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Sustainable Development and Biodiversity 36

Hanuman Singh Jatav · Vishnu D. Rajput ·

Tatiana Minkina · Eric D. Van Hullebusch ·
Asik Dutta Editors

Agroforestry
to Combat
Global
Challenges
Current Prospects and Future Challenges

123
Sustainable Development and Biodiversity

Volume 36

Series Editor
Kishan Gopal Ramawat, Botany Department, Mohanlal Sukhadia University,
Udaipur, India
Sustainable Development Goals are best achieved by mechanisms such as research,
innovation, and knowledge sharing. This book series aims to help researchers by
reporting recent progress and providing complete, comprehensive, and broad
subject-based reviews about all aspects of sustainable development and ecological
biodiversity.
The series explores linkages of biodiversity with delivery of various ecosystem
services and it offers a discourse in understanding the biotic and abiotic interactions,
ecosystem dynamics, biological invasion, ecological restoration and remediation,
diversity of habitats and conservation strategies. It is a broad scoped collection of
volumes, addressing relationship between ecosystem processes and biodiversity. It
aims to support the global efforts towards achieving sustainable development goals
by enriching the scientific literature. The books in the series brings out the latest
reading material for botanists, environmentalists, marine biologists, conservation-
ists, policy makers and NGOs working for environment protection.
We welcome volumes on the themes --
Agroecosystems, Agroforestry, Biodiversity, Biodiversity conservation, Conser-
vation of ecosystem, Ecosystem, Endangered species, Forest conservation, Genetic
diversity, Global climate change, Hotspots, Impact assessment, Invasive species,
Livelihood of people, Plant biotechnology, Plant resource utilization, Sustainability
of the environment, Sustainable management of forests, Sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems and plants, Traditional methods, Urban horticulture.
Hanuman Singh Jatav • Vishnu D. Rajput •
Tatiana Minkina • Eric D. Van Hullebusch •
Asik Dutta
Editors

Agroforestry to Combat
Global Challenges
Current Prospects and Future Challenges
Editors
Hanuman Singh Jatav Vishnu D. Rajput
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Academy of Biology and Biotechnology
Chemistry Southern Federal University
College of Agriculture, Sri Karan Narendra Rostov-on-Don, Russia
Agriculture University, Jobner
Fatehpur-Shekhawati, Sikar
Rajasthan, India

Tatiana Minkina Eric D. Van Hullebusch

Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Institut de physique du globe de Paris
Department of Soil Science Université Paris Cité
Southern Federal University Paris, France
Rostov-on-Don, Russia

Asik Dutta
ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research
Kanpur, India

ISSN 2352-474X ISSN 2352-4758 (electronic)

Sustainable Development and Biodiversity
ISBN 978-981-99-7281-4 ISBN 978-981-99-7282-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7282-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
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Preface

Globally agriculture is facing an unprecedented task of feeding the ever-increasing

population, and the situation is further complicated by climate change, especially in
the past decades. Population boom along with faulty agricultural practices is making
the task of the farming community more challenging and cumbersome. Land use
change is a win-win strategy which not only sustains the system productivity but also
helps to sequester atmospheric C combating both hunger and climate change at the
same time. Organic agriculture, natural farming, and agro-forestry all are highly
eco-friendly measures of recovering the ecosystem but, among all the aforemen-
tioned, agro-forestry is the best as it is the amalgamation of all the three components
of farms, namely crops, trees, livestock. Internationally, the role of agro-forestry
system has been acclaimed by all in Kyoto protocol, and all the aspects are discussed
for maximizing the benefits.
Mono-cropping without the use of any organic amendments, excessive tillage
without any ground coverage, depleting water table caused large-scale land degra-
dation leaving behind only barren land suitable for nothing. But this barren land
provides an excellent site for the regeneration of trees, and within short time the soil
can regain its productive ability with a provision for nutritional and economical
security for the locals of that region. As per different group of researchers across the
globe, agro-forestry system can restore 27 ± 14 tons CO2 per hectare per year of
which 70% to be stored in biomass and rest amount in soil. Studies in North America
reported that agro-forestry system can annually sequester 548.4 Tg carbon per
enough to offset 34% of US emissions from coal, oil, and gas. As a positive outcome
of C-sequestration, the productive capacity and microbial biodiversity of the soil
increased with concomitant reduction in erosion, better deposition of organic matter,
ground water recharge and less pollution in lieu of the conventional system. So,
undoubtedly this integrated approach has a special significance largely in the
developing countries in mitigating climate change and securing a nutritionally rich
future.
Apart from bringing down the gloomy impact of climate change agro-forestry
measures have multiple benefits. Biodiversity conservation, protection of heavy

v
vi Preface

winds, stabilizing the market volatility, and ensuring stable economical return for the
growers and better nutrient cycling can be achieved by this system. Research
suggests perennial vegetation can trap 80% or more nutrients lost through runoff
and harbour array of microbes in its rhizosphere. Steady deposition of mineral
nutrients, differential rooting pattern of the component crops, and deposition of
leaf litter enrich the soil and improve the productivity. In mono-cropping system,
landowners of farms are engaged in seasonal farming activities, whereas agro-
forestry system provides round the year employment opportunity in diverse works
with higher family wage. However, achieving the goal is not an easy walk, and there
are many bottlenecks in these paths like initial cost involvement, lack of suitable tree
availability with scanty knowledge about the management conditions, logistic man-
agement, and marketing. Therefore, an endeavour must be made from all sectors via
public-private mode to harness the utmost potential using technological and man-
agement advancements. Also, additional information about the ecological produc-
tion potential of the system with subsidiary factors like site and soil characteristics,
climatic conditions, market demand, and in-depth knowledge about the suitability of
species in a particular area must be gathered to multiply the effectiveness of the agro-
forestry system to combat global challenges.

Sikar, Rajasthan, India Hanuman Singh Jatav

Rostov-on-Don, Russia Vishnu D. Rajput
Rostov-on-Don, Russia Tatiana Minkina
Paris, France Eric D. Van Hullebusch
Kanpur, India Asik Dutta
Acknowledgement

Every accomplishment task deserved a token of thanks for those who helped directly
or indirectly to complete that work. It gives me pleasure to remember and express my
feelings to those, who helped me in the form of motivation to compile this outcome. I
Dr. Hanuman Singh Jatav as an author of this book Agroforestry to Combat Global
Challenges: Current Prospects and Future Challenges acknowledge token of thanks
to Prof. Balraj Singh, Hon’ble Vice-Chancellor, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture
University, Jobner-Jaipur, for his motivation to compile such work. I am deeply
indebted to Dr. Amitava Rakshit, Associate Professor, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi for his lifelong motivation to compile the work. I also extend my thanks to
Prof. K.K. Sharma (HOD-SSAC), and Dr. S.K. Dadhich for their direct and indirect
support.
It is very difficult to acknowledge the token of words to Prof. S.R. Dhaka (Dean-
COA Fatehpur- Sikar) who not only supported but also guided me to compile this
upshot for the students. I would like to thank from the bottom of my heart Dr. Sanjay
K. Attar, Prof. Athar Uddin, Dr. Muddser A. Khan, Dr. K.C. Verma, Dr. Kailash
Chandra, Dr. Mujahid Khan, Dr. Champa L. Khatik, Dr. Shubita Kumawat,
Dr. Ramu Meena, Dr. Ajeet Singh, and Dr. Vishnu D. Rajput for the direct and
indirect support to compile this outcome.
At the outset, being a student of the great institution Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, I am thankful to the Prof. A.K. Ghosh, Prof. Nirmal De, Prof. Surendra
Singh (FISSS), Prof. Priyankar Raha, Prof. P.K. Sharma, Dr. Y.V. Singh, and
Dr. Ashish Latare for their support and guidance during my studies.
I am grateful to my schoolteacher Shri Surendra Sarthak Ji, Shri Ghanshyam Ji,
Shri Harkesh Ji, and Shri Hanuman Ji. I am also delighted to offer thanks to my
friends Dr. Sunil Kumar, Dr. Dinesh Jinger, Dr. Sonu Kumar, Dr. Surendra Singh
Jatav, Dharamveer Verma, and Rajat.
I don’t have words for the encouragement led by beloved Nikki (OTA Sahab)
who has always been with me in my ups and downs in compiling this work.
I am also thankful to Prof. Bijay Singh for his regular efforts in compiling and
critical evaluation of this book. I am also thankful to Prof. S.K. Singh, and

vii
viii Acknowledgement

Dr. Vishnu D. Rajput for their continued checking of the content in making very less
scientific or grammar errors. I also extend my sincere gratitude to my family
members who always support me in any difficult situation.
The grace of the Lord Hanuman Ji, Goddess Maa Sharde along with my parents
Smt. Supedi Devi and Shri Babulal Jatav who always blessed me and gave me power
and patience to overcome difficulties that came my way in the accomplishment of
this endeavour. I cannot dare to say thanks but only pray to bless me always. VDR
and TM acknowlege support by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Russian Federation (no. FENW-2023-0008) and the Strategic Academic Leadership
Program of the Southern Federal University (“Priority 2030”).

Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, H. S. Jatav

COA, Fatehpur, Rajasthan, India
SKNAU, Jobner, Rajasthan, India
Contents

Part I Agro-Forestry-Inception for Restoring Soil Health

(Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties)
1 Soil Fertility and Soil Biodiversity Health Under Different
Agroforestry Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Laila Shahzad, Anam Waheed, Faiza Sharif, and Maryam Ali
2 Agroforestry: A Resource Conserving Technology for Efficient
Utilization of Agricultural Inputs, Leads to Food and
Environmental Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sagar Maitra, Urjashi Bhattacharya, Biswajit Pramanick,
Lalichetti Sagar, Dinkar Jagannath Gaikwad, Sarthak Pattanayak,
Masina Sairam, Upasana Sahoo, Hanuman Singh Jatav,
Harun I. Gitari, Tanmoy Shankar, Abha Manohar Kandileri,
Esmaeil Rezaei-Chiyaneh, and Akbar Hossain
3 The Tree-Crop Interface: Soil Moisture Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Zikui Wang, Quan Cao, and Yuying Shen
4 Potential Nutrient Cycling and Management in Agroforestry . . . . . 71
Manish Raj, Kanhaiya Lal, Satdev, Priya Kumari, Shailja Kumari,
Vinod Kumar Dubey, Sushant, Mainak Ghosh, and Sanjay Kumar
5 Agroforestry-Based Consequences Improve the Soil Health . . . . . . 93
Jyoti Yadav, Roma Rani, Bhanu Raj Meena, Deepali Chittora,
Pushpa Gehlot, Tripta Jain, and Kanika Sharma
6 Soil Nutrient Dynamics and Cycling Under Agroforestry . . . . . . . . 109
A. Balasubramanian, K. S. Anjali, G. Swathiga, Ghazanfer Abbas,
and S. Navaneetha Krishnan

ix
x Contents

Part II Addressing Climate Change and Eco-System Services Through

Agro-Forestry System
7 Benefactions of Agroforestry to Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
B. C. Sarkar, K. A. Manohar, G. Shukla, S. Maitra, A. Dabral,
M. Sairam, and S. Chakravarty
8 Agroforestry for Restoring and Improving Soil Health . . . . . . . . . . 147
Ankit Pandey, Prabhat Tiwari, Chowlani Manpoong,
and Hanuman Singh Jatav
9 Nutrient Acquisition in Agroforestry Ecosystem Services and Soil
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Vishnu K. Solanki, R. K. Meena, Vinita Parte, and Tulika Kumari
10 Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry: Enhancement of Both Soil
Organic and Inorganic Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
K. S. Anjali, A. Balasubramanian, Ghazanfer Abbas,
C. N. Hari Prasath, S. Navaneetha Krishnan, G. Swathiga,
and V. Manimaran
11 Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) for C Footprint and
Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Ruby Patel, Siddhartha Mukherjee, Biswabara Sahu,
Bishnuprasad Dash, M. Jaison, Kodchire Avinash, and Puja Singh
12 Climate Change Mitigation Through Agro-Forestry Improves
Natural Resource and Livelihood Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Tanmoy Sarkar, Sudip Sengupta, Sahely Kanthal,
and Suprabuddha Kundu

Part III Ensuring Food Security Via Agro-Forestry System

13 Interaction Between Belowground and Aboveground Resources
in Tree-Crop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Ankita Bhardwaj, Susmita Shil, M. N. Ashwath, Umakanta Dash,
Vijay Kumar, and Preeti Vats
14 Restoration of Degraded Soils for Food Production Through
Agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Vinita Partel, Rajesh Kumar Meena, Vishnu K. Solanki,
and Tulika Kumari
15 Nanofertilizers: A Novel Technology for Enhancing Nutrient Use
Efficiency of Crops and a Relevance to Agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Sarbasree Goswami, Satish Kumar Singh, Sayon Mukherjee,
Astha Pandey, Adyasha Priyadarshini, Abhik Patra,
Surendra Singh Jatav, Ayush Bahuguna, Asik Dutta,
and Gorantla Prathap Reddy
Contents xi

16 Sustainable Agroforestry-Based Approach to Achieve Food Security

Through Soil Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Shubhashree Sahu and Hitesh Gupta
17 Soil, Water, and Biodiversity Conservation Through Agroforestry
for Crop Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
R. K. Meena, Tulika Kumari, V. K. Solanki, Vinita Partel, S. L. Singh,
and Rashmi Sinha
18 Breeding of Jatropha For Oil, Phorbol and Quantitative Traits for
Sustainable Yield Under Agroforestry System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Hausila Prasad Singh, Vinay Rojaria, Noopur Singh, Saroj Chauhan,
and Om Prakash Raigar

Part IV Socio-Economic Impact of Agro-Forestry System

19 Breeding Potentials of Wild Forest Rattans Palms to Ensure Food
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Dimjaneng Haokip, S. Senjam Jinus, Ningthaipuilu Longmei,
Sanjukta Samurailatpam Sharma, Th. Bhaigyabati,
Yendrembam K. Devi, Akoijam Ranjita Devi, B. Lalramhlimi,
Vandana Mutum, Ningombam Swapana, Athokpam Kalpana,
and J. Vanitha
20 An Insight into Prevalent Agroforestry Land Use Systems
of North Western Himalayan Region, India: Challenges and
Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Harish Sharma, K. S. Pant, Rohit Bishist, Prem Prakash,
and Krishan Lal Gautam
21 Assessment of Impact of Land Uses on Soil Carbon Stock and
Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
I. A. Jimoh and J. Aliyu
22 Litter Fall Decomposition and Its Effects on Nutrient Accretion
to Soil Under Agroforestry Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Sudip Sarkar and Trisha Sinha
23 Agroforestry: A Key Technique for Achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Sumanta Bhattacharya
24 Exploring the Agroforestry Systems for Ecosystem Services:
A Synthesis of Current Knowledge and Future Research
Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Varsha Giri, Tanmaya Kumar Bhoi, Ipsita Samal, J. Komal,
and Prasanta Kumar Majhi
xii Contents

25 Revitalizing Degraded Soils with Agroforestry Interventions:

Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Vipula Vyas, Tanmaya Kumar Bhoi, Ipsita Samal, Sangeeta Singh,
and Deepak Kumar Mahanta
26 Rice–Fish-Based Agroforestry System: A Climate Smart Way to
Reconcile Sustainable Livelihood Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Suraj Goswami, B. Venkateshwar Reddy, Simran Yadav, Avantika
Adhruj, Umakanta Dash, and Arvind Rathore
Editors and Contributors

Editors

Hanuman Singh Jatav is an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner Jai-
pur (Rajasthan), India. He has more than 6 years of
teaching and 12 years of research experience in the
field of Sewage Sludge, Biochar, Micronutrients,
Heavy Metals, Soil Fertility Management including M.
Sc. (Ag.) and Ph.D. He has completed B.Sc. (Hons.)
Agriculture from Maharana Pratap University of Agri-
culture and Technology, Udaipur-Rajasthan, India.
Dr. Jatav has completed his M.Sc. (Ag.) and Ph.D. in
Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry from the Insti-
tute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi-U.P. India under guidance of Prof. Satish
Kumar Singh [FISSS, FISAC]. At present, Dr. Jatav is
an emerging person in the field of research transforming
himself to an excellent scientific level by enhancing
research capacity by promoting environmental sustain-
ability. He has published more than 120 paper(s) includ-
ing research papers, review papers, books, book
chapters, and technical papers from various national
and international repute Journals and Publishers. He is
serving as an Academic Editor and member of Subject
expertise in many internationally acclaimed journals for
the last 7 years and serving as an active member of more
than 20 national and international scientific societies.
Dr. Jatav has been awarded Certificate of Gratitude as

xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors

an Ambassador by IUCN: International Union for Con-

servation of Nature-Gland, Switzerland in the World
Conservation Congress during Global Youth Summit.
Considering Dr. Jatav has been awarded as Outstanding
Assistant Professor of the Sri Karan Narendra Agricul-
ture University, Jobner Jaipur (Rajasthan) India.

