Daraga Community College

Brgy. Salvacion
Daraga, Albay

______________________________________________________________________________

A STUDY ANALYSIS:
IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION OF PHILIPPINES
ON CLIMATE CHANGE

JULIE ANNE CASULLA QUIÑONES

INSTRUCTOR

OLIVER OLING
BEED1-Block 41
 I
INTRODUCTION

It is hard to close your eyes to the fact that the current state of our ecosystem is in
danger. This problem is not only burden for scientists and scholars but all of us as well. When
students try to get in-depth knowledge of global warming and over-all ecological problems
worldwide, it helps governments implement new precautions and climate-saving programs.
Global warming has presented another issue called climate change. Sometimes these
phrases are used interchangeably, however, they are different. Climate change refers to
changes in weather patterns and growing seasons around the world. It also refers to sea level
rise caused by the expansion of warmer seas and melting ice sheets and glaciers. Global
warming causes climate change, which poses a serious threat to life on Earth in the forms of
widespread flooding and extreme weather. As the human population has increased, so has
the volume of fossil fuels burned. Fossil fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas, and burning
them causes what is known as the “greenhouse effect” in Earth’s atmosphere.
The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change, which
increase the frequency and intensity of heat-waves, floods, droughts, typhoons; alter
agricultural and coastal and marine ecosystem output and productivity; reduce water
availability and quality; and increase the incidence of climate-sensitive infectious diseases.
The poor are especially at risk from these impacts. Many live in naturally hazard prone areas
and are dependent of natural resources for their livelihoods. The main expected impacts of
climate change will come as a result of climate variability due to changes in precipitation,
increase in temperature and sea level rise. In terms of sector impacts, some of these include
changes in agricultural yields for crops such as rice and maize. Changes in land use, as a
consequence, of changes in rainfall pattern which will push people to migrate to higher
elevations where soil is less fertile causing the rate of conversion of forest to agricultural
lands to increase increasing greenhouse emissions. Coastal area resources (such as
mangroves) and communities will be affected by sea level rises. Similarly, water resource
availability is impacted by dramatic El Niño events, and infectious diseases may appear with
more frequency. From the perspective of greenhouse emissions the Philippines is a minor
emitter.
However, emissions have been on the rise from both energy-use and land-use
changes, with the latter as the major GHG contributor. As early as 1991 the Philippines began
to respond to climate change through a series of policy and legal initiatives. Although it does
not have any responsibility or commitment to reduce GHG emissions and is relatively a minor
emitter, the Philippines, nevertheless, took an active role on the mitigation aspects of climate
change especially in the application of the Clean Development Mechanism.
Philippines is the third most vulnerable country to climate change according to the
2017 world risk report. Impacts of climate change in the Philippines are immense, including:
annual losses in GDP, changes in rainfall patterns and distribution, droughts, threats to
biodiversity and food security, sea level rise, public health risks, and endangerment of
vulnerable groups such as women and indigenous people.
Recognized as the hottest of biodiversity hotspots — a global conservation priority
area which faces significant threats — the Philippines, together with other megadiverse
countries, hosts over two-thirds of Earth’s plant and animal species. However, increasing
human activity has pushed its wildlife to the edge of collapse. Several endemic species in the
Philippines have only four percent of their natural forest habitat remaining. At sea,
unsustainable fishing has reduced fish populations, putting pressure on the ocean’s ability to
provide food and incomes.
The burning of fossil fuels and large scale land use changes in the last 150 years are
majorly responsible for emitting large amounts of greenhouse gases. The resulting change in
the composition of the atmosphere has had a strong influence on the climate system. Since
the beginning of industrialization (e.g. IPCC, 2013), carbon dioxide has increased from 270
parts per million (ppm) to 396 ppm (2013) — a level that is unprecedented for at least the last
800.000 years (IPCC, 2013). The intensified greenhouse effect traps more energy in earth’s
atmosphere, which, beside other effects, leads to global warming. The observed warming in
the climate system is unequivocal (IPCC, 2013) and so far the global mean of Earth’s
atmospheric near surface temperature has warmed up by roughly 0.8 degrees. The year 2016
was reported to be the warmest year in reported weather records since 1880 (NOAA, NASA,
2016). Besides a further temperature increase, the scientific community expects an ongoing
increase In sea level rise (SLR), changes in precipitation (both in amounts and patterns) and
changes In occurrence rates of extreme weather events (EWEs) (e.g. heat waves, heavy rain
events, tropical storms...). A challenge in understanding climate change and measuring the
ongoing changes in climate varieties (e.g, temperature and precipitation) is the awareness of
natural climate variability and how it affects natural weather events.
The United Nation Environmental Project (UNEP) has assisted over 75 projects on
climate change adaptation in over 50 countries. Combined, the projects are aiming to benefit
around 2.7 million people, restore 131,000 hectares of land, improve climate adaptation
knowledge of 102,000 people and 131 institutions, and build over 1,100 water harvesting
structures and 82 weather stations.
Our biodiversity is our strongest natural defense against climate change. The main driver of
biodiversity loss remains humans’ use of land – primarily for food production. Human activity has
already altered over 70 per cent of all ice-free land. When land is converted for agriculture, some
animal and plant species may lose their habitat and face extinction. But climate change is playing
an increasingly important role in the decline of biodiversity. Climate change has altered marine,
terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems around the world. It has caused the loss of local species,
increased diseases, and driven mass mortality of plants and animals, resulting in the first climate-
driven extinctions.
There is already evidence to suggest that reductions in water vapor in the atmosphere
since the 1990s has resulted in 59% of vegetated areas showing pronounced browning and
reduced growth rates worldwide. If current rates of warming continue, by 2030 global
temperatures could increase by more than 1.5°C (2.7°F) compared to before the industrial
revolution. A major impact of climate change on biodiversity is the increase in the intensity
and frequency of fires, storms or periods of drought.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objective of this paper is to provide a review of climate related problems, trends
and impacts at an early stage, and review the Philippines’ response to climate change so far,
in order to integrate climate risk awareness and responsiveness into economic, operational
and development planning.
(i) assess the environmental quality in the Philippines with a focus on how this
impacts on human welfare and sustainability;
(ii) measure and analyze the bio-physical significance and monetary cost of
environmental degradation, and derive priority areas of action linked to poverty
reduction and growth, to the extent that data allows;
(iii) identify opportunities for cost-effective interventions.
 II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter comprises the discussions of the related literature and studies which
have bearing on the study. The researcher reviewed various reading materials which widened
the researchers’ perspectives about the study.

A. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PHILIPPINES

(USEPA, 2014). Climate change can be defined as a significant change in the “average
weather” of any given region sustained in the long-term and can be caused by Earth 's
dynamic processes, external forces including variations in sunlight intensity, and also by
human activities.

The burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and deforestation over the last 200
years has caused the concentrations of heat-trapping "greenhouse gases" to increase
significantly in our atmosphere. These gases prevent heat from escaping to space.
Greenhouse gases are necessary in our lives as they help in keeping the planet 's surface
warmer than it would otherwise be. But, as the concentrations of these gases continue to
increase in the atmosphere, the Earth 's temperature is climbing above past levels (USEPA,
2014).

It has been observed through various researches that in the last century, average
temperatures across the globe increased by over 1.3°F with an increase of more than two
times in the Arctic. (Bates, Kundzewicz, Wu, & Palutikof, June 2008). The results of climate
change can also be seen in changing precipitation patterns, increases in ocean temperatures,
changes in the sea level, and acidity and melting of glaciers and sea ice (USEPA, 2014).

IMPACTS IN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY

Agriculture is a large part of the adverse impact on economic development and poverty
reduction of increasing climate change-related risks were felt through their interrelated
effects on agriculture, land/soil quality and forest cover.
 Villafuerte et al., 2014b) many researchers have analyzed this relationship. E.g.
Warren (2013) analyzed the vulnerability of the agricultural sector to droughts. Villafuerte et
al. (2014a) also argues that heavy rain or drought conditions are directly affecting the
agricultural sectors of the country — and therefore the economy of the Philippines. Warren
(2013) analyzed the historical burden of ENSO induced drought and the corresponding famine
due to impacts on agricultural yields in the Philippines. As stated above, El Nino events
influence rainfall distribution, possibly resulting in severe droughts in certain regions
(Villafuerte et al., 2014a; Lyon et al., 2009; etc.).
According to Warren (2013), there has been an increase in the frequency of major food
shortage and famine events in the last half of the twentieth century, which could be
associated in part with an increase in severe El Nino-related drought events. He argues that
this is the most important disaster type in the upland and semi-arid areas of the archipelago
(Warren, 2013).
Yumul et al. (2010) for the 2007 drought. A more recent paper dealing with the
relationships between food supply and disaster is Gibb and Veuthey (2011). These
relationships can be multiple - for example the floodwater devastated road interrupts food
transport, storms prevent fishers from fishing and many others maybe not as obvious
examples.
On the webpage of PAGASA (2014), Vulnerability Maps for an El Nino event for the
crops rice ana corn can be found. The maps have been calculated by taking data from recent
El Nino drought events and the corresponding effect on the specific area (PAGASA, 2014).
Other working groups even publish a quantitative statement. For example, Lansigan et al.
(2000) found that typhoons, floods, and droughts caused 82.4% of the total Philippine rice
losses from 19/0 to 1990. While looking at the socio-economic impacts of Typhoon Harurot
(Imbudo), Huigen and Jens (2006) found a relative loss for corn of 64%.
Buan et al. (1996) also analyzed the impact of climate change on rice and corn
production in the Philippines. We do not refer to the quantitative numbers as the models
applied are nearly 20 years old, but they state a crucial point that a decrease in rainfall in
some regions by 10% is not as bad because enough water available, but in other region, an
increase by 10% could lead to more damage as floods affect the plants strongly. in more
spatial detail, Lansigan and Salvacio (2007) analyzed the effect of climate change on yields
of rice and corn in selected areas in the Philippines by using 10 different climate change
scenarios in three selected provinces, namely: llagan, Isabela; Los Bafios, Laguna; and
Maiaybalay, Bukidinon. Besides EWEs and their climate change induced changes in
occurrence rates, the agriculture of the country is also influenced by slow-onset changes, e.g.
of temperature, precipitation and SLR.
Lasco et al. (2011) also stated the impact on yields due to changes in, e.g. mean
nighttime temperature or changing rainfall patterns. This effect of declining rice yield with
rising night temperatures was already described in general by Peng et al. (2004). Lasco et al.
(2011) further mentioned indirect effects on the plants, like fungal diseases or increased
pressure form insects (e.g. corn stem borer) due to changing temperature or moisture
conditions. They argue that people have always had to deal with climate variability in the
country and developed appropriate coping mechanisms but, with the combined pressures of
economic development, population growth and urbanization, these could be overextended.
Food security is a multi-dimensional concept, considering how food can meet
individuals’ energy nutritional needs, but also its ability to fulfill social purposes and uphold
cultural meanings. Although objective indicators of food and nutrition security are important,
they do not always correspond to how people subjectively value food and perceive food
security.
Maxwell and Smith (1992) distinguished four conceptual aspects of food security: (i)
sufficiency – defined as the calories needed for an active and healthy life; (ii) access – defined
by entitlements to produce, purchase, or exchange food; (iii) security – defined as the balance
between vulnerability, risk, and insurance; and (iv) stability – a temporal aspect in which food
insecurity can be chronic, transitory, or cyclical. These four aspects apply to food security for
a population or individual, whether food is from own production, market purchase, exchange,
borrowing, or receipt as a gift.
A fifth important aspect is the concept of utilization, or how food is assimilated through
an adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and health care to support a state of nutritional
well-being (FAO, 2006). Utilization becomes increasingly significant considering the
challenges posed by climate-related hazards to food production, infrastructure and
distribution, and consumption.
Studies on the impact of climate change on future grain production suggest an overall
negative effect for both corn and rice production. One study finds a consistent decrease in
yield and production volume for corn, with both increases and decreases for rice production
and yield, which the study attributes to a shorter maturity period, faster evapotranspiration,
and waterlogging (Buan et al., 1996).
A complementary study analyzing the current and projected future suitability of corn
production throughout the Philippines finds that increasing rainfall patterns will compromise
production suitability for 8 of the 12 months of the year: in April, as much as 17% of the current
growing regions (from the north to the southwest) will be considered moderately to entirely
unsuitable for corn production (Salvacion, 2017).
This relevant of this article to the study is to understand the impact that climate-
related changes and hazards will have on food security in the Philippines. In doing so, it will
be necessary to consider the breadth of agricultural supply chains from production to
consumption and across urban and rural sectors, as well as accounting for differences among
households and individuals therein. To this end, this project considers the impact of climate-
related changes and disasters on food security and nutrition from both the standpoint of food
production in rural agricultural communities and food consumption in rural, urban, and peri-
urban centers. In this section, we outline several aspects of food systems in the Philippines
that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

