Journal of Sustainable Forestry

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Soil carbon stock assessment in the tropical dry

deciduous forest of the Sathanur reserve forest of
Eastern Ghats, India

Durai Sanjay Gandhi & Somaiah Sundarapandian

To cite this article: Durai Sanjay Gandhi & Somaiah Sundarapandian (2017) Soil
carbon stock assessment in the tropical dry deciduous forest of the Sathanur reserve
forest of Eastern Ghats, India, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 36:4, 358-374, DOI:
10.1080/10549811.2017.1308870

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1308870

Published online: 17 Apr 2017.

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JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY
2017, VOL. 36, NO. 4, 358–374
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1308870

Soil carbon stock assessment in the tropical dry deciduous

forest of the Sathanur reserve forest of Eastern Ghats, India
Durai Sanjay Gandhi and Somaiah Sundarapandian
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Climate change and carbon mitigation through forest ecosystems are Carbon mitigation; carbon
some of the important topics in global perspective. Tropical dry forests storage; Eastern Ghats; soil
are one of the most widely distributed ecosystems in tropics, which organic carbon; tropical dry
remain neglected in research. The soil organic carbon (SOC) stock was forest
quantified on a large scale (30 1-ha plots) in the dry deciduous forest
of the Sathanur reserve forest of Eastern Ghats. The SOC stock ranged
from 16.92 to 44.65 Mg/ha with a mean value of 28.26 ± 1.35 Mg/ha.
SOC exhibited a negative trend with an increase in soil depth. A
significant positive correlation was obtained between SOC stocks and
vegetation characteristics viz. tree density, shrub basal area, and herb
species richness, while a significant negative correlation was observed
with bulk density. The variation in SOC stock among the plots obtained
in the present study could be due to differences in tree abundance,
herb species richness, shrub basal area, soil pH, soil bulk density, soil
texture etc. The present study generates a large-scale baseline data of
dry deciduous forest SOC stock, which would facilitate SOC stock
assessment at the national level as well as to understand its contribu-
tion on a global scale.

Introduction
Climate change is perhaps the most pressing global issues in the present scenario. The
carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has raised from 277 ppm in 1750 (Joos &
Spahni, 2008) to 406.42 ppm on February 2017 (NOAA, 2017), leading to a subsequent
escalation of global temperature. Forest ecosystems play a significant role in climate change
and mitigation of CO2 from the atmosphere. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is also an integral
component of the global carbon cycle (Doetterl et al., 2016), which also determines the
productivity and quality of the soil (Krishan, Srivastav, Kumar, Saha, & Dadhwal, 2009). Soil
accumulates four-fold higher carbon than vegetation and thrice than that of the atmosphere
(Jobbagy & Jackson, 2000; Lal, 2004a). Pan et al. (2011) stated that the world forest soils
hold 383 ± 30 Pg C up to a depth of 1 m, of which the tropical forest soils had the highest
proportion (~32%; Jobbagy & Jackson, 2000). However, Pan et al. (2011) stated that the
carbon distribution is about 32% in soil and 56% in vegetation in tropical forests. Tropical
forest soils exchange higher carbon with the atmosphere than any other terrestrial ecosystem
(Amundson et al., 2015; Beer et al., 2010; Raich & Schlesinger, 1992).

CONTACT Somaiah Sundarapandian smspandian65@gmail.com Department of Ecology and Environmental

Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wjsf.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 359