Vishnu D. Rajput is working as a Leading Researcher

(Associate Professor), Head of “International Lab on
Nanobiotechnology & Soil Health” at Southern Federal
University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia. His ongoing
research is based on toxic effects of bulk- and nano-
forms of metals and investigating the bioaccumulation,
bio/geo-transformations, uptake, translocation, and
toxic effects of bulk- and nano-forms of metals on
plant physiology, morphology, anatomy, the ultrastruc-
ture of cellular and subcellular organelles,
cytomorphometric modifications, and DNA damage.
He has also discovered the possible remediation
approaches such using biochar/nano-biochar-based sor-
bents and nanotechnological approaches. With long
experience and experimental work, Dr. Rajput compre-
hensively detailed the state of research in environmental
science in regard to “how nanoparticles/heavy metals
interact with plants, soil, microbial community, and the
larger environment as well as possible remediation tech-
nology using nanoparticles/nano-biochar”. He has
published (total of 351 scientific publications)
204 peer-reviewed full-length articles, 18 books,
70 chapters (Scopus indexed), and 44 conference arti-
cles. He is an editorial board member of various high-
impacted journals. He is a leader of several grants
including Mega-Grant, BRICS, and performer/co-PI of
several national and international projects. Dr. Rajput
has received “Certificate for Appreciation 2019” 2021,
“Certificate of Honor 2020”, Diploma Award 2021,
Letter of Gratitude 2022, 2023 by Southern Federal
University, Russia, for outstanding contribution in aca-
demic, creative research, and publication activities. He
has also received “Highly Qualified Specialist” status by
Russian government and included in the list of top 2%
of Russian scientists.
Editors and Contributors xv

Tatiana Minkina is the Head of Soil science and land

evaluation department of Southern federal university.
The Head of International Master’s Degree Educational
Program “Management and estimation of land
resources” (2015–2022 years, accreditation by
ACQUIN). Her area of scientific interest is Soil Science,
Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements, Environmental
Soil Chemistry, Soil monitoring, assessment, modelling,
and remediation using physicochemical treatment
methods. She was awarded with Diploma of the Minis-
try of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
for many years of long-term work for development and
improvement of the educational process, significant
contribution to the training of highly qualified special-
ists. Сurrently, she is handling projects funded by
Russian Scientific foundation, Ministry of Education
and Science of the Russian Federation, Russian founda-
tion of Basic Researches. Member of Expert Group of
Russian Academy of Science; the International Com-
mittee on Contamination Land; Eurasian Soil Science
Societies; the International Committee on Protection of
the Environment; the International Scientific Committee
of the International Conferences on Biogeochemistry of
Trace Elements. She has over 750 total scientific
publications.

Eric D. van Hullebusch received his Ph.D. (Aquatic

Chemistry and Microbiology) from Université de
Limoges (France) in 2002. From November 2002 until
October 2004 he was a Marie Curie Postdoctoral fellow
at Wageningen University and Research (the Nether-
lands) where his research focused on the optimization
of anaerobic granular sludge reactors by studying the
speciation, bioavailability, and dosing strategies of trace
metals. In 2005, he was appointed as associate professor
in biogeochemistry of engineered ecosystems at
Université Paris-Est (France). In 2012, he obtained his
Habilitation qualification in Environmental Sciences
from Université Paris-Est (France). The title of his
Habilitation thesis is “Biofilms in the environment:
from anaerobic wastewater treatment to material
bioweathering”. From September 2016 until August
2018, he worked at IHE Delft as chair professor in
xvi Editors and Contributors

Environmental Science and Technology and head of the

Pollution Prevention and Resource Recovery chair
group. In September 2018, he joined Institut de Phy-
sique du Globe de Paris (France) as full professor in
Biogeochemistry of engineered ecosystems. Prof. Eric
D. van Hullebusch has published more than 280 peer-
reviewed papers in the field of biogeochemistry of
metals and metalloids in engineered ecosystems and
soil remediation. His research is currently focusing on
the implementation of biohydrometallurgical
approaches for the recovery of technology critical ele-
ments as well as polluted soils remediation.

Asik Dutta is from West Bengal, India, and he com-

pleted his graduation from Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya and joined ICAR-Indian Agricultural
research Institute, New Delhi for M.Sc. (Soil Science
and Agricultural Chemistry). After Completion of post-
graduation, he joined the same institute for Ph.D. He
was selected in Agricultural Research Services (Govt. of
India) in 2018. Currently, he is posted at ICAR-Indian
Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur (UP). His area of
work is phosphorus chemistry and nutrient cycling in
pulse-based cropping system under climate change sce-
nario. Along with this, he is also working on micronu-
trient bio-fortification in lentil and urad bean. He has
published his research in journals of national and inter-
national repute.

Contributors

Ghazanfer Abbas Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College and

Research Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Avantika Adhruj Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
Maryam Ali Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College Uni-
versity, Lahore, Pakistan
J. Aliyu Department of Soil Science, Ahmadu Bello University, Kaduna, Nigeria
K. S. Anjali Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College and Research
Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Editors and Contributors xvii

M. N. Ashwath Department of Forest Biology and Tree Improvement, Kerala

Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Kodchire Avinash ICFRE-Institute of Forest Biodiversity, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
Ayush Bahuguna Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
A. Balasubramanian Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College and
Research Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Th. Bhaigyabati Department of Botany, Pravabati College, Mayang Imphal, Man-
ipur, India
Ankita Bhardwaj Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Kerala Agricul-
tural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Sumanta Bhattacharya MAKAUT, Howrah, West Bengal, India
Urjashi Bhattacharya School of Agriculture and Allied Sciences, The Neotia
University, Jhinga, Sarisha, West Bengal, India
Tanmaya Kumar Bhoi Forest Protection Division, ICFRE-Arid Forestry Research
Institute (ICFRE-AFRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Rohit Bishist Department of Silviculture and Forestry, College of Forestry, Dr YS
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, HP, India
Quan Cao College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai Univer-
sity, Xining, China
S. Chakravarty MS Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of
Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, Odisha, India
Saroj Chauhan Department of Agricultural Entomology, Institute of Agriculture
and Natural Sciences, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur,
India
Deepali Chittora Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Univer-
sity College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India
A. Dabral Department of Forestry, North Eastern Hill University, Tura, Megha-
laya, India
Bishnuprasad Dash Department of Soil Science, M.S. Swaminathan School of
Agriculture, Centurian University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi
& Jatni, Odisha, India
Umakanta Dash ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Dirpai, Assam,
India
xviii Editors and Contributors

Akoijam Ranjita Devi SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of

Science and Technology, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India
Yendrembam K. Devi Department of Entomology, Lovely Professional Univer-
sity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Vinod Kumar Dubey Department of Entomology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
Asik Dutta ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Dinkar Jagannath Gaikwad M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centu-
rion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Krishan Lal Gautam Department of Silviculture and Forestry, College of For-
estry, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, HP, India
Pushpa Gehlot Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India
Mainak Ghosh Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagal-
pur, Bihar, India
Varsha Giri Silviculture and Forest Management Division, ICFRE-Arid Forestry
Research Institute (ICFRE-AFRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Harun I. Gitari School of Agriculture and Enterprise Development, Kenyatta
University, Nairobi, Kenya
Sarbasree Goswami Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Suraj Goswami Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
Hitesh Gupta College of Forestry, Ranichauri, Uttarakhand, India
V.C.S.G. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Bharsar,
Uttarakhand, India
Dimjaneng Haokip College of Forestry and College of Agricultural Sciences,
FEEDS Group of Institution, Hengbung, Kangpokpi, Manipur, India
Akbar Hossain Division of Soil Science, Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research
Institute, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Tripta Jain Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India
M. Jaison Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan
Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Hanuman Singh Jatav Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, S.
K.N. Agriculture University, Jobaner, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Editors and Contributors xix

