a fifth term of four
years, to begin December 1, 1896.
MEXICO: A. D. 1896 (July).

Abolition of inter-state taxes.
The following announcement was reported in May, 1896, by the

United States Consul-General at the City of Mexico: "'All the
States and Territories having approved the amendment to the
constitution prohibiting any interstate tax on commerce
(alcabalas), Congress has passed the bill, the President has
signed it, the Diario Official has published it, and it will
soon be promulgated by "bando." as the Vice-Presidency was the
other day. The law takes effect July 1.' This tax has been in
existence for many years in Mexico, and has been a source of
much embarrassment to internal and external trade. Its repeal
meets with general approval, although some of the States will
be compelled to seek other modes of taxation to replace the
money heretofore obtained by this interstate tax."
United States Consular Reports,

June, 1806, page 354.
{306}
MEXICO: A. D. 1896-1899.
Revolts of the Yaquis.
The Yaquis, one of the native tribes of northwestern Mexico,

taking their name from the river, in Sonora, on which they
dwell, have been in frequent revolt. In 1896, and again in
1899, some of the tribe were fiercely in arms, excited, it was
said, by a religious enthusiast, Teresa Urrea, who claimed a
divine mission and obtained boundless influence over her
tribe, as a saint. She was expelled from the country by the
Mexican government, but stayed on the border, in United States
territory, and continued to stir up hostilities. Though
repeatedly beaten by the government troops, with heavy loss,
their late rising was obstinately persisted in for many
months; but early in 1900 their chief, Tetabiate, was slain,
and a few sharp engagements after that time seems to have
brought the revolt, practically, to an end. A writer in the
California magazine, entitled "The Land of Sunshine" (July,
1899), says of the Yaquis that they are "the backbone of the
population of Sonora. They are the best workmen in the
republic, commanding from 10 to 20 per cent. higher wages in
many localities than Mexican or other Indian labor. There is
not a lazy bone in the Yaqui body. They are a peaceable,
law-abiding people when justly treated. From time immemorial
they have been hunters, miners, and tillers of the soil. They
have the nomad instinct in less degree than almost any other
Indian tribe."
Another writer makes this statement: "There are about three

hundred wild and rebellious Yaqui Indians hidden in the
fastnesses of the Bacatete Mountains, and some thirty thousand
peaceful Yaquis working all over Sonora—among the best workers,
the most successful farmers, and the quietest citizens in the
whole state. … There are few things in the history of the
native races of North America of such absorbing interest as
the career of the Yaqui Indians. The Spanish conquistadores
found them living in this country three hundred and fifty
years ago. They were a strong and stalwart race. Put a Yaqui
by the side of an Iroquois and you can hardly tell them apart.
Put a Yaqui and an Iroquois by the side of any other Indians
in North America, and their physical superiority is seen at
once. Compare them physically with all the other races of the
earth and you will find that they have few, if any, superiors.
The Yaquis were not, however, like their prototypes, the
Iroquois, dependent upon the chase for their food. From the
beginning they were not woodsmen, but farmers. Cabeza de Vaca,
after his long, romantic and perilous journey across the
continent, found great fields of Indian corn waving on the
Yaqui River as far back as 1636. When the early Spanish
missions were established in the Californias they obtained
their supplies from the agricultural Indians in the Yaqui
Valley, and many are the Spanish armies that have been saved
from starvation in times past by the Yaqui corn fields."
W. S. Logan,
Yaqui, the Land of Sunshine and Health,
pages 15, 17.
MEXICO: A. D. 1898.
Completion of the great drainage tunnel and canal
of the City of Mexico.
"Mexico is finishing a great work, the drainage of the valley