Using Harmonized World Soil Database (FAO, 2009), Hiederer and Kochy (2012)
estimated SOC on a global level and have obtained the values of 699 Pg C in the top
30 cm and 1417 Pg C at a depth of 1 m of the soil profile. In the top 100 cm of the soil
profile, nearly 50% of SOC are locked up in top 30 cm (Batjes, 1996; Hiederer, 2009;
Wang, Su, & Yang, 2014). The rate of accumulation of SOC in the top soil (0–30 cm)
ranged from 11.5 to 43.2 g/m2/yr, of which 70–90% accumulation was in 0–15 cm
(Boutton, Liao, Filley, & Archer, 2009). The top 0–30 cm soil profile is more dynamic
and plays a significant role in the carbon cycle due to organic matter input and associated
surface fine root dynamics, which is susceptible to anthropogenic pressures and natural
processes. Forest floor litter has a substantial amount of carbon. SOC storage in the
surface soil of forests is largely due to low rates of decomposition of forest floor litter.
SOC storage is relatively balanced by carbon input via plant production as well as carbon
output via decomposition. Therefore, estimation of SOC up to a depth of 30 cm is of
enormous importance.
A number of studies have been reported on the SOC stock of different forest types in
India and elsewhere (Chhabra, Palria, & Dadhwal, 2003; Gray, Bishop, & Wilson, 2015;
Gurmessa, Demessie, & Lemma, 2016; Jobbagy & Jackson, 2000; Lal, 2004a, 2004b;
Neumann-Cosel, Zimmermann, Jefferson, van Breugel, & Helmut, 2011; Paz et al., 2016;
Ramachandran, Jayakumar, Haroon, Bhaskaran, & Arockiasamy, 2007; Ravindranath,
Somasekhar, & Gadgil, 1997; Santos et al., 2015; Sheikh, Kumar, Bussman, & Todari,
2011; Sundarapandian, Dar, Gandhi, Srinivas, & Subashree, 2013; Tesfaye, Bravo, Ruiz-
Peinado, Pando, & Bravo-Oviedo, 2016; Throop, Archer, Monger, & Waltman, 2012; Tsui,
Tsai, & Chen, 2013; Venkanna et al., 2014). Yet, some forest types still remain unexplored.
The literature survey reveals that a study on soil carbon stock assessment in the tropical dry
deciduous forest of Eastern Ghats is very limited and in particular, published information
on the dry deciduous forest of the Sathanur reserve forest is not available. Understanding
the carbon stocking potential of different forest ecosystems in the Eastern Ghats is essential
in the current scenario. Hence, the present study has been undertaken to assess SOC stocks
in the dry deciduous forest ecosystem and also to understand the factors determining the
carbon sequestration potential in soil.

Study area
Around one-sixth of the area of Tiruvannamalai district is covered by reserve forests and
hills. The total forest cover of this area is 75,144 ha (Anonymous, 2016). The important
hills in this district are Tiruvannamalai, Javadi, and Kailasagiri hills. Physiographically,
this district forms an undulating terrain dotted with clusters of hillocks, particularly in the
west and northwest. Javadi hills are the major hilly regions and other smaller hillocks are
scattered in Tiruvannamalai, Chengam, Polur, Arni, and Kalasapakkam. The Sathanur
reserve forest (longitude 78° 51’ 10” and latitude 12° 4’ 48”), a part of Chennakesava hills,
Tamil Nadu, India, spread over 870 ha (Figure 1), was chosen for the present study. The
Eastern Ghats experience heavy pressures due to illegal logging, collection of fodder,
fuelwood, medicinal plants, etc. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the vegetation
of Eastern Ghats is of tropical dry deciduous type. The vegetation in this region is mainly
dry deciduous and thorn forests (Champion & Seth, 1968). Nevertheless, evergreen and
semi-evergreen forests are also present in the high altitudes.
360 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

Figure 1. Study area map of Sathanur reserve forest of Eastern Ghats, India.