Department of Soil science and Agricultural Chemistry, Sri Karan Narendra Agri-
culture University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Surendra Singh Jatav Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Univer-
sity, Varanasi, India
I. A. Jimoh Department of Geography, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria
S. Senjam Jinus School of Horticulture, and School of Agricultural Sciences,
Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Utlou, Bishnupur
and Kameng Khunjao Campus, Lamlai, Manipur, India
Athokpam Kalpana School of Horticulture, and School of Agricultural Sciences,
Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Utlou, Bishnupur
and Kameng Khunjao Campus, Lamlai, Manipur, India
Abha Manohar Kandileri M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion
University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Sahely Kanthal School of Agriculture, Swami Vivekananda University, Kolkata,
India
J. Komal Basic Seed Multiplication and Training Centre, Central Silk Board,
Kharsawan, Jharkhand, India
S. Navaneetha Krishnan Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College
and Research Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Tulika Kumari Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa,
Samastipur, Bihar, India
Sanjay Kumar Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagal-
pur, Bihar, India
Vijay Kumar Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Kerala Agricultural
University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Suprabuddha Kundu School of Agriculture, Swami Vivekananda University,
Kolkata, India
Kanhaiya Lal Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural
University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
B. Lalramhlimi Department of Vegetable Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Ningthaipuilu Longmei College of Forestry and College of Agricultural Sciences,
FEEDS Group of Institution, Hengbung, Kangpokpi, Manipur, India
Deepak Kumar Mahanta Forest Entomology Discipline, Forest Protection Divi-
sion, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE)-Forest Research
Institute (ICFRE-FRI), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
xx Editors and Contributors

Sagar Maitra M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of

Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Prasanta Kumar Majhi Regional Research and Technology Transfer Station
(RRTTS), Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology (OUAT), Keonjhar,
Odisha, India
V. Manimaran J K K Munarajah College of Agricultural Sciences, Erode, India
K. A. Manohar MS Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of
Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, Odisha, India
Chowlani Manpoong Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Environmental Sci-
ences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Bhanu Raj Meena Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Rajesh Kumar Meena Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa,
Samastipur, Bihar, India
Sayon Mukherjee Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Siddhartha Mukherjee Faculty Centre of Agriculture, Rural and Tribal Develop-
ment (ARTD), Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Insti-
tute, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Vandana Mutum School of Horticulture, and School of Agricultural Sciences,
Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Utlou, Bishnupur
and Kameng Khunjao Campus, Lamlai, Manipur, India
Ankit Pandey Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Environmental Sciences, Guru
Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Astha Pandey Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Vara-
nasi, India
K. S. Pant Department of Silviculture and Forestry, College of Forestry, Dr YS
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, HP, India
Vinita Partel Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, MP, India
Ruby Patel ICFRE-Institute of Forest Biodiversity, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Abhik Patra Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Vara-
nasi, India
Sarthak Pattanayak Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Odisha University of Agriculture and
Technology, Puri, Odisha, India
Prem Prakash Department of Silviculture and Forestry, College of Forestry, Dr.
YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, HP, India
Editors and Contributors xxi

Biswajit Pramanick Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agri-

cultural University, Samastipur, Bihar, India
C. N. Hari Prasath Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College and
Research Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Adyasha Priyadarshini Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Univer-
sity, Varanasi, India
PriyaKumari Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagal-
pur, Bihar, India
Om Prakash Raigar Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricul-
tural University, Ludhiana, India
Manish Raj Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur,
Bihar, India
Roma Rani Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Arvind Rathore Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
B. Venkateshwar Reddy Forest College and Research Institute, Hyderabad, India
Gorantla Prathap Reddy Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity, Varanasi, India
Esmaeil Rezaei-Chiyaneh Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty
of Agriculture, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
Vinay Rojaria Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BRD PG College,
Deoria, India
Lalichetti Sagar M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University
of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Upasana Sahoo M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University
of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Biswabara Sahu Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty
of Agriculture, Siksha O Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa, India
Shubhashree Sahu College of Forestry, Ranichauri, Uttarakhand, India
V.C.S.G. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Bharsar,
Uttarakhand, India
Masina Sairam M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University
of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Ipsita Samal ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari, Ramna,
Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India
xxii Editors and Contributors

B. C. Sarkar Department of Forestry, North Eastern Hill University, Tura, Megha-

laya, India
Sudip Sarkar ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, India
Tanmoy Sarkar School of Agriculture, Swami Vivekananda University, Kolkata,
India
Satdev Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural
University, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Sudip Sengupta School of Agriculture, Swami Vivekananda University, Kolkata,
India
Laila Shahzad Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College Uni-
versity, Lahore, Pakistan
ShailjaKumari Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar
Agricultural University, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Tanmoy Shankar M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion Univer-
sity of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, India
Faiza Sharif Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College Uni-
versity, Lahore, Pakistan
Harish Sharma Department of Silviculture and Forestry, College of Forestry, Dr
YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, HP, India
Kanika Sharma Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Univer-
sity College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India
Sanjukta Samurailatpam Sharma Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable
Development, Regional Centre, Gangtok, Sikkim, India
Yuying Shen College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou
University, Lanzhou, China
Susmita Shil Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Kerala Agricultural
University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
G. Shukla Department of Forestry, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari,
Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
Hausila Prasad Singh Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BRD PG
College, Deoria, India
Noopur Singh Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agriculture
and Natural Sciences, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur,
India
Editors and Contributors xxiii

Puja Singh Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Horticulture

College, Khuntpani, Chaibasa, Birsa Agriculture University, Ranchi, Jharkhand,
India
S. L. Singh Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Samstipur, Bihar,
India
Sangeeta Singh Forest Protection Division, ICFRE-Arid Forestry Research Insti-
tute (ICFRE-AFRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Satish Kumar Singh Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Rashmi Sinha Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Samstipur,
Bihar, India
Trisha Sinha Department of Plant Physiology, Gopal Narayan Singh University,
Sasaram, Bihar, India
Vishnu K. Solanki Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, MP,
India
Sushant Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur,
Bihar, India
Ningombam Swapana Department of Chemistry, Manipur Technical University,
Takyelpat, Imphal, Manipur, India
G. Swathiga Department of Silviculture and NRM, Forest College and Research
Institute, Mettupalayam, India
Prabhat Tiwari Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai
Central Agriculture University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
J. Vanitha SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India
Preeti Vats Department of Forest Product and Wood Utilization, Kerala Agricul-
tural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Vipula Vyas Forest Protection Division, ICFRE-Arid Forestry Research Institute
(ICFRE-AFRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Anam Waheed Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College Uni-
versity, Lahore, Pakistan
Zikui Wang College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou
University, Lanzhou, China
Jyoti Yadav Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India
Simran Yadav Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
 Part I
Agro-Forestry-Inception for Restoring Soil
Health (Physical, Chemical and Biological
Properties)
Chapter 1
Soil Fertility and Soil Biodiversity Health
Under Different Agroforestry Systems

Laila Shahzad , Anam Waheed, Faiza Sharif, and Maryam Ali

Abstract The rising climate crisis and the upsurge of Anthropocene badly impact
the agriculture in the entire globe, thus impacting crop production and food security.
Poor agriculture practices expose soil to the factors causing soil damages that led to
the infertility of soil. Agroforestry is a sustainable option in all such scenarios not
only to acquire more crop outputs but also to raise trees, livestock, and crop on the
same piece of land and get maximum benefits. The current chapter covers how
different agroforestry systems play a decisive role in climate change mitigation. As
trees deposit carbon stock to their woody biomass and also fix it to the soil, the soil
biota take advantage from it. It is a fact that agroforestry not only reduces greenhouse
gas emissions but also can be adopted as a best climate adaptation practice to make
agriculture risk resilient. The agroforestry systems need no or less chemical fertilizer
and other expensive inputs, also offering more productivity supporting soil biota,
carbon sequestration, wind shielding, etc. Therefore, farmer and landowner need to
be aware about the agroforestry system profits and adopt agroforestry in agricultural
practices to become ecologically and economically sustainable.