IMPACT ON HUMAN LIVELIHOOD

This section will look at the impacts of climate change in terms of rural and urban
livelihood ana the impacts on the sector health and infrastructure.The changing climate and
the corresponding changes in the extreme events occurring in the country will have large
impacts on the livelihoods of the population.
In 2009, 18% of the country's population was living in the low-elevation coastal zone
and, therefore, suffer from already existing burdens and are further prone to upcoming climate
change related threats, e.g. changes in storm surges and SLR (ADB, 2012).
Tran et al. (2012) published the following urbanization rates for the country: 27% in
1950, 33% in 1970, 43% in 1990, 51% in 2000 and a projected level of 66% for 2025. The share
of population living in the urban areas is strongly growing.
For Manila, the UN assumes a population growth from 11.6 million (2010) to 14 million
in 2025 (World Bank, 2013a). This growth is partly internal population increase, but also due
to migration fam the rural areas — that is also true for the whole region of SEA.
 The Asian Development Bank (2012) wrote that the population in urban areas
increased in the Philippines by 90% between 1990 and 2007, whereas the number of people
living in rural areas was constant in the same time period. This can be traced back to the
migration of people. When it comes to the vulnerability of urban areas to climate change, the
topic of migration is of great importance and should be treated as a possible human response
to areas and societies that face a multitude of risk factors (World Bank, 2013a). if the growth
in population cannot be absorbed by adequate housing policy, urban settlements are
expanding in informal settlements.
Balica et al. (2011) constructed a vulnerability index for 9 major coastal cities
worldwide. The index was built upon indicators based on hydro-geological, social, economic
and administrative components. Due to its exposure to TCs and flooding, Manila was rated
vulnerable in particular on the hydro-geological component. Recent storms illustrated this
exposure of Manila: In the year 2009, Typhoon Ketsana induced flood waters that reached
nearly 7 m above sea level in some city areas resulting in hundreds of deaths (Balica et al.,
2011; WWF, 2009). In a comparison study of the WWF (2009) for Asian mega cities, Manila
even reached the highest ranking in terms of vulnerability. For the economic component of
the ranking, the capital had the highest vulnerability to coastal (Balica et al., 2011).
The study of Brecht et al. (2012) also analyzed the vulnerability of cities in SEA,
entailing several urban areas of the Philippines (Butuan, Cotabato, Manila, Taguig, and
Kalookan). In general, they argued for a strong impact on urban agglomerations in SEA, as
they are affected by increased TC intensity, SLR, and coastal flooding.
Hanson et al. (2011) execute a ranking of the Port Cities in terms of exposure and
vulnerability to climate extremes (they implement only the two Philippine cities Manila and
Davao). They further checked for population and assets that are exposed to a certain SLR.
Muto et al. (2010) conducted a study specifically on the study region Metro Manila
focusing on the impacts of climate-induced floods and the influence of precipitation, sea-
level rise and increased storminess on these floods. Working with the SRES scenarios B1 and
A1F1 (extreme scenario), they found a SLR of 19 resp. 29 cm and a rainfall increase of 9.4
resp. 14.4% for the region that leads to storm surge height increases of up to 100 cm in both
scenarios.
For the Philippines, e.g. Tiangco et al. (2008) analyzed the UHI for the city of Manila
and found a temperature difference between rural and urban area of up to 3°C by applying
remote sensing data. The economic power in SEA is concentrated in the urban agglomerations
— Manila’s GDP accounts for roughly half of the country’s GDP (World Bank, 2103a). Both
economic power and, as mentioned earlier, population are strongly increasing. Lack of
adequate infrastructures and adaptation measures lead to an increase in vulnerability
(Dodman, 2009).
The strong typhoons of recent years show major impacts in particular on the water
and sanitation supply system — after cyclone Ondoy in 2009, 100,000 people in central Luzon
province were without piped water supply (GDFRR, 2009; World Bank, 2013a).

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HEALTH

There are many ways in which climate change can affect the health and well-being of
tne population. As already mentioned above, the EWEs, i.e. typhoons, have large impacts on
the water and sanitation system of a region. Lack of clean water and appropriate sanitation
could lead to serious diseases, such as diarrhea and cholera (World Bank, 2013a; Dolhun,
2013).
Yumul et al. (2010), for example, stated that water consumption in the drought of 2007
had to be constrained to save water. The authorities attempted to deal with the shortage by
giving domestic use priority over industrial and agricultural demand. Further Yumul et al.
{2010) specifies that health concerns due drought not only involve humans (e.g. viral
conjunctivitis), but also animals (e.g. hog cholera). Other diseases like malaria and dengue
could increase due to flooding (ADB, 2011).
A growing heat in burden is dengue fever transmitted by mosquitos. Due to climate
conditions, the vector can survive year-round and the recent development of rapid
urbanization, environmental degradation, lack of a reliable water supply, and improper
management and disposal of solid waste lead to a further propagation of the virus (Bravo et
al., 2014).
Edillo and Madarieta (2012) analyzed recent trends in dengue incidence in Cebu
province. They mostly related the dengue problem, like Bravo et al. (2014), to growing
urbanization and population, inadequate public health infrastructure, poor solia waste
management and lack of an effective mosauito surveillance system.
Dulay et al. (2013) made a statistical analysis of dengue cases in Iligan City, Lanao del
Norte, Philippines on monthly basis and found temperature and humidity to be more important
than rainfall. For the region of Central Visayas, Picardal and Elnar (2012) also studied the
relationship between temperature and rainfall on dengue incidence, but found no significant
correlation. As rainfall showed significant correlations in other studies, this shows that the
local conditions, both climatological and socio-economic, are of great importance for the
surveyed relationship. In the case of the region of Central Visayas it is very interesting that,
despite scarce precipitation occurring in that region over the study period, many cases of
dengue fever were still observed.
Buczak et al. (2014) built a prediction model for dengue In Philippines by applying
socio-economic and meteorological variables. Opena & Teves (2011) and Pasay et al. (2013)
analyzing Iligan City and Ozamiz City, respectively, but the publications were found to be not
fully reliable statistically. Besides studies directly related to the Philippines, there are is wide
range of literature dealing with other regions. Here, we refer to the following as they could be
of relevance for the Philippines. Tseng et al. (2009) analyzed the impact of climate change on
the prevalence of dengue fever for the region of Taiwan and found by doing an empirical
estimation that climate conditions have an increasingly significant impact on the probability
of people being infected by dengue fever. They assumed a climate change induced
temperature increase will therefore exacerbate the risk of that disease.
Hil et al. (2009) used a higher temporal resolution by using weekly data in Singapore
and found mean temperature and precipitation had an impact on dengue incidence rate with
a time lag of several weeks. They also assume a potential increase caused by the ongoing
change in climate.
Knasnis and Nettleman (2005) executed a general survey of infectious diseases and
global warming and made some general statements that could here be used as a
quintessence. They clearly state tnat global warming will change the epidemiology of
infectious diseases, but also other effects play an important role, i.e. human migration,
resistance of population, scarce potable water, insufficient healtn infrastructure, and others.
Further, many publications argue that the field of influence of environmental factors on
dengue is under-studied (e.g. Picardal and Elnar, 2012; Bravo et al., 2014).
On a spatially broader view, the ADB (2011) wrote a report on the relationship
between health ana changing climate. On a very local level, Palacio & Palacio (2014) analyzed
the authority s perception of climate change to assess the health system preparedness in the
province of Albay. They conducted a survey on health system staff and found that the
respondents perceived climate change to be a relevant threat for health. The publication
further suggests certain policy measures to deal with the issue.