The Sathanur reserve forest receives a bimodal pattern of rainfall, with the maximum
rain during north-east monsoon (September–December) and very less and inconsistent
rainfall during the south-west monsoon (May–July). The average annual rainfall for 44-yr
(1972–2015) was 965.49 mm and mean monthly maximum temperatures ranged between
28°C and 37°C, while mean monthly minimum temperatures varied from 19.6°C to 26.8°C
(Figure 2). The major soil types in the district are red loam and black soil and the red loam
soil is predominantly found in the Sathanur reserve forest (NADP, 2008). The color of the
soil was mostly red throughout the study area and the texture of the soil was sandy loam
in most of the plots while the plots near to the rivulet were sandier than the other study
sites. However, pebbles are abundant in the soil in most of the plots.
A total of 30 1-ha plots were selected within the radius of 10 km in the Sathanur reserve
forest for the present study. The vegetation type in the Sathanur reserve forest is the
tropical dry deciduous forest. In most of the trees, leaf fall occurs between December and
February. Albizia amara was the most dominant tree species followed by Chloroxylon
swietenia, Azadirachta indica, Pongamia pinnata, and Acacia catechu. Lantana camara,
Clausena heptaphylla, and Tarenna asiatica were the predominant shrub species encoun-
tered across the study plots (Gandhi, 2016). The herbaceous community of the study plots
was dominated by Sida cordifolia, Ageratum conyzoides, and Sida acuta. Pterolobium
hexapetalum was the predominant climber species across the study plots followed by
Combretum albidum and Acacia caesia. Alien invasive species such as Lantana camara
(100% of the plots), Ageratum conyzoides (93%), and Prosopis juliflora (43%) were most
commonly distributed in the study plots. Some plots (plot no. 1–10) in the present study
were laid near roads, human settlement or the agricultural fields which are more vulner-
able to human exploitation. The tree species richness was found to be low in these plots
(plot no. 1–10 except for 1, 7, and 10) compared to other study plots while shrub and herb
species richness are observed to be higher in these plots. Although the study area is a
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 361

250 Rainfall (mm) Max. temp. Min. temp 40

35
200
30

Temperature (°C)
25
Rainfall (mm)

150

20

100
15

10
50
5

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

Figure 2. Mean monthly rainfall (44 yr) and temperature (study period) of the Sathanur reserve forest,
Eastern Ghats.

reserve forest, locals frequently cut trees and collect firewood, lop branches, and graze
their cattle. Illegal selective cutting of Chloroxylon swietenia for fencing, agricultural tools
and other domestic purposes and Albizia amara for firewood are quite frequent in this
forest. This kind of selective cutting may result in coppicing of those species which could
affect forest species composition and stand structure. This has resulted in higher density of
both the above-said species in the plots near to the road, agriculture field and settlements
which enhances the tree density in these plots. Due to greater tree abundance in these
plots, the abundance of herbaceous community is comparatively low here. Plots 11–20 are
relatively less disturbed than the other plots. Study plots (plot no. 21–30) were laid on
both the sides of a rivulet from Ponnaiyar river. In general, the plots near the rivulet are
also subjected to human disturbances that could have resulted in lower species richness.
The study area has a rocky terrain that would alter the structure of the forests. People
regularly use the rivulet for day to day activities. In addition, it also serves as a source of
drinking water for cattle and hence, these plots are also under high anthropogenic
pressures. These microclimatic variations among the plots could be the reason for the
significant spatial variation in species richness and abundance among the plots, even
though they are located within the radius of 10 km (Gandhi, 2016).

Methods
Soil samples were collected from all the plots by using soil core sampler (cylindrical corer
of diameter 3.5 cm) from December 2014 to February 2015. From each plot, 15 soil
samples were randomly collected at three different depths viz., 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, and
20–30 cm. A total of five composite samples in each plot were prepared by mixing three
362 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

sets together each for further analysis. Soil samples were first air-dried and sieved through
a 2 mm mesh. Following this, SOC was determined by chromic acid wet oxidation method
(Walkley, 1947). About 60–86% of SOC is oxidized in this titration method and hence, the
widely recommended standard correction factor of 1.58 was used (De Vos, Lettens, Muys,
& Deckers, 2007).
A total of ten undisturbed soil samples were taken from each plot from all the depths
for measuring soil pH and soil moisture (five samples each). A set of five samples were air-
dried and sieved using a 2 mm sieve for measuring pH. Soil pH was measured using a pH
meter (Elico LI 615) in a 1:2 (w/v) soil–water ratio. A set of five, fresh soil samples were
taken from which gravel, small stones and coarse roots are removed by passing through a
2 mm sieve. The fresh weight was measured in the field itself and the samples were
brought to the laboratory. The samples were kept in an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 72 h and
then re-weighed. The moisture content of the soil was determined from the difference of
initial and final readings.
A total of five undisturbed soil samples were taken from each plot from all the depths
for measuring bulk density. While taking these cores, extreme care was taken to avoid any
loss of soil from these samples. The soil samples were weighed, oven-dried at 105 ± 5°C
for 72 h and then re-weighed. The coarse fragments were separated by sieving and then
the samples were weighed. Soil bulk density and SOC stocks were computed using the
formulae of Pearson, Walker, and Brown (2005):