Keywords Agroforestry · Fertility · Biodiversity · Carbon sequestration · Soil ·

Sustainability · Climate change

1.1 Introduction

Pedosphere is a vital component of ecosystem, like oceans, contributing as the

biggest carbon sink. The climate-agriculture relationship is directly correlated;
however the sudden changes in climate will adversely impact agro-productivity
and agro-biodiversity (Arora 2019). Apart from climate, agroecosystems are at the
verge of breakdown because of anthropogenic activities. The change in climate is
behind the boom of causative process that gave rise to Anthropocene (Nair et al.

L. Shahzad (✉) · A. Waheed · F. Sharif · M. Ali

Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
e-mail: lailashahzad@gcu.edu.pk

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 3
H. S. Jatav et al. (eds.), Agroforestry to Combat Global Challenges, Sustainable
Development and Biodiversity 36, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7282-1_1
4 L. Shahzad et al.

2021). In agriculture, land use management and practices are unsustainable, the
reason of degradation of the agroecosystems and exposed system to climate change.
The poor agricultural practices effects the soil fertility though world’s majority of
population relay on improved systems for their better livilihood. By crops, the
nutrients are continuously removed from soil and cause deficiency of organic matter.
The deficiency of important nutrients like NPK, zinc, etc. enhances infertility in soil,
leading to low crop yield. However, the organic matter balance may be regained by
some means of applications, in which fertilizers are common. But the burning of
harvested crop residue ultimately again lessens the soil nutrients. Trees are a vital
component to reduce vulnerability of agricultural systems and increase resilience
against climate change. Planting trees and promoting forestry were found to be the
most helpful and cheap sources to mitigate carbon dioxide and changing climate.
With the series of benefits, trees not only increase the nutrient in soil but also gave
sustainability and referred as an “evergreen agricultural” component by the Interna-
tional Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) (Mbow et al. 2014). As a
potential, trees provide a constructive impact on soil overall properties and improve
crop quality. In such prospective, the tree-soil relationship was found to be the best
application to make agro-systems less vulnerable and more resilient against climate
change (Dollinger and Jose 2018).

1.2 Agroforestry and Climate Change Mitigation

Apart from many traditional agricultural practices, agroforestry was still devised to
be the most beneficial application to maintain soil fertility and provisioning soil biota
in agroecosystems. Agroforestry works with the aim to optimize the interaction
between the biological systems and physical component of environment to achieve
productivity from land (Reppin et al. 2020). A well-managed agroforestry system is
the best practice to mitigate climate change and make agro-systems more diversified
and sustainable.
Like forest trees, the trees planted in agroforestry are the best sequesters for
carbon and depositors for greenhouse gas emissions. Agroforestry is the integration
of shrubs or trees to the crop land and animal-farm systems to achieve economic,
social, and environmental benefits. Agroforestry is multifunctional; it not only
sequesters the carbon emissions but also aims to benefit the farmer in many ways
(Tschora and Cherubini 2020). The benefits may include risk reduction, higher
yields, more pollinators, and capacity development for adaptation against climate
change, with farmers getting more outcomes (Amare et al. 2019). The in-cooperation
of agriculture with trees could be better understand by the tree cover around/in the
agricultural land cause the wind breakdown and crop cover, which not only guard
the top soil from erosion but also functioned as the cover crop in harsh climatic
conditions. By agroforestry it is not necessary to convert the whole land into forest.
The practice is done at the edge of the crop field in the form of riparian buffers or in
the form of alley cropping by planting trees in rows between the fields (De Stefano
1 Soil Fertility and Soil Biodiversity Health Under Different. . . 5

Fig. 1.1 Agroforestry and its foremost contributions

and Jacobson 2018). Even small number of farmers if forested their fields it will
potentially significant to sequester carbon. A small piece of land converted to
forested areas eventually play a significant role to sequester carbon.
Like riparian buffer and alley cropping, silvopasture system is also a significant
mitigatory agroforestry practice against climate change. In silvopasture systems,
trees are added to pasture land and sequester carbon from pasture and soils, also
helping to reduce methane emission. This system also provides shade-induced area
which gave microclimate changes to the place (Mayerfeld et al. 2016). All the
agroforestry practices are significant in mitigating climate-induced risks and provide
production and financial benefits to the farmers and increase livelihood of small-
holder farmers. The trees are vital component for agriculture with huge economic
impacts to the individual farmer and landowners as well. This tree crop integration
system works differently in different regions of the world and plays an important role
to abate negative climate impacts and diversify crops and carbon storage compared
to system without trees.
Figure 1.1 is designed to explain the major benefits of integrating forest with
agriculture. The tree covers before in and around the field protect the land with the
damages caused by wind, provide home for soil biota, and prevent soil from erosion.
The tree cover absorbs carbon emissions from air and deposits it into its woody
biomass which can be locked up for a long period of time. The nutrients are balanced
by the trees, and soil gets healthier and fertility increased. The trees also provide
shelter and shade to the livestock and protect them from extreme weather conditions.
The crop yields are improved and greener promoting pollinators to the place and
more biodiversity to the fields. All of these gave advantage to the farmer or
landowner and help in their socio-economic prosperity.
The changing climate is not a minor term; it’s a major devastating change which
needs comprehensive approaches to tackle it. Agroforestry is an integrated approach
6 L. Shahzad et al.

applied to reduce climate-related threats, improve landscape resilience, increase

biological movements, provide favorable settings, and sequester carbon responsible
for healthy soil (Toppo and Raj 2018). This technique helps land managers to
achieve productivity and profitability, with less intensive agricultural practices, at
the same time. Different agroforestry approaches apply in different settings to
achieve social, environmental, and economic remunerations and to make landscape
sustainable and healthier as well (Trozzo et al. 2014). These different settings are
discussed in Table 1.1.

1.3 Agroforestry and Soil Health

In general trees are beneficial, both in rural and urban lands. They are providing best
environmental benefits and ecosystem services to the surroundings by providing
economic stability, food, timber, shade, and income. However, specific to agricul-
ture, soil health, and fertility, trees provide positive impact on soil chemical and
physical properties by optimizing nutrient cycling (Udawatta et al. 2017). A good
soil is having good retention and infiltration properties. The more biological activ-
ities occur in the soil, the healthier the soil structure and fertility increases (Ollinaho
and Kröger 2021). The good soil health achieved by soil protection occurs by
working of different agroforestry systems together, providing benefits like crop
covering, low tilling, crop rotation, and management of nutrients in the soil
(Weerasekara et al. 2016).
Integrating trees with field soil, change soil properties in such a way that under
trees the soil pH changes, cation exchange capacity enhances, and nutrient supply
increases (Pinho et al. 2012). Soil under tree cover has higher microbial biomass and
mineralizable potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium, compared to field
without tree crown (Geris et al. 2015). But if trees got fires, the changes will be
relapse. Another advantage of tree-field integration is that it attracts the biota to the
area, and the bird’s dropping and cow dung improve the soil nutrient (Udawatta et al.
2021).
Another reason for adding up nutrient to soil by trees is the leaf litter. Although it
sounds minor, it impacted a lot to enrich soil with nutrients. The dead organic matter
of trees like falling leaf, fruits, flowers, branches, etc. enrich the top soil layer with
nutrients expose to crop growth. The agroforestry systems are designed as contin-
uous cycle so that they can be effectively used repeatedly by resource sharing
between tree and soil compartments. The tree crown also provides shade helping
to maintain moisture in the soil by lessening evapo-transpiration from the soil
(Tsufac et al. 2019).
Like tree shoot, the tree roots are also step forward in providing benefits to
agroforestry. The roots provide carbon enrichment to the soil by improving soil
structure, by root turnover and discontinuing the nutrient leaching (Shi et al. 2018).
Roots are also popular for their nutrient pumping in tree-based cropping systems.
The tree roots extend deep down the soil, where the roots of crop cannot reach to take
Another random document with
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1 lb. 3 oz.
The dimensions of a young male shot in autumn were as follows:
To end of tail 24 inches, to end of wings 24, to end of claws 29;
extent of wings 26; wing from flexure 10 1/2. Weight 1 lb. 1 1/2 oz.