IMPACTS ON MARINE RESOURCES AND FISHERIES

The Philippines is endowed with immense natural resources, not least of all its
abundant water resources. In total, the Philippines is home to 119 watersheds, 412 principal
river basins, and more than 100 inland lakes, swamps, and marshes. The island nation is
surrounded by oceans and seas that catalyze the rain events that supply these freshwater
bodies, including replenishing groundwater reservoirs. Despite this natural abundance, the
country has long experienced clean water supply shortages, which are becoming more acute
due to anthropogenic activity and the effects of climate change (Greenpeace, 2009).
Mangroves and coral reefs are the most valuable coastal asset. While coral reefs have
been estimated to contribute about $1.4 billion per year to the economy accounting for about
10 to 15 percent of total annual fish yield, only some 5 percent of them are now in excellent
condition. Mangrove forests help stabilize sediments which threaten marine life. While
mangroves are able to cope with sea level rise of up to 12 cm over the next 100 years,
mangroves populations are steadily decreasing in quantity and quality due to over cutting,
land clearing and habitat conversion (Perez undated).
Capili, et al (2005) pointed out that, in the recent years, reefs in poor condition
increased to 40% in the last 20 years due partly to ocean warming. Coral bleaching and fish
kills were observed in Silaqui Island and Bolinao while the coastal areas in the Visayas were
affected by bleaching. A significant decrease (up to 46%) in live coral cover was observed
after the 1997-98 bleaching event in the country. It was noted that the highly bleached areas
in the country coincided with areas of poverty and dense populations. Shelter and security
are also issues of concern especially in areas affected by sea-level rise. In cases where
construction of man-made barriers will not suffice, relocation of inhabitants will be the most
likely option. Coastal erosion has been observed along the 60 km long coast of southern La
Union, Philippines.
Meanwhile, El Niño events in the Philippines have significantly reduced water inflows
into major watersheds, reservoirs and other impoundments, thus, causing considerable strain
on water resources. As a result, water for households and irrigated agriculture have been
severely curtailed, especially in Metro Manila. During severe El Niño-driven droughts, water
for agriculture has been sacrificed in favor of domestic and industrial water supply seriously
impairing agricultural land productivity during the period (Moya and Malayang, 2004).
The freshwater demand of the Philippines totals approximately 30.65 billion cubic
meters (bcm), which is currently met by the supply of groundwater and surface water,
constituting approximately 20.20 bcm and 125.80 bcm, respectively. Surface water from lakes,
artificial reservoirs, rivers, and streams accounts for 98.1% of the total water extracted, while
the remaining 1.9% is extracted from groundwater reservoirs (PSA, 2016).
The Philippines currently uses approximately 21% of its total water resource potential,
although nearly one-quarter of the country’s municipalities (332 of 1,488 total) do not have
access to piped water (Tecson-Mendoza, 2004). In addition to surface-water sources,
groundwater accounts for approximately 15% of the total water resource potential of the
Philippines. The regions with the most abundant groundwater potential compared with
surface-water potential are Regions I and VII, in contrast to Region X, which has the lowest
potential groundwater reserves (State of Water: Philippines, n.d.).
Potential groundwater reserves are particularly important for domestic consumption,
considering that 86% of the piped water originates from groundwater sources, and half of the
population depends on groundwater as its principal source of drinking water. The
simultaneous growth of the population and the economy has generated additional freshwater
demand distributed across the agricultural (74% of total demand), domestic (17%), and
industrial (9%) sectors. This has directly contributed to the precipitous decline in the per
capita renewable water resources in the Philippines in the past half century. From 1962 to
2017, the total annual internal renewable water resources per capita decreased by nearly
75%, from 17,060 bcm to just 4,554 bcm (AQUASTAT, n.d.).
Considering the significant increase in groundwater demand since the time of the
study, there is reason to believe that recharge levels may already be significantly lower. This
decline in terms of the quantity of renewable water resources is coupled with the continuous
decline in water quality brought about by the growing population, urbanization, and industrial
development. A recent report by the DENR titled “Progress of Water Environment Governance
in the Philippines” highlights several indicators of freshwater quality (Tuddao, 2019).
For example, at present, nearly half of the Philippines’ major rivers (180 of 421 in
total) are classified as relatively polluted or degraded (Tuddao, 2019). In addition, an
estimated 7,465 million cubic meters of wastewater are produced annually by the municipal
and agricultural sectors, and an undisclosed amount is generated by other sectors such as
industry and energy (Tuddao, 2019). Approximately 10% of this total wastewater volume is
treated, whereas the rest contributes to runoff and seepage that can contaminate
groundwater, surface water, and marine water. Perhaps unsurprisingly then, 18 of the 19
bathing beaches in Manila Bay exhibited fecal coliform counts below the sanitary threshold
(200 MPN/100 mL) (Tuddao, 2019).
The scarcity and contamination of water resources directly affect food production by
the agricultural and fisheries sectors, with potential consequences for nutrition and health.
The Philippine food systems that are intensively farmed with synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides often introduce nitrates and chemical contaminants into the water systems
through runoff and leaching (Bouman et al., 2002; Tirado, 2007).
Studies in intensive agricultural areas in the Philippines found elevated levels of
nitrates in groundwater, exposing farming communities that consume well water to both acute
and long-term health effects (Greer et al., 2005).
At the same time, runoff and leaching of contaminated soil and surfaces can
contaminate domestic water sources in urban and peri-urban areas, such as Metro Cebu
(Galarpe, 2012).
Moreover, toxins present in contaminated groundwater, such as arsenic, can
accumulate through the food chain, potentially compromising meat and dairy (Rahman, 2009).
For freshwater and marine fisheries, nitrogen pollution from runoff causes
eutrophication that can result in the death of fish and invertebrates and the creation of toxic
and overabundant algae blooms (Tirado, 2007).
These studies and other anecdotal evidence help to illustrate the existing challenges
to the Philippines’ water resources, many of which are compounded or exacerbated by climate
change.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON CROP PESTS AND DISEASES