Oven dry mass ðg=m3 Þ
Bulk density g=m3 ¼
Core volumeðm3 Þ  ðMass of coarse fragmentsðgÞ=2:65ðg=cm3 ÞÞ

where 2.65 was taken as a constant for the density of rock fragments (g/cm3)



SOCðMg=haÞ ¼ soil bulk density g=m3  soil depthðcmÞ  C  100

Statistical analysis
The relationship of SOC stock with edaphic characteristics and vegetation parameters was
examined by linear regression using Microsoft Excel. One-way ANOVA was used to
compare the differences of SOC among the soil depths.

Results
Soil moisture and pH values showed wide variation among the study plots (Figure 3). Soil
pH ranged from 5.9 to 7.1 and the moisture content ranged from 1.28% to 24.0%. The soil
bulk density in 30 1-ha plots varied in different layers of the tropical dry deciduous forest
of Eastern Ghats (Figure 4). The mean value of the three layers ranged from 1.21 to 1.82 g/
m3. Soil bulk density ranged from 1.04 to 1.60 g/m3 in the surface layer (0–10 cm), 1.26 to
1.82 g/m3 in the middle layer (10–20 cm) and 1.36 to 2.01 g/m3 in the bottom layer (20–
30 cm). The soil bulk density exhibited a significant (P < 0.01) increase with increasing soil
depth in all the plots. Coarse fragment (>2 mm size) fraction showed wide variations
(33.9% of samples contain coarse fractions in all the three depths; 10.2% samples contain
coarse fractions in surface (0–10 cm) and middle (10–20 cm) layers; 15.3% samples
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 363

Moisture content pH
14 8

12 7

6
10
Soil moisture (%)

5
8

Soil pH
4
6
3
4
2

2 1

0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Plot number

Figure 3. Mean soil moisture and soil pH in tropical dry deciduous forest of Sathanur reserve forest,
Eastern Ghats.

0-10cm 10-20 cm 20-30cm

2.5

2
Bulk density (g/m3)

1.5

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Plot number

Figure 4. Bulk density of soil (mean±SE) in three different depths in tropical dry deciduous forest of
Sathanur reserve forest, Eastern Ghats.

contain coarse fractions in middle and bottom layers (20–30 cm); 6.7% samples have
coarse fractions only in the bottom layer) among the plots, samples, and depths. However,
33.9% of the samples collected did not have any coarse fragment.
364 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

1.6
0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm

1.4

1.2
Soil organic carbon (%)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Plot number

Figure 5. Soil organic carbon (%) at three different depths (mean±SE) in tropical dry deciduous forest
of Sathanur reserve forest, Eastern Ghats.

The SOC (%) significantly (P < 0.001) decreased with increase in soil depth (Figure 5).
SOC (%) ranged from 0.57 to 1.31% in the surface layer (0–10 cm) with a mean value of
0.83 ± 0.035%, 0.34–1.03% in the middle layer (10–20 cm) with a mean value of
0.626 ± 0.032% and 0.30–0.89% in the bottom layer (20–30 cm) with a mean value of
0.516 ± 0.028%. About 37.54% of SOC is accumulated in the surface layer followed by the
middle layer (33.41%) and bottom layer (29.04%).
The total SOC stock of 30 1-ha plots ranged from 16.92 Mg/ha to 44.65 Mg/ha with a
mean value of 28.26 ± 1.35 Mg/ha in the tropical dry deciduous forest of the Sathanur
reserve forest. SOC exhibited a negative trend with an increase in soil depth (Figure 6).
SOC ranged from 6.79 Mg/ha to 16.14 Mg/ha in soil surface layer (0–10 cm), 5.05 to
14.57 Mg/ha in middle layer (10–20 cm) and 5.01 to 13.95 Mg/ha in the bottom layer (20–
30 cm). The correlation and regression analyses of SOC with predicting variables are
presented in Table 1 and Figure 7. A significant positive correlation was obtained between
SOC stocks (Mg/ha) and some vegetation characteristics viz. tree density, shrub basal area,
and herb species richness while a significant negative correlation was observed with bulk
density and soil pH.