In dissecting this bird, the extreme compression of the body strikes

one with surprise, its greatest breadth being scarcely an inch and a
half, although it is capable of being much dilated. The great length
and thickness of the neck are also remarkable; but these
circumstances are not peculiar to the present species, being equally
observed in many other Herons. On the roof of the mouth are three
longitudinal ridges; the aperture of the posterior nares is linear, with
an oblique flap on each side; the lower mandible is deeply concave,
its crura elastic and expansile; the tongue 2 1/12 inches long,
sagittate at the base with a single very slender papilla on each side,
trigonal, tapering, flattened above; the width of the mouth is 10
twelfths; but the pharynx is much wider. The œsophagus, a b c,
which is fifteen inches long, is very wide, having at its upper part,
when inflated, a diameter of 2 inches, but gradually contracting to 1/2
inch at its entrance into the thorax, and again expanding to 1 inch. Its
walls are extremely thin, and when contracted, its mucous coat
forms strongly marked longitudinal plaits. The proventriculus is very
wide, its glandules oblong and arranged in a belt 10 twelfths in
breadth. The stomach, e, is of moderate size, membranous, that is
with its muscular coat very thin, and not forming lateral muscles; its
tendinous spaces large and round, its inner coat smooth and soft; its
greatest diameter 1 inch. There is a small roundish pyloric lobe, as in
other Herons. Both lobes of the liver lie on the right side of the
proventriculus; one, i, being 1 inch 10 twelfths, the other, j, 1 inch 2
twelfths long; the gall-bladder large, 11 twelfths long. The intestine is
long and very slender, measuring 4 feet 7 inches, with a diameter of
only 2 twelfths at its upper part, and 1 1/2 twelfth at the lower, when
inflated; the rectum 4 inches long, and 4 twelfths in diameter, its
anterior extremity rounded, and having a minute papilliform
termination, only 1 twelfth long.

The trachea, which is 12 1/2 inches long, differs from that of ordinary
Herons in being much compressed, especially at its upper and lower
extremities; the middle part being less so. It is also proportionally
wider, and its rings are narrower. At the top its diameter is 5 twelfths,
at the middle 4 1/4 twelfths, towards the lower part 4 3/4 twelfths, at
the end 4 1/4 twelfths. The rings are osseous, in number 180; the five
lower divided in front and behind, and much arched, the last
measuring half an inch in a direct line between its extremities. The
bronchi are in consequence very broad at their commencement, but
gradually taper, and are composed of about 18 half rings. The
contractor muscles are inconspicuous, the sterno-tracheal slender;
and there is a single pair of inferior laryngeal, going to the first
bronchial ring. The aperture of the glottis is 8 twelfths long, without
any papillæ, but with a deep groove behind, and two thin-edged
flaps.
In the digestive organs of this bird, there is nothing remarkably
different from that of other Herons. The stomach contained remains
of fishes and large coleopterous insects. The examination of the
trachea, bronchi, and lungs, would not lead us to suppose that its cry
is of the curious character represented, although it certainly would
induce us to believe it different from that of ordinary Herons, which
have the trachea narrower, round, and with broader and more bony
rings.
Although in external appearance and habits it exhibits some affinity
to the Rails, its digestive organs have no resemblance to theirs.
An egg presented by Dr Brewer of Boston measures two inches in
length by one inch and a half, and is of a broadly oval shape, rather
pointed at the smaller end, and of a uniform dull olivaceous tint.
 BREWER’S DUCK.

Anas Breweri.
PLATE CCCXXXVIII. Male.

The beautiful Duck from which I made the drawing copied on the
plate before you, was shot on Lake Barataria, in Louisiana, in
February 1822. It was in company with seven or eight Canvass-back
Ducks. No other individuals of the species were in sight at the time,
and all my efforts to procure another have been ineffectual.
You will see that this curious bird is named in the plate “Anas
glocitans,” the descriptions of that species having induced me to
consider it identical with this. But on comparing my drawing with
specimens in the Museum of the Zoological Society of London, I
found that the former represents a much larger bird, which, besides,
is differently coloured in some of its parts. The individual figured was
a male; but I have some doubts whether it had acquired the full
beauty of its mature plumage, and I considered it at the time as a
bird of the preceding season.
In form and proportions this bird is very nearly allied to the Mallard,
from which it differs in having the bill considerably narrower, in
wanting the recurved feathers of the tail, in having the feet dull
yellow in place of orange-red, the speculum more green and duller,
without the white bands of that bird, and in the large patch of light
red on the side of the head. It may possibly be an accidental variety,
or a hybrid between that bird and some other species, perhaps the
Gadwall, to which also it bears a great resemblance.
Bill nearly as long as the head, higher than broad at the base,
depressed and widened towards the end, rounded at the tip, the
lamellæ short and numerous, the unguis obovate, curved, the nasal
groove elliptical, the nostrils oblong.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed; neck rather long and
slender; body full, depressed. Feet short, stout, placed behind the
centre of the body; legs bare a little above the joint; tarsus short, a
little compressed, anteriorly with small scutella, laterally and behind
with reticulated angular scales. Hind toe very small, with a narrow
free membrane; third toe longest, fourth a little shorter; claws small,
arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage dense, soft, and elastic; of the hind head and neck short
and blended; of the other parts in general broad and rounded. Wings
of moderate length, acute; tail short, graduated.
Bill dull yellow, slightly tinged with green, dusky along the ridge. Iris
brown. Feet dull yellow, claws dusky, webs dull grey. Head and
upper part of the neck deep glossy green; but there is an elongated
patch of pale reddish-yellow, extending from the base of the bill over
the cheek to two inches and a quarter behind the eye, and meeting
that of the other side on the chin; the space immediately over and
behind the eye light dull purple. A narrow ring of pale yellowish-red
on the middle of the neck; the lower part of the neck dull brownish-
red, the feathers with a transverse band of dusky, and edged with
paler. The upper parts are dull greyish-brown, transversely undulated
with dusky; the smaller wing-coverts without undulations, but each
feather with a dusky bar behind another of light dull yellow; first row
of smaller coverts tipped with black; primaries and their coverts, light
brownish-grey; some of the outer secondaries similar, the next five or
six duck-green, the next light grey with a dusky patch toward the
end. The rump and upper tail-coverts black, as are the parts under
the tail, excepting two longitudinal white bands; tail-feathers light
brownish-grey, edged with whitish. All the rest of the lower parts are
greyish-white tinged with yellow, beautifully undulated with dusky
lines, on the middle of the breast these lines less numerous, and
each feather with a reddish-grey central streak.
Length to end of tail 23 inches, to end of claws 24; extent of wings
39; bill along the ridge 2 1/2, along the edge of lower mandible 2 1/8;
tarsus 1 1/8, middle toe 2, its claw 5/12; hind toe 3/8, its claw 1/8.
Weight 2 lb. 9 oz.
I have named this Duck after my friend Thomas M. Brewer of
Boston, as a mark of the estimation in which I hold him as an
accomplished ornithologist.
 LITTLE GUILLEMOT.

Uria Alle, Temm.

PLATE CCCXXXIX. Male and Female.

This interesting little bird sometimes makes its appearance on our

eastern coasts during very cold and stormy weather. It does not
proceed much farther southward than the shores of New Jersey,
where it is of very rare occurrence. Now and then some are caught
in a state of exhaustion, as I have known to be the case especially in
Passamaquody Bay near Eastport in Maine, and in the vicinity of
Boston and Salem in Massachusetts.
In the course of my voyages across the Atlantic, I have often
observed the Little Guillemots in small groups, rising and flying to
short distances at the approach of the ship, or diving close to the
bow and reappearing a little way behind. Now with expanded wings
they would flutter and run as it were on the surface of the deep;
again, they would seem to be busily engaged in procuring food,
which consisted apparently of shrimps, other crustacea, and
particles of sea-weeds, all of which I have found in their stomach. I
have often thought how easy it would be to catch these tiny
wanderers of the ocean with nets thrown expertly from the bow of a
boat, for they manifest very little apprehension of danger from the
proximity of one, insomuch that I have seen several killed with the
oars. Those which were caught alive and placed on the deck, would
at first rest a few minutes with their bodies flat, then rise upright and
run about briskly, or attempt to fly off, which they sometimes
accomplished, when they happened to go in a straight course the
whole length of the ship so as to rise easily over the bulwarks. On
effecting their escape they would alight on the water and
immediately disappear.
During my visit to Labrador and Newfoundland I met with none of
these birds, although the cod-fishers assured me that they frequently
breed there. I am informed by Dr Townsend that this species is
found near the mouth of the Columbia River.