Changing climatic conditions, including temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events,

and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, can result in an increased incidence and
severity of outbreaks of crop pathogens (Porter et al., 2014).
 By creating optimal conditions for the reproduction of pests and diseases, climate
change is likely to affect the existing temporal and geographic distribution of plant pathogens
globally, with specific ramifications in the Philippines. The expected impacts include the
emergence of diseases in new regions, variations in host physiology that change the host-
pathogen relationship, and increased disease resistance (Ghini et al., 2008; Ho Won Chung
et al., 2009).
Climate change might also affect pathogen population dynamics such as the
overwintering, survival, and number of generations of polycyclic pathogens (Juroszek and von
Tiedemann, 2013).
This environmental variability might also influence gene flow, thus increasing the
diversity of pathogen populations and thereby causing changes in host resistance, pathogen
virulence, and host-pathogen interaction (Cairns et al., 2012).
Finally, climate change will likely also render existing plant disease control measures
less effective or ineffective (Chakraborty et al., 2000; Ghini et al., 2008).
For all of these reasons, climate change is likely to induce the outbreak of disease in
many crops that are considered dietary and livelihood staples in the tropics, including in the
Philippines (Boonekamp, 2012).
Although changing rainfall patterns, hotter and more humid conditions, and more
regular monsoon and flood events have far-reaching implications for most crops in the
Philippines, this study will focus on the impact of climate change on pests and diseases for
three key value chains: rice, maize, and banana. These three value chains are among the most
important in the Philippines from both a dietary and economic perspective as they are widely
consumed and their production is a key source of income for farmers and agricultural laborers.
 All the mentioned impacts of climate change represent a large burden for human
livelihood and natural diversity in the country. Many are directly dependent on agriculture or
aquaculture, sectors themselves strongly dependent on climatic conditions.
For agriculture, many purdens are listed in the literature: droughts, saltwater intrusion,
SLR, TCs, temperature increase (in particular nighttime), orecipitation patterns, diseases,
insects and land degradation. SLR and saltwater intrusion only play a minor role, as
agriculture in the country does not take place in coastal areas (World Bank, 2013).
For the other stressors, it is not possible to judge which one is the most important.
This depends on tne region and the present conditions, i.e. type and variety of crops, distance
to flood prone areas, etc. Droughts have been shown to have a widespread impact on the
country’s food supply in the past. According to the literature, this could be more frequent in
the future (Taylor et al., 2012; Siimann et al., 2013: Villafuerte et al., 2014) and will also be
amplified by population growth.
As these burdens will impact agricultural yields that are already under the above-
mentioned pressures, adequate adaptation measure should be taken. Famines can be
buffered with the national or global market. Therefore, infrastructures and logistics have to
be available. Another interesting argument in the literature is that people had already in the
past shown their ability to deal with certain climate variability but, in combination with more
stressors, this could be overextended (Fuentes and Conception, 2007; IPCC, 2014). They
further argue for using this indigenous knowledge for future adaptation strategies.
The study could only supply a limited amount of knowledge about the spatial
distribution of vulnerability to climate change. The most vulnerable areas are arguably the
areas that are prone to droughts and whose inhabitants are strongly dependent on agricultural
yields as food ana income source.
While compiling the literature on the impacts of climate change in the country, some
research questions remain unanswered.
 B. THE PHILIPPINE ADAPTATION AND RESPONSE
IN ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change adaptation in the Philippines is being incorporated into development

plans and policies that specifically target national and local climate vulnerabilities.
Some positive coping strategies adopted to address food insecurity can also be
considered adaptation strategies. Income diversification is a significant factor that affects the
nutritional status of children: households characterized by solely farm-based livelihoods had
poorer childhood nutrition indicators, while households with off-farm or a mix of on-farm and
off-farm income sources had better childhood nutrition (Roa, 2007).
A World Bank (2003) study confirms that post-disaster coping mechanisms that
combat unemployment and inflation often include diversification of livelihood strategies. For
example, following the 1997 - 1998 El Niño season, many households diversified their on-farm
income by introducing new crops (vegetables and root crops) and off-farm income by
engaging in alternative and additional activities, such as sewing, carpentry, and construction
(World Bank, 2003).
The study likewise finds that informal loans decrease as rainfall shocks increase,
suggesting that borrowers and lenders may be experiencing similar shocks, which would
diminish the effectiveness of local risk-sharing arrangements (Pajaron, 2014). This is crucially
important for understanding how communities farming heterogeneous crops, livestock,
and/or fish will be able to cope with the impact of climate-related hazards that affect entire
areas or regions. According to the Philippines National Nutrition Survey (2015), the daily
intake of poultry was around 50 grams for the wealthiest quintile and less than 10 grams for
the poorest quintile. A 2018 WFP study on nutrition in the Philippines found that the
wealthiest quintile of the population consumes six times as much meat and five times as
much poultry as farmers in the poorest wealth quintile (WFP, 2018).
An important approach in the Philippines is Shock Responsive Social Protections
(SRSPs). For example, in the aftermath of the devastation caused by Typhoon Haiyan
(Yolanda) in central Philippines in 2013, the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (referred
to here as Pantawid) social protection program, with its core focus on social welfare and
poverty reduction, including a conditional cash transfer program, was implemented and
vertically expanded in scope by numerous aid agencies (WFP, UNICEF) to transition at least
in part from in-kind to cash assistance (Smith et al., 2017).
Two independent impact studies on the effectiveness of conditional cash transfers as
a form of emergency disaster relief that supports coping for the most vulnerable suggest that
the scaling of the success of these programs was contingent on the pre-existing network,
efficiency, and accessibility of the Pantawid network that allowed for a quicker and more
efficient dissemination of resources to households that were most predisposed to food and
nutrition shocks (Smith et al., 2017).
Following the success of the social protections scaling approach, stakeholders,
including the government of the Philippines, NGOs, the United Nations, and donors, found
consensus on the potential for a National Emergency Cash Transfer program augmenting
Pantawid for natural disasters (Smith et al., 2017).