Discussion
In the present study, soil pH is slightly acidic in nature (pH ranged 5.9–7.1 in 30 1-ha plots)
which is on par with the findings observed in the recreational and natural forest in West
Bengal (5.90–7.01; Jana et al., 2010). However, the present study values are higher than the
tropical dry deciduous forest in West Bengal (4.3–4.94; Joshi, 2012), moist tropical forest of
Sunsari district, Nepal (5.6–6.6; Gautam & Mandal, 2013) and tropical forest stands in Malla
wildlife sanctuary, Sri Lanka (5.78–6.19; Kuruppuarachchi, Seneviratne, & Madurapperuma,
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 365

20 0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm

18

16
Soil organic carbon (Mg/ha)

14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Plot number

Figure 6. Soil organic carbon stocks (mean±SE) at three different depths in tropical dry deciduous
forest of Sathanur reserve forest, Eastern Ghats.

Table 1. Correlation (r-value) between soil organic carbon (SOC) and

predictor variables in tropical dry deciduous forest of the Sathanur
reserve forest, Eastern Ghats (AGB—aboveground biomass).
Predictor variables r-Value
Tree species richness −0.210
Tree density 0.687
Tree basal area 0.160
AGB 0.110
Shrub species richness 0.2948
Shrub density −0.093
Shrub basal area 0.519
Herb species richness 0.430
Herb density 0.055
Herb basal area 0.254
Climber species richness 0.275
Climber density −0.082
Climber basal area 0.166
Soil pH −0.567
Soil moisture −0.157
Bulk density 0.314 (−0.477*)
Note. *Bulk density correlated with soil organic carbon (%).

2016). Nevertheless, the present study values of bulk density are lower than the findings
reported in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh (6.3–7.8; Mastan, Anjali, Parveen, & Reddy,
2015). Tropical forest soils usually have an acidic range due to the organic acid formation
from the partially decomposed organic matter (Brouwer & Riezebos, 1998) in the upper
layers of the soil profile. Furthermore, the acidic pH could be possibly due to the presence of
acidic exudates (Shen, Wang, & Shi, 2001).
Besides natural phenomena like temperature and precipitation, another important
factor influencing SOC is the bulk density of soil (Chaudhari, Ahire, Vidya, Chkravarty,
& Maity, 2013; Perie & Ouimet, 2008; Tesfaye et al., 2016; Throop et al., 2012). The bulk
density varied from 1.21 to 1.82 g/m3 with a mean value of 1.47 ± 0.026 g/m3 in the dry
366 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

50 50 y = 0.4058x + 18.644
y = 0.0244x + 13.999
R² = 0.1845

Soil organic carbon (Mg/ha)

45
Soil organic carbon (Mg/ha)
45 R² = 0.4714
(P=0.000) 40 (P=0.017)
40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 0 10 20 30 40
Tree density (stems/ha) Herb species richness

y = -10.347x + 96.888 y = -0.4809x + 1.3625

50 1.4
R² = 0.3219 R² = 0.228
45 (P = 0.000)
Soil organic carbon (Mg/ha)

(P=0.0010) 1.2

Soil organic carbon (%)

40
35 1
30 0.8
25
20 0.6
15 0.4
10
0.2
5
0 0
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 1 1.5 2
Soil pH Bulk density (g/m3)

Figure 7. Relationship between soil organic carbon and predictor variables in tropical dry deciduous
forest of Sathanur reserve forest, Eastern Ghats.