where the capital city is located, which has required for its
completion nearly three hundred years and many millions of
dollars, and has cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of
men. … The Valley of Mexico is an immense basin, of
approximately circular shape, with one extreme diameter of
about 60 miles, completely bounded by high mountains, and
having only two or three quite high passes out of it. No water
drains out of the basin. The surface of this valley has a mean
altitude above the sea of 7,413 feet and an area of about
2,220 square miles. Mountain ranges rise on every side, making
a great corral of rock containing dozens of villages and
hamlets, with the ancient capital in the centre. … Evaporation
is so excessive at certain periods of the year that malaria,
consequent on drouth, was far more dreaded by the inhabitants
than the periodical floods, and thousands perished annually,
so that proper drainage was an absolute necessity for the
preservation of health. Nearly fifty years before the
discovery of America, which took place in 1492,
Netzahualcoyotl saw the necessity for a drainage canal, and
commenced the work in 1450." The Spaniards, throughout their
rule, labored at projects to the same end, and sacrificed the
lives of vast numbers of the natives in the work, without much
result.
"Frequent floodings of the old Aztec city and of the Spanish

capital, situated almost at the lowest point of the valley,
were sure to come in times of unusually heavy rains. In early
days, when the Aztecs lived in the middle of Lake Mexico, when
their temples and wigwams were built on piles and the streets
were often only canals, the periodical overflows from the
upper lakes were a matter of small concern, though even then
the Nahua engineers were called upon to protect the city by
dykes. But when by evaporation, by filling in at the site of
the city, by lessened waters, due to the fissures caused by
earthquakes, Lake Mexico had disappeared, and the city had
come to be built on the spongy soil, above all, when the
short-sighted choice of Cortez had been confirmed and the
capital of New Spain had come to stand on the ruins of the
Aztec town, increasing rapidly in population and wealth,—it
became a serious matter that on an average of once in
twenty-five years the streets should be from two to six feet
under water for an indefinite time. …
"In 1866 the works now [1895] nearing completion were

commenced. A project proposed by Señor Don Francisco de Garay,
a well-known engineer of the city of Mexico, was pronounced
the most feasible. But the revolutionary struggle succeeded,
and for many years the work was relegated to the background. …
The present gigantic work cannot have been considered to have
been seriously undertaken, with a view of completion at any
cost, until the year 1885, when the City Council of Mexico
submitted a project to the Government to which they offered to
contribute largely in the event of its being adopted. A
special commission, with ample authority to deal with the
funds set aside for the work, was appointed by President
Porfirio Diaz. …
"The drainage works, when carried out, will receive the

surplus waters and sewage of the City of Mexico and carry them
outside of the valley, and will also control the entire waters
of the valley, affording an outlet, whenever found necessary,
to those which might otherwise overflow fields and towns,
rendering the soil stagnant and marshy. The work consists of
three parts—1st, the tunnel; 2d, a canal starting from the
gates of San Lazaro, and having a length of 47½ kilometres, or
43 miles; … and 3d, the sewage of the City of Mexico. …
{307}
As this paper goes to press, the drainage works of the Valley
of Mexico are practically finished, as the waters of the
valley have been for several years passing through the canal
and the tunnel to their outlet in the river which takes them
to the Gulf of Mexico, and the company with whom the canal was
contracted is now giving the finishing touches to the sides
and bottom of the canal and will deliver it to the Government
Board of the Drainage Directors in January, 1898. …
"The canal and six-mile tunnel through the mountain range have
a total length approaching 37 miles. The present works will
take rank with the great achievements of modern times, just as
the immense 'cut' of Nochistongo, their unsuccessful predecessor,
was the leader among ancient earthworks in all the world. The
completed system will have cost $20,000,000."
M. Romero,
Mexico and the United States,
pages 266-280
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons).
MEXICO: A. D. 1898-1900.
The results of twenty years of the presidency of Porfirio Diaz.
The wonderful advance of the Republic.
In his interesting book on Mexico, entitled "The Awakening of