National-Level Adaptation Strategies

The first significant recognition by the state to sustainable development was set out
in the 1987 Constitution by stating that “the policy of the State to protect and advance the
right of the Filipino people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and
harmony of nature”.
In 1991, the Philippines began to address the issue of climate change in its thrust to
achieve sustainable development with the formulation of the Philippine Strategy for
Sustainable Development (PSSD). Immediately, thereafter, the country officially adopted the
Agenda 21 by formulating the Philippine Agenda 21. This document serves as the overarching
framework to lay down the national agenda for sustainable development for the 21st century
geared towards having a “harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible
governance, social cohesion and harmony and ecological integrity to ensure that development
is a life-enhancing process. The ultimate aim of development is human development now and
through future generations” (Asuncion D. Merilo 2008).
The Philippines was one of the first countries to set up a national committee to discuss
and develop positions on climate change prior to the establishment of the Intergovernmental
Negotiating Committee, which then negotiated the UNFCCC (Asuncion D. Merilo 2008). The
UNFCCC, ratified on April 15, 1998, committed the country to the provisions set for a Non-
Annex 1 Party to curb GHG emissions even when the Philippines does not have any
responsibility or commitment to reduce or limit its anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases (Asuncion D. Merilo 2001).
The DENR is the technical focal point recognized by the UNFCCC and international
community while the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) serves as the political focal point.
One of the commitments of the Parties to the UNFCCC is to incorporate climate change
consideration, when feasible, in relevant social, economic and environmental policies and
actions. The following laws explicitly address climate change:
• Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (1997) establishes that the Department
of Agriculture together with other appropriate agencies, should take into account
climate change, weather disturbances and annual productivity cycles in order to
forecast and formulate appropriate agricultural and fisheries programs.
• Philippine Clear Air Act (1999) provides that the DENR together with concerned
agencies and LGUs prepare and implement national plans that are in accordance with
UNFCCC and other international agreements, conventions and protocols on reducing
greenhouse emissions. In addition it establishes that meteorological factors affecting
ozone depletion and GHGs should be monitored and standards set (Asuncion D. Merilo
2008).
• Biofuels Act (2006) mandates and provides incentives for the use of biofuels and the
phasing out of harmful gasoline additives and/ or oxygenates in order to, among
others, mitigate toxic and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Renewable Energy Bill (2008) seeks to, among others, encourage the development and
utilization of renewable energy resources as tools to effectively prevent or reduce
harmful emissions and thereby balance the goals of economic growth and
development with the protection of health and the environment.

Disaster Management
Disaster management is organized around the principles set out in the Presidential
Decree PD1566, promulgated on 11 June 1978. PD1566 established the National Disaster
Coordinating Council (NDCC) as the highest policy-making body on matters pertaining to
disasters, advising the President. It stipulates:
 • State policy on self-reliance among local officials and their constituents in responding
to emergencies and disasters
• Each political and administrative subdivision to utilize all available resources in the
area before requesting assistance from neighboring or higher authority
• Primary responsibility rests on government agencies in the affected areas in
coordination with the people themselves
• Government departments, bureaus and agencies should have documented plans
• Planning and operation shall be done at the barangay level in an inter-agency,
multisectoral basis to optimize resource utilization
• Responsibility for leadership rests on the Provincial Governor, City/Municipal Mayor
and Barangay Chairman
• When an emergency covering several towns or cities occurs the Provincial Governor
assumes operational control
• Periodic exercises to be conducted at all levels, principally in barangays.

Climate Change Oversight and Coordination

In 2007, Administrative Order 171 was issued to create a Presidential Task Force on
Climate Change (PTFCC), integrated by seven governmental agencies.12 Its mandate is to
address and mitigate the impact of climate change in the Philippines, paying special attention
to adaptation, mitigation and technological solutions. In particular, the task force focuses on
improving compliance to air emission standards and acts to combat deforestation and
environmental degradation.
The functions of the PTFCC include:
• Conduct rapid assessments on the impact of climate change, particularly on vulnerable
sectors such as: water resources, agriculture, coastal areas, terrestrial and marine
ecosystems;
• Ensure compliance to air emission standards and combat deforestation and
environmental degradation;
• Undertake and initiate strategic approaches and measures to prevent or reduce GHG
emissions;
• Conduct nationwide massive and comprehensive public information and awareness
campaigns;
 • Design concrete risk reduction and mitigation measures and adaptation responses,
especially on short-term vulnerabilities on sectors and areas where climate change
will have the greatest impact;
• Collaborate with international partners to stabilize GHG emissions and
• Integrate and mainstream climate risk management into development policies, plans
and programs of the government.

Climate Change Act of 2009 (Republic Act No. 9729 of 2009)

This Act aims to integrate disaster risk reduction measures into climate change
adaptation plans, development and poverty reduction programs. It recognizes the vulnerability
of the Philippine archipelago and its local communities, particularly the poor, women, and
children, to potential dangerous consequences of climate change such as rising seas,
changing landscapes, increasing frequency and/or severity of droughts, fires, floods and
storms, climate-related illnesses and diseases, damage to ecosystems, biodiversity loss that
affect the country’s environment, culture, and economy.
The Act provides for the establishment of a Climate Change Commission to formulate
and implement plans for the country to cushion the impact of natural disasters. The
Commission shall be an independent and autonomous body and shall have the same status
as that of a national government agency. The Commission shall be the sole policy-making
body of the government which shall be tasked to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the
programs and action plans of the government relating to climate change.
The Commission shall formulate a Framework Strategy on Climate Change to serve as
a basis for a program for climate change planning, research and development, extension, and
monitoring of activities to protect vulnerable communities from the adverse effects of climate
change. The Framework shall be formulated based on climate change vulnerabilities, specific
adaptation needs, and mitigation potential and in accordance with international agreements.
The Commission shall also formulate a National Climate Change Action Plan in
accordance with the Framework. The local government units shall be the frontline agencies
in the formulation planning and implementation of climate change actions plans in their
respective areas.

Financing Facilities for Climate Change

Mitigation and Adaptation

There is now a broader array and more resources available for climate change
initiatives. The following are the various climate change funding facilities being managed by
the World Bank15:

Mitigation
Carbon Funds and Facilities
i) Carbon Partnership Facility (CPF) – This facility finances investment programs that
have the potential to transform emission intensive sectors in client countries. It
makes a market for long-term GHG reductions and offers a platform for systematic
collaboration of public and private sector partners from developed and developing
countries.

ii) Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) – This seeks to develop capacity for
countries to participate in a system of positive incentives for Reduced Emissions
from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) and at piloting carbon payments for
REDD

iii) Remaining CF facilities managed by the Bank that can still be accessed for CDM
projects that would go in operation before 2012 or the end of the first commitment
period of the Kyoto Protocol. IFC Carbon Delivery Facility – This provides credit
enhancement and guarantees the delivery obligation of projects for a risk-based
guarantee fee. The premium in pricing obtained by a AAA-rated seller in the
secondary markets is passed on to the projects net of guarantee fees.