deciduous forest of Eastern Ghats of the Sathanur reserve forest and the values are
comparable to other tropical forest reports: tropical dry evergreen forest in Sivagangai,
Tamil Nadu (Sundarapandian et al., 2013), dry tropical forest in Jharkhand (Kujur &
Patel, 2012) and Achanakmar Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve of Chhattisgarh (Iqbal &
Tiwari, 2016). The bulk density significantly increased with increase in depth of the soil.
Bulk density indicates the soil’s capacity to provide structural support, movement of
solutes and water in addition to soil aeration. The spatial variations in the bulk density
observed among the study plots could be attributed to variations (0–50.3%) in coarse
fragment fractions in the soil. Coarse fragment fraction is also one of the vital factors
influencing the bulk density (Throop et al., 2012). The bulk density of soils is closely
related to total porosity (Singh, Tewari, Kushwaha, & Dadhwal, 2011). Several earlier
studies also stated that the bulk density of a soil can be altered by soil type, texture, soil
organic matter and mineral composition (Neumann-Cosel et al., 2011; Santos et al., 2015).
The variations in SOC stocks could be due to species composition, litter quality and quantity,
soil type, texture, and chemistry (Kalies, Haubensak, & Finkral, 2016; Paz et al., 2016). The SOC
stock of the tropical dry deciduous forest ranged from 16.92 to 44.65 Mg/ha with a mean value of
28. 26 ± 1.35 Mg/ha, which is much higher than the values observed by previous studies in the
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 367

Eastern Ghats such as Andhra Pradesh (Mastan et al., 2015). However, the value is closer to
several reports (Table 2; Bhattacharyya, Pal, Mandal, & Velayutham, 2000; Brahim, Ibrahim, &
Hatira, 2014; Gray et al., 2015; Gupta, Sharma, & Kumar, 2014; Henry, Valentini, & Bernoux,
2009; Panwar & Gupta, 2013; Patil, Sen, Chatterji, Sarkar, & Handore, 2014; Paz et al., 2016;
Sundarapandian et al., 2013) while it is lower than the other reported values such as in tropical
dry deciduous forests of Odisha (57.9 Mg/ha, Sahu, Sharma, & Ravindranath, 2015), in a semi-
arid tropical forest of Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh (76.51 Mg/ha, Venkanna et al., 2014), in
the central Amazon forest (47.7–61.4 Mg/ha, Santos et al., 2015; 51.9–84.2 Mg/ha,
Vanlalfakawma, Lalnunmawia, & Tripathi, 2014), in the forest of Kolli hills, Tamil Nadu
(175–368 Mg/ha, Mohanraj, Saravanan, & Dhanakumar, 2011), in tropical and subtropical
forests of Africa (mean 57 Mg/ha, Kirsten, Kaaya, Klinger, & Feger, 2016). SOC stocks in the
top 50 cm ranged 8.9–177 Mg/ha in tropical dry and moist forests of India (Chhabra et al., 2003)
and our results are well within the above-mentioned range. However, our value is in the lower
end of the wide mean range (3.9–253.4 Mg/ha) of SOC stock in different land uses in India