Alca alle, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 211.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 795.
Little Auk, Alca alle, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ix. p. 94, pl. 74, fig. 5.
Uria alle, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 425.
Little Guillemot, Uria alle, Richards. and Swains. Faun. Bor.-Amer. vol. ii.
p. 479.
Little Auk, or Sea Dove, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 531.

Adult Male in summer. Plate CCCXXXIX.

Bill shorter than the head, stout, straightish, subpentagonal at the
base, compressed towards the end. Upper mandible with the dorsal
line convexo-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides sloping, the
edges sharp and overlapping, the tip rather obtuse. Nasal
depression short and broad; nostrils basal, oblong, with a horny
operculum. Lower mandible with the angle long and wide, the dorsal
outline very short, ascending, and straight, the sides convex, toward
the end ascending and flattened, the edges thin and inclinate, the tip
acute, with a sinus behind.
Body full and compact; neck short and thick; head large, ovate. Feet
short, rather stout; tibia bare for two-twelfths of an inch; tarsus very
short, compressed, covered anteriorly with oblique scutella, behind
with angular scales; hind toe wanting; anterior toes connected by
reticulated webs, the inner much shorter than the outer, which is
almost as long as the middle; the scutella numerous. Claws rather
small, moderately arched, compressed, rather acute, that of the
middle toe having its inner edge considerably expanded.
Plumage dense, blended, glossy. Wings of moderate length, narrow,
pointed; primaries pointed, the first longest, the rest rapidly
graduated; secondaries rounded. Tail very short, slightly rounded, of
twelve feathers.
Bill black. Iris dark hazel. Feet pale flesh-coloured; webs dusky;
claws black. Inside of mouth light yellow. The head, upper part of
neck, and all the upper surface, glossy bluish-black. A small spot on
the upper eyelid, another on the lower, several longitudinal streaks
on the scapulars, and a bar along the tips of the secondary quills,
white. The lower parts white; the feathers on the sides under the
wings have the outer webs white, the inner dusky; lower wing-
coverts blackish-grey.
Length to end of tail 7 1/8 inches, to end of claws 7 7/8, to end of
wings 6 7/8, to carpal joint 2 7/8; extent of wings 14 1/4; wing from
1/2
flexure 4 7/8; bill along the ridge 4 /8, along the edge of lower
mandible 1; tarsus 3/4; middle toe 1, its claw 1/4; outer toe 1, claw
1 1/2/ ; inner toe 5/8, its claw 1
1/2
/8. Weight 8 1/2 oz.
8

Adult Female, in winter. Plate CCCXXXIX. Fig. 2.

In winter, the throat and the lower parts of the cheeks are white; the
sides and fore part of the neck white, irregularly barred with blackish-
grey; the upper parts of a duller black than in summer.
There is nothing very remarkable in the anatomy of this bird, beyond
what is observed in the Auks and Guillemots. The ribs extend very
far back, and, having the dorsal and sternal portions much
elongated, are capable of aiding in giving much enlargement to the
body, of which the internal, or thoracic and abdominal cells are very
large. The subcutaneous cells are also largely developed, as in
many other diving and plunging birds.
The roof of the mouth is flat, broad, and covered with numerous
series of short horny papillæ directed backwards. The tongue is
large, fleshy, 10 twelfths of an inch long, emarginate at the base, flat
above, horny on the back. The heart is large, measuring 10 twelfths
in length, 8 1/2 twelfths in breadth. The right lobe of the liver is 1 3/12
inch in length, the left 1 1/12; the gall-bladder is elliptical. The kidneys
are very large.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.
 Fig. 3.

The œsophagus, Fig. 1, a b c, is 3 inches 10 twelfths long, its walls

very thin, its inner or mucous coat thrown into longitudinal plates; its
diameter at the middle of the neck 5 eighths, diminishing to 4
twelfths as it enters the thorax. It then enlarges and forms the
proventriculus, c e, which has a diameter of 8 twelfths; the glandules
are cylindrical, very numerous, and arranged in a complete belt, half
an inch in breadth, in the usual manner, as seen in Fig. 2, b c. The
stomach, properly so called, Fig. 1, d g, is oblong, 11 twelfths in
length, 8 twelfths in breadth; its muscular coat moderately thick, and
disposed into two lateral muscles with large tendons; its epithelium,
Fig. 2, c d e, thick, hard, with numerous longitudinal and transverse
rugæ, and of a dark reddish colour. The duodenum, f g h, curves in
the usual manner at the distance of 1 1/4 inch, ascends toward the
upper surface of the right lobe of the liver for 1 inch and 10 twelfths,
then forms 4 loops, and from above the proventriculus, passes
directly backward. The length of the intestine, f g h i, is 16 1/2 inches,
its diameter 2 1/4 twelfths, and nearly uniform as far as the rectum,
which is 1 1/4 inch long, at first 3 twelfths in diameter, enlarged into
an ovate cloaca of great size, Fig. 3. b; the cœca a, a, 41 twelfths
long, cylindrical, 1/2 twelfth in diameter, obtuse.

The trachea, Fig. 1. k, l, is very wide, flattened, its rings unossified,

its length 2 9/12 inches, its breadth 3 twelfths, nearly uniform, but at
the lower part contracted to 2 twelfths. There are 75 rings, with 5
inferior blended rings, which are divided before and behind. The
bronchi, Fig. 1. m, m, are wide and rather elongated, with about 25
half rings. The contractor muscles are extremely thin, the sterno-
tracheal slender; there is a pair of inferior laryngeal attached to the
first bronchial rings.
The above account of the digestive organs of this bird will be seen to
be very different from that given by Sir Everard Home, who has, in all
probability, mistaken the species. “There is still,” says he, “one more
variety in the structure of the digestive organs of birds, that live
principally upon animal food, which has come under my observation;
and with an account of which I shall conclude the present lecture.
This bird is the Alea Alle of Linnæus, the Little Auk. The termination
of the œsophagus is only known by the ending of the cuticular lining,
and the beginning of the gastric glands; for the cardiac cavity is one
continued tube, extending considerably lower down in the cavity of
the abdomen, and gradually enlarging at the lower part; it then turns
up to the right side, about half-way to the origin of the cavity, and is
there connected to a small gizzard, the digastric muscle of which is
strong, and a small portion of the internal surface on each side has a
hard cuticular covering. The gastric glands at the upper part are
placed in four distinct longitudinal rows, becoming more and more
numerous towards the lower part of the cavity, and extend to the
bottom, where it turns up. The extent of the cavity in which the
gastric glands are placed, exceeds any thing met with in the other
birds that live upon fish; and the turn which the cavity takes almost
directly upwards, and the gizzard being at the highest part instead of
the lowest, are peculiarities, as far as I am acquainted, not met with
in any other birds of prey. This mechanism, which will be better
understood by examining the engraving, makes the obstacles to the
food in its passage to the intestines unusually great; and enables the
bird to digest both fishes and sea-worms with crustaceous shells. It
appears to be given for the purpose of economizing the food in two
different ways,—one retaining it longer in the cardiac cavity, the other
supplying that cavity with a greater quantity of gastric liquor than in
other birds. This opinion is further confirmed by the habits of life of
this particular species of bird, which spends a portion of the year in
the frozen regions of Nova Zembla, where the supplies of
nourishment must be both scanty and precarious.”
With respect to this statement and the reasonings founded upon it, it
will be seen from the description and accompanying figures above,
taken directly from nature, and without the least reference to the
dissections or theories of any person, that the œsophagus and
stomach of the Little Auk or Guillemot, Alca Alle of Linnæus, are very
similar to those of other Auks, Guillemots, Divers, and fish-eating
birds in general. The cardiac or proventricular cavity forms no curve;
and the gizzard with which it is connected, is not small, nor has it
merely a small portion of the internal surface on each side covered
with a hard cuticular lining; for the epithelium covers its whole
surface, and is of considerable extent. The gastric glands are not at
all disposed as represented by Sir E. Home, but are aggregated in
the form of a compact belt half an inch broad, Fig. 2. b, c. As to the
ingenious reasoning by which the economy of the Little Auk is so
satisfactorily accounted for, it is enough here to say, that having no
foundation, it is of less than no value. But were there such a
curvature as that in question, there could be no propriety in
supposing that it presented any great obstacle to the passage of the
food, or retained it longer than usual. Nor is the statement as to
scanty and precarious supply of nourishment correct; for the Arctic
Seas, to which this bird resorts in vast numbers, are represented by
navigators as abounding in small crustacea, on which chiefly the
Little Auk feeds, and that to such an extent as to colour the water for
leagues. Besides, if there were such a scarcity of food in Nova
Zembla, why should the birds go there? In short, the whole
statement is incorrect; and the many compilers, from Dr Carus to
the most recent, who have pressed it into their service, may, in their
future editions, with propriety leave it out, and supply its place with
something equally ingenious.
The egg of this species measures one inch and nearly five-eighths in
length, one inch and an eighth in its greatest breadth. It is
remarkably large for the size of the bird, and of a dull uniform pale
greenish-blue.
 LEAST PETREL.