Adaptation

Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) – In partnership within the
UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), this facility seeks to build capacities
to enhance disaster resilience and adaptive capacities in changing climate.

Blended
Climate Investment Funds
(i) Clean Technology Fund (CTF) – This facility provides new, large-scale
financial resources to invest in projects and programs in developing
countries which contribute to the demonstration, deployment, and transfer
of low-carbon technologies. The projects or programs must have a
significant potential for long-term greenhouse gas savings.
(ii) Strategic Climate Fund (SCF)- This facility is broader and more flexible in
scope and will serve as an overarching fund for various programs to test
innovative approaches to climate change. The first such program is aimed
at increasing climate resilience in developing countries.
 III
ANALYSIS

CONCLUSION

The aim of this study analysis is to give an overview of the existing literature for climate
change impacts in the Philippines and to compile the corresponding adaptation regarding
climate changed. It is important to remember that with or without climate change or global
warming, climate variations will still be present in the global system that will affect a wide
range of human activities. In relation to impacts of climate variations on hydrology and water
resources, future repetition of extreme climate events that affect rainfall and inflow can be
expected. These events should be planned for. Some considerations should be given to the
fact that the effects of these extreme events are now compounded with the impacts of
population growth and accompanying changes in land and water use. Along this line, more
research activities are needed.
This study aims to enhance the understanding of the potential risks and impacts of
climate change on food security and nutrition in the Philippines. Climate variability and
hazards are projected to continue having a substantial impact on agricultural, livestock, and
fishery supply chains that will affect all aspects from production to distribution to
consumption across both urban and rural sectors. This in turn affects the availability,
affordability and accessibility to nutritious food, particularly for the most vulnerable, poor and
marginalized populations.
By analyzing climate change through both geospatial and livelihood lenses, this study
highlights that the effects of climate change and climate hazards can significantly vary at the
local and regional level, and also nationwide for particular types of livelihoods. Both the urban
and rural poor that are already afflicted by indicators of food and nutrition insecurity are the
most vulnerable, particularly rural families whose livelihoods are almost exclusively
dependent on agricultural income. They are generally also the most vulnerable to hazards and
shocks due to the compounding loss of productive and non-productive assets as well as the
lack of alternative sources of income.
Finally, adapting, strengthening, and scaling up shock-responsive social safety net
programs that are proven to be effective in supporting vulnerable communities before and
right after extreme climate hazards will be an important component of an effective national
strategy towards food security, especially in the new reality of compound disasters that the
COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted at a global scale. It is now more apparent than ever that
we need to shift from recurrent crisis response to forward-looking climate risk management.
Moreover, we need to develop proactive plans and programs that take into account
the systemic nature of current and future disaster risks and how impacts from different
hazards interact with and reinforce each other. Going forward, WFP will work with the
Philippine government and partners to identify and co-develop the most appropriate policies
and programs to implement in order to prepare for climate risks, respond to climate-related
disasters and adapt to longer-term climate change.
This next step will also include working with provincial and local government actors to
enhance their awareness and capacity to integrate these climate risk data and analytical
insights into their planning processes to help address future climate-related impacts on
communities’ food security and livelihoods.

RECCOMENDATIONS

Solutions that address medium- to long-term climate risks are necessary to

complement the groundbreaking disaster risk management initiatives being implemented in
the Philippines at the moment, with key innovations being scaled-up including forecast-based
anticipatory actions to mitigate losses and damages from predictable climate hazards, and
the development of last mile climate information services that enable smallholder farmers to
make informed decisions against climate variability and change.
Understanding the key risks and vulnerabilities such as through this highly localized
analysis of climate-related impacts on critical value chains and livelihood groups is a first, yet
very important, step in order to identify the most appropriate policies and programs that WFP,
the Philippine government, and partners should consider in their effort towards building
resilient food systems and achieving Zero Hunger.
Medium- and long-term climate projections for key types of crops, climate risk
susceptibility index for selected natural hazards, socio-economic indicators and rural-urban
dynamics. The overlay of livelihood zones, crop suitability, hazard index and socio-economic
data at the city and municipal level, as shown in this report, can provide national agencies
and provincial governments with important data-driven insights to inform the design of
tailored climate change adaptation and mitigation measures. Both informal and formal coping
strategies have supported and will continue to support households against the impact of
climate change and extreme climate hazards.
However, tailored measures aimed at mitigating the effects of shocks and preparing
households to adapt can go a long way in decreasing the incidence and severity of food and
nutrition insecurity across the country. These can include inclusive programs and policies
aimed at strengthening food production and distribution systems as well as enhancing
producers’ and consumers’ access to efficient value chains for prioritized nutritious foods in
order to improve the communities’ resilience to severe climate shocks.
In addition, context-sensitive programs and policies that facilitate the provision of
technical support and inputs to smallholder farmers for crop and livelihood diversification, the
enhanced access of farmers to agricultural macro- or micro-insurance and credit schemes,
as well as the construction and rehabilitation of disaster- and climate-resilient rural
infrastructure and assets, can help tackle the key risks identified in this report.
Overall, there is a need to develop a comprehensive and strategic approach at country
level to better understand, prepare for and manage these risks across different timeframes –
from the current season to the coming decades. Accordingly, as a next step to fully utilizing
this rich foundation of data, WFP will continue to support governments at all levels to conduct
additional analyses, including at regional level, on specific crops or other priority topics of
concern.
These will be published in the form of complementary thematic reports. It is the hope
of WFP that the CCFSA study can provide academic institutions in the Philippines with the
basic information and momentum to further pursue local-level analytical studies on the
intersections of climate change and food security across the country, especially focusing on
the geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas. Strengthening this type of multisectoral
collaboration at the local and national levels will be invaluable in our joint effort to protect the
most vulnerable against climate change and improve the resilience of Filipinos in the years to
come.
 REFERENCES:

INTERNET SITES

Arnfield, A. J. (2003). Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of
energy and water, and the urban heat ‘sland. international journal of Climatology, 23(1), 1-26. Retrieved
from http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/joc.859

AQUASTAT. n.d. Philippines internal renewable water resources per capita, 1958-2020. Retrieved 3
May 2021 from https://bit.ly/2WIAkyU (Accessed 5 May 2021)