Table 2. Comparison of soil organic carbon stocks of the present study with other studies.
Depth C stock
Vegetation/forest types Country /location (cm) (Mg/ha) Source
Studies from India
Tropical dry deciduous Sathanur reserve forest, 0–30 16–47 Present study
forest Eastern Ghats
Tropical dry forest Chhattisgarh 0–100 122.55 Iqbal & Tiwari, 2016
Three different land uses Andhra Pradesh 0–30 1.3–9.6 Mastan et al., 2015
Tropical dry forest Haryana 0–30 37. 6 Gupta et al., 2014
Tropical dry forest Haryana 0–30 58.24 Gupta & Sharma, 2014
Tropical dry forest Maharashtra 0–30 13.5–50.2 Patil et al., 2014
Tropical dry forest Haryana 0–30 9–14.08 Singh, Gupta, & Singh, 2014
Different forest types India 0–30 22.42– Velmurugan, Kumar, Dadhwal, &
(entire India) 100.33 Gupta, 2014
Different land uses Andhra Pradesh 0–60 87.29 Venkanna et al., 2014
Tropical dry forest Himachal Pradesh 0–30 36.04 Panwar & Gupta, 2013
Tropical dry forests Sivagangai district, 0–30 33.36–48.82 Sundarapandian et al., 2013
Tropical dry forest Uttar Pradesh 0–30 21.8 Chaturvedi, Raghubanshi, & Singh,
2011
Tropical forest Aravally mountain 172.84 Kumar, Kumar, Kumar, & Sajish,
2010
Tropical dry forest Kolli hills, Tamil Nadu 0–30 175–369 Mohanraj et al., 2011
Tropical forest Kolli hills, Tamil Nadu 0–90 63.19– Ramachandran et al., 2007
274.06
Tropical dry deciduous India 0–50 7.7–85. 6 Chhabra et al., 2003
forest
Studies from other countries
Tropical forest Tunisia 0–30 71.6–159.2 Brahim et al., 2014
Tropical forest Tanzania 0–100 169–224 Kirsten et al., 2016
Tropical secondary forest Australia 0–30 78.8 Paz et al., 2016
Tropical forest Cameroon 0–30 130.8 Tegha & Sendze, 2016
Different land uses Costa Rica 0–100 114–150 Chacon, Lorenz, Lal, Calhoun, &
Fausey, 2015
Tropical forests Ethiopia 0–30 168.2 Chinasho, Soromessa, & Bayable,
2015
Tropical dry forest Australia 0–30 29.98 Gray et al., 2015
Tropical dry forest Brazil 0–30 47.73–61.4 Santos et al., 2015
Sub-tropical forest Kathmandu 0–30 98 Bhandari & Bam, 2013
Tropical forest Uganda 0–30 54.6–82.6 Twongyirwe et al., 2013
Tropical forest Turkey 0–100 131.92 Tg Sakin & Sakin, 2011
Tropical monsoon forests Cambodia 0–30 53.2–108.7 Toriyama et al., 2011
Tropical forest Africa 0–30 4–82 Henry et al., 2009
Tropical forest Sweden 0–50 67–97 Olsson et al., 2009
368 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

reported by Sreenivas et al. (2016). The comparison of SOC values with other studies is difficult
because of the different methods used in estimation of SOC as well as differences/difficulties in
the measurement of bulk density of soils as suggested by Throop et al. (2012). SOC stock showed
variations among the study plots which could be attributed to tree density, shrub basal area, herb
species richness, bulk density, soil pH, soil texture, differences in anthropogenic pressure, etc. In
addition, the variations in SOC stock among the plots could be attributed to variations in coarse
fragment (>2 mm particle size present in the soil) fractions also. Campo and Merino (2016) also
stated that large spatial variation in SOC in seasonally dry forest soil is influenced by combined
effects of seasonal drought and length, quality and quantity of organic matter, which determine
the level of decomposition and associated sinking ability of the soil.
SOC (Mg/ha) was greater in the study plots (1–10) than in other plots which could be due
to higher density of vegetation and bulk density in the present study as observed by
Sundarapandian et al. (2013). Low SOC in plots near the rivulet (20–30) may be due to the
high rate of organic matter decomposition and subsequently leaching due to water runoff. In
addition, the soil in these plots is sandier which also supports higher soil CO2 efflux that is also
one of the reasons for the reduction in SOC stock (Mg/ha) in these plots. When the dam is
opened, water flow is heavy, during which if mild shower occurs, it leads to increase in surface
water runoff that enhances soil erosion. This is also one of the reasons for the low value of
SOC. However, in general, SOC (%) was greater in plots 11–20 than plots 21–30, which could
be due to the prevalence of favorable conditions viz., relatively less anthropogenic distur-
bances, high aboveground biomass (Gandhi, 2016) which in turn might have contributed to a
greater organic matter input to the surface soil, the presence of soil that are devoid of coarse
fragments, etc. In addition to that, spatial variation in species diversity, abundance and its
contribution to biomass accumulation also alters the SOC stock. The herbaceous vegetation
also provides larger inputs of dead organic matter due to the long dry period (Dinakaran &
Krishnayya, 2010). The results indicate that the prevailing aboveground vegetal cover has
highly influenced the surface SOC values. Paul, Polglase, Nyakuengama, and Khanna (2002)
stated that tree species had direct or indirect effects on soil carbon stocks and dynamics. Trees
improve the microclimatic conditions to retain carbon in the soil (Meentemeyer & Berg,
1986). Anthropogenic perturbation not only alters the structure and composition of the forest
ecosystem here but is also one of the factors responsible for changes in SOC stock among the
plots in the study site as observed by Chiti, Perugini, Vespertino, and Valentini (2016).
The high organic carbon in the upper layer may be due to huge litter accumulation on the
forest floor and decomposition (Gautam, Manhas, & Tripathi, 2016). The present study also
showed that SOC (%) and carbon stock (Mg/ha) decreases significantly (P < 0.001) with
increase in soil depth in most of the plots, while in plots 16, 25, 26, and 28, it did not show this
trend. This minor variation could be due to the difference in bulk density. This is in agreement
with several observations (Brahim et al., 2014; Iqbal & Tiwari, 2016; Jobbagy & Jackson, 2000;
Kirsten et al., 2016; Santos et al., 2015; Sundarapandian et al., 2013; Tsui et al., 2013).
Significantly high SOC (%) observed in the surface soil (0–10 cm) could be attributed to
maximum litter and plant residues available on the soil surface and associated microbial
activities.
SOC stock showed a significant negative relationship with soil pH but a significant
positive relationship with tree density, shrub basal area, herb basal area, bulk density, and
herb species richness. Similarly, Gray et al. (2015) also stated that vegetation cover is one of
the dominant factors controlling SOC stock in the surface layer. However, SOC (%) showed
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 369