a Nation," written in 1898, Mr. Charles F. Lummis expresses
the opinion that, under the Presidency of Porfirio Diaz, that
country "has graduated to be the most compact and unified
nation in the New World"; that "she has acquired not only a
government which governs, but one which knows how to govern—
and contemporaneously a people which has learned how to be
ruled"; and he characterizes its government as "logical
paternalism—a scheme frightfully dangerous under a bad father,
incalculably beneficial under a good one." Two years later, in a
contribution to an elaborate "Review of the Nineteenth
Century," by many writers, which was published by the "New
York Evening Post," January 12, 1901, Mr. Lummis wrote:
"Before Diaz, the rich and ancient capital had spent two and a
half centuries and ten millions in vain attempts to relieve
its recurrent Hoods. Sewerage was unknown. Today the valley is
drained and sewered by a system nowhere surpassed. Electric
lighting, transit, and power-transmission are in vogue. Law
and order are of a proportion we may well envy. Public
education and individual scholarship have no call to blush in
any fair comparison with any land. Business is prosperous,
almost without individual exceptions. Factories of all sorts—
and some of the costliest and finest factories in the
world—have sprung up by the thousand. The comminuted bones of
a national spirit have knit as they never were before.
Nowadays, it is not Mexico, but we, who are 'fooled' when we
omit her from the category of the nations that count. She does
count; she will count far more. She has mastered anarchy, she
has triumphed even over free silver. She is busily engaged in
practising one of the first gospels and mottoes of the
American colonies—'Mind Your Own Business'—and is making a
magnificent success at it. It is a curious problem in the
philosophies of history, what shall be the outcome of a nation
which instead of being born rugged and growing old and easy, was
born old and in the last quarter-century has come into the
heritage of sturdy youth. For it is as a young nation, with
muscles still growing, that we must think of new Old Mexico."
Honorable John W. Foster, writing to the "New York Tribune,"

on the 9th of January, 1901, from the City of Mexico, where he
formerly resided for some years as United States Minister, has
borne similar testimony to the astonishing progress of the
country. "Since the advent of General Porfirio Diaz to power
in 1876," writes Mr. Foster, "there has been no foreign war
and no serious disturbance of an internal character, the only
exception being the outbreak of certain semi-independent
Indian tribes. In the previous fifty years of the existence of
the republic there had been as many presidents, the majority
of whom owed their existence to revolutionary movements. The
wretched story of Mexican history of that period is too

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Advances in Jet Substructure at the

LHC Algorithms Measurements and

Electrical Phenomena at Interfaces Second Edition

Study of Double Parton Scattering Using Four-Jet

Particle physics in the LHC era 1st Edition Barr

At the temple gates : the religion of freelance experts

Advances in Metaheuristic Algorithms for Optimal Design

Advances and Applications of Optimised Algorithms in

Grouping Genetic Algorithms: Advances and Applications

Cyber Physical Systems for Next Generation Networks

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/426

Advances in Jet Substructure

ISSN 0081-3869 ISSN 1615-0430 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Hamburg, Germany Roman Kogler

2.6.5 Multiple Parton Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.6 Light Resonances Coupling to Quarks or Gluons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

ANN Artificial neural network

JER Jet energy resolution

TRT Transition radiation tracking

Abstract The standard model of particle physics is a remarkably successful theory.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

precision measurements of fundamental parameters of the theory. Taken together,

difficulty of accurately understanding even small experimental effects and correctly

2.1 Introduction to Jet Substructure

adjusted to fit this book.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 5

Fig. 2.1 Schematic drawing

consists of calorimeter clusters, reconstructed particle tracks or combinations thereof.

Fig. 2.2 Schematic drawing

can be efficiently reconstructed as tracks, neutral particles only develop showers in

2.2 General Considerations

2.2.1 Heavy Particle Decays

Detailed knowledge of the decay properties of heavy particles in the SM is crucial

2.2.2 W Boson Decay

H → W W ∗ and H → Z Z ∗ processes, with subsequent decays of the

where f ± = f − + f + has been used. The helicity composition of W bosons depends

Fig. 2.3 Distribution of the 102

2.2.3 Z Boson Decay

to the fermion f , respectively. Due to electroweak unification, the coupling of the

2.2.4 Higgs Boson Decay

See (in this volume)

MANILA: A. D. 1898 (April-July).

See (in this volume)

MANILA: A. D. 1898 (July-September).

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

MANITOBA SCHOOL QUESTION.

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

MARITIME CANAL COMPANY.

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

MARITIME WARFARE, Convention relative to.

See (in this volume)

MARRIAGE LAWS, Hungarian.