Buan RD et al. 1996. Vulnerability of rice and corn to climate change in the Philippines. In: Erda L et al
(eds.). Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation in Asia and the Pacific. Springer, Dordrecht.
Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1053-4_4

Brody, A., Demetriades, J., & Esplen, E. (2008). Gender and climate change : mapping the linkages A
scoping study on knowledge and gaps. BRIDGE Institute of Development Studies. BRIDGE Institute of
Development Studies, University Of SUSSEX, Brooks, N., & Adger, W. N. (2003). Country level risk
measures of climate-related natural disasters and implications for agaptation to climate change.
Change, 26(January), 20. Retrieved from http://www.uea.ac.uk/env/people/adgerwn/wp26.pdi

Climate Change and the Philippines Executive Brief. 2018. Available at: https://bit.ly/3jqeMPw Climate
Change Commission. n.d. Available at: https://bit.ly/3rRcjkI European Environment Agency (EEA).
(2020). Climate impacts on water resources. Available at: https://bit.ly/3frYeW7

https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000133650/download/ PHILIPPINE CLIMATE CHANGE

AND FOOD SECURITY ANALYSIS STUDY. November 2021

https? chr.gov.ph/Literature-Review-of-Studies-Related-to-Climate-Change. Impacts in the

Philippines-by-Carsten-Walther.pdf.2021

Perez, R. T. undated. "Assessment of vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in the Philippines
coastal resources sector". Online. Accessed 5 May 2008. Available at: http://www. survas. Mdx
ac.uk/pdfs/3perez.pdf.

PAGASA (dost.gov.ph)
World Bank. (2013b). Turn Down The Heat: Why a 4°C Warmer World Must Be Avoided. Washington
D.C, Retrieved frohttos://apenknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/109386/11860

WMO. (2014). Indonesian Climate Field School Supports Food Security. Retrieved February 20, 2015,
from hito://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/news/IndonesianClimate
FieldSchool_en.ntm

JOURNALS

ADB. 2008. Summary of the Proceeding on t he National Consultation for the Philippines RETA 6427-
A Regional Review of the Economics of Climate Change in SouthEast Asia. Meeting held in Discovery
Suites, Manila. 29 April 2008.

Aida M. Jose, Raquel V. Francisco and Nathaniel A. Cruz. Journal of Philippine Development, “STUDY
ON THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY/CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINE”.
Number47, VolumeXXVI, No. 1, First Semester 1999.

Choi G; Collins D; Ren G; Trewin B; Baldi M; Fukuda Y; Karori M; Pianmana T; Gomboluudev P; Huong
P; Lias N; Kwon W-T; Boo K-O; Cha Y-M; Yaqing Z. 2009. Changes in means and extreme events of
temperature and precipitation in the Asia-Pacific Network region, 1955-2007. International Journal of
Climatology 29:1906−1925. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1979

Cinco TA et al. 2016. Observed trends and impacts of tropical cyclones in the Philippines. International
Journal of Climatology 36(14):4638–4650. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4659

Capili, E., A. Ibay, and J. Villarin. 2005. "Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts".
Paper presented at the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005, Washington
D.C., USA. Climatic Resource Unit, World Wildlife Fund. 1999. Climate Change Scenarios for the
Philippines.

IPCC – International Panel on Climate Change. 2001. Third Assessment Report. IPCC, Geneva,
Switzerland.

IPCC – International Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. IPCC, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Ed. 2005. CDM Country Guide for the Philippines,
Ministry of the Environment, Japan.

Jose A. M. 1992. Preliminary Assessment of the 1991-1992 ENSO-related Drought Event in the
Philippines. PAGASA, Quezon City,

Lasco, R. D., K. L. Villegas, P. A. Jaranilla-Sanchez and G. B. Villamor. 2006. Climate Change R&D at
the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF)- Philippines. ASEAN JAPAN project on Multifunctionality of
Agriculture and the 3 UN Conventions on Biodiversity, Climate Change and Land Degradation, Cebu
City.

Moya, T.B. and B.S. Malayang III. 2004. Climate Variability and Deforestation Reforestation Dynamics
in the Philippines. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 6 (1-2): 261-277. National Economic
and Development Authority. 2004. Medium-Term Philippine Development Pl

Maunder, W. J. 1993. Global Warming. Change of Climate or Part of Climate? WMO Bulletin, Vol. 42,
No. 2, April 1993.

PCARRD - Philippine Council for Agricultural Resources Research and Development. 2001. El Niño
Southern Oscillation: Mitigating Measures. Los Baños, Philippines, PCARRD.

Republic of the Philippines. 1999. The Philippines' Initial National Communication on Climate Change.
World Bank. “Development and Climate Change: A Strategic Framework for the World Bank Group.” A
Report to the Development Committee. October 12, 2008. Washington, D.C.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO). 1993. Special Topics on Climate. Lectures Presented at the
Forty-second Session of the WMO Executive Council Secretariat of WMO. Geneva, Switzerland

BOOKS/UNPUBLISHED THESIS

Amano, L.O., Amano, V. L., & Candelaria, A. P. (2012). GOOD PRACTICES FOR DISASTER RISK
REDUCTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION FOR RAINFED AND UPLAND AGRO-
ECOLOGICAL ZONES, PHILIPPINES. Final Report BICOL UNIVERSITY

Jose, A.M. and N.A. Cruz. 1999. Climate Change Impacts and Responses in the Philippines: Water
Resources. Climate Research, Volume 12, pp. 77-84 (August 27).
Jose, A.M. and N.A. Cruz. 1999. Climate Change Impacts and Responses in the Philippines: Water
Resources. Climate Research, Volume 12, pp. 77-84 (August 27).
Ebi, K.L., N.D. Lewis and C. Corvalan. 2006. Climate Variability and Change and Their Potential Health
Effects in Small Island States: Information for Adaptation Planning in the Health Sector. Environmental
Health Perspectives, Vol. 114, No. 12.

Jose, A. M. 1989. Seasonal Rainfall Prediction in the Philippines. Doctoral Thesis. University of the
Philippines, 179 p.

Maria Fernanda Garcia Rincón Felizardo K. Virtucio, Jr. Climate Change in the Philippines: A
Contribution to the Country Environmental Analysis. Consultative Workshops held in Manila,
Philippines on June 16-17 2008 and on November 18-19, 2008.

Reibsame, W, E. 1989. Assessing the Social Implications of Climate Fluctuations. Department of

Geophysical and Natural Hazards Research and Applications. University of Colorado, 82 p.