a significant negative relationship with bulk density. Jobbagy and Jackson (2000) have also
obtained a negative relationship of SOC with bulk density. High bulk density reflects low
soil porosity and compaction which may reduce root development and reduced water and
air circulation in the soil. These are the reasons for showing the negative trend in SOC (%)
with soil depth. Soil moisture showed a very weak negative relationship with SOC. Soil
moisture in the dry environment enhances microbial activities which resulted in an increase
in the emission of CO2 instead of sinking, which may be the reason for a negative
relationship with SOC in the long dry seasonal forest here. Dinakaran, Hanief, Meena,
and Rao (2014) stated that the climate (temperature, rainfall and soil moisture) has long
been believed to affect the accumulation of carbon in soil. Low temperature and high
moisture content in compact soils can impede decomposition and as a result, soil carbon
stocks are higher in cool and moist biomes whereas, high moisture content in porous soils
of dry forests enhances the rate of decomposition which results in low accumulation of soil
carbon in hot and dry biomes (Schimel, 1995). Jobbagy and Jackson (2000) also stated that
SOC increases with increasing rainfall, decreasing temperature and evapotranspiration.
Similarly, Post, Emmanuel, Zinke, and Stangenberger (1982) reported that the warm
temperate and dry tropical forests generally had the lowest soil carbon content. The quality
and quantity of organic matter input and climate are very important for better under-
standing of the soil carbon pool changes (Dinakaran et al., 2014).

Conclusion
Even though the tropical deciduous forest of the Sathanur reserve forest in the Eastern Ghats is
under anthropogenic pressures, it stores a sizeable amount of carbon in the soil similar to
other parts of the Eastern Ghats and the tropical forest elsewhere. The SOC significantly
decreased with increase in soil depth and also showed a negative relationship with bulk
density. The variation in SOC stock among the plots obtained in the present study could be
due to differences in tree abundance, herb species richness, shrub basal area, soil pH, soil bulk
density, soil texture etc. Human activities such as fuelwood collection, selective felling,
grazing, agricultural seepage, etc. along plots 1–10 and 21–30 are some of the factors
responsible for variation in the forest structure, species composition, and microclimate,
which in turn influence SOC stocks. This could also alter certain levels of SOC storage in
the long-term. Timely conservation measures are much needed to restore the carbon seques-
tration potential of dry tropical forests. Anthropogenic pressures should be minimized to
stabilize the wealth of the forest, which ultimately enhances the carbon sequestration
potential.

Acknowledgments
We thank Tamil Nadu Forest Department for permission and help to complete the field work. We
express our profound thanks to Mr. Pragash, Department of Earth Sciences, PU for his help in the
preparation of study area map. We thank the anonymous reviewers as well as the editor for their
valuable comments to improve the quality of the manuscript.
370 D. S. GANDHI AND S. SUNDARAPANDIAN

Funding
The first author thankfully acknowledges the financial support provided by University Grants
Commission (UGC), Government of India for the fellowship.

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