Thalassidroma pelagica, Leach.

PLATE CCCXL. Male and Female.

In August 1830, being becalmed on the banks of Newfoundland, I

obtained several individuals of this species from a flock composed
chiefly of Thalassidroma Leachii, and Th. Wilsoni. Their smaller size,
and the more rapid motions of their wings, rendered them quite
conspicuous, and suggested the idea of their being a new species,
although a closer inspection shewed them to belong to the present.
In their general manners, while feeding, floating on the water, or
rambling round the boat in which I went in pursuit of them, they did
not differ materially from the other species. Their flight, however, was
more hurried and irregular, and none of them uttered any note or cry,
even when wounded and captured. I have been assured that this
bird breeds on the sandy beaches of Sable Island on the coast of
Nova Scotia; but not having had an opportunity of visiting it, or any
other breeding place, I here present you with Mr Hewitson’s
observations on this subject.
“In an excursion,” says this amiable and enterprising naturalist,
“through the Shetland Islands during the present summer, in search
of rarities for this work (the British Oology), I had the very great
satisfaction of seeing and taking many of these most interesting
birds alive; they breed in great numbers on several of the islands,
principally upon Foula, the north of Hunst, and upon Papa, and
Oxna, two small islands in the Bay of Scalloway; the last of these I
visited on the 31st of May in hopes of procuring their eggs (it being
the season in which most of the sea-birds begin to lay); but in this I
was disappointed; the fishermen who knew them well by the name of
Swallows, assured me that my search would be quite useless, that
they had not yet “come up from sea,” and so it proved. Sixteen days
after this (June 16th and three following days) I was at Foula, but
was alike unsuccessful, the birds had arrived at their breeding
places, but had not yet begun laying their eggs; numbers of them
were sitting in their holes, and were easily caught; one man brought
me about a dozen tied up in an old stocking, two of which I kept alive
in my room for nearly three days, and derived very great pleasure
from their company; during the day they were mostly inactive, and
after pacing about the floor for a short time, poking their head into
every hole, they hid themselves between the feet of the table and the
wall; I could not prevail upon them to eat any thing, though I tried to
tempt them with fish and oil; their manner of walking is very light and
pleasing, and differing from that of every other bird which I have
seen; they carry their body so far forward and so nearly horizontal,
as to give them the appearance of being out of equilibrium. In the
evening, toward sun-set, they left their hiding places, and for hours
afterwards, never ceased in their endeavours to regain their liberty;
flying round and round the room, or fluttering against the windows;
when flying, their length of wing, and white above the tail, gives them
a good deal the appearance of our House-Martin. I went to bed and
watched them in their noiseless flight long ere I fell asleep, but in the
morning they had disappeared; one had fortunately made its escape
through a broken pane in the window which a towel should have
occupied, the other had fallen into a basin, full of the yolks of eggs
which I had been blowing, and was drowned. I regretted much the
fate of a being so interesting, by its very remarkable, wandering,
solitary, and harmless life. Before leaving Shetland I again visited the
island of Oxna, and though so late as the 30th of June, they were
only just beginning to lay their eggs. In Foula they breed in the holes
in the cliff, at a great height above the sea; but here under stones
which form the beach, at a depth of three or four feet, or more,
according to that of the stones; as they go down to the earth,
beneath them, on which to lay their eggs. In walking over the
surface, I could hear them, very distinctly, singing in a sort of
warbling chatter, a good deal like swallows when fluttering above our
chimneys, but harsher; and in this way, by listening attentively, was
guided to their retreat, and, after throwing out stones as large as I
could lift on all sides of me, seldom failed in capturing two or three
seated on their nests, either under the lowest stone or between two
of them. The nests, though of much the same materials as the
ground on which they were placed, seem to have been made with
care; they were of small bits of stalks of plants, and pieces of hard
dry earth. Like the rest of the genus, the Stormy Petrel lays
invariably one egg only. During the day-time they remain within their
holes; and though the fishermen are constantly passing over their
heads (the beach under which they breed being appropriated for the
drying of fish), they are then seldom heard, but toward night become
extremely querulous; and when most other birds are gone to rest,
issue forth in great numbers, spreading themselves far over the
surface of the sea. The fishermen then meet them very numerously;
and though they have not previously seen one, are sure to be
surrounded by them upon throwing pieces of fish overboard.”
The egg measures one inch and an eighth in length, six and a half
eighths in breadth, is nearly equally rounded at both ends, rather
thick-shelled, and pure white, but generally with numerous minute
dots of dull red at the larger end, sometimes forming a circular band.

Procellaria pelagica, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 212.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
ii. p. 826.
Stormy Petrel, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 327.
Adult Male. Plate CCCXL. Fig. 1.
Bill shorter than the head, slender, compressed towards the end,
straight, with the tips curved. Upper mandible with the nostrils
forming a tube at the base, beyond which, for a short space, the
dorsal line is nearly straight, then suddenly decurved, the sides
declinate, the edges sharp, the tip compressed and acute. Lower
mandible with the angle rather long, narrow, and pointed, the dorsal
line beyond it very slightly concave and decurved, the sides erect,
the edges sharp, the tip slightly decurved.
Head of moderate size, roundish, anteriorly narrowed. Neck short.
Body rather slender. Feet of moderate length, very slender; tibia bare
at its lower part; tarsus very slender, reticulate; hind toe extremely
minute, being reduced, as it were, to a slightly decurved claw;
anterior toes rather long and extremely slender, obscurely scutellate
above, connected by striated webs with concave margins. Claws
slender, arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage very soft, blended, the feathers distinct only on the wings,
which are very long and narrow; primary quills tapering, but rounded,
the second longest, the first three and a half twelfths, the third a
twelfth and a half shorter; secondaries short, the outer incurved,
obliquely rounded. Tail rather long, broad, slightly rounded, of twelve
broad rounded feathers.
Bill and feet black. Iris dark brown. The general colour of the upper
parts is greyish-black, with a tinge of brown, and moderately
glossed; the lower parts of a sooty brown; the secondary coverts
margined externally with dull greyish-white; the feathers of the rump
and the upper tail-coverts white, with the shafts black, the tail-coverts
broadly tipped with black.
Length to end of tail 5 3/4 inches, to end of claws 5 1/4, to end of
wings 6 1/4; extent of wings 13 1/2; wing from flexure 5 1/8; tail 2 1/8;
bill above (4 1/2/8, along the edge of lower mandible 5/8; tarsus 7/8;
middle toe and claw 7/8; outer toe nearly equal; inner toe and claw
5 1/2/8. Weight 4 1/2 drachms; the individual poor.
Adult Female. Plate CCCXL. Fig. 2.
The Female resembles the male.

Fig. 1.

A male bird, from Nova Scotia, examined. The upper mandible

internally has a longitudinal median ridge; the palate is convex, with
two lateral ridges. The tongue is 5 1/2 twelfths long, emarginate and
serrulate at the base, very much flattened, tapering to a horny point.
The heart, Fig. 1, a, is of a very elongated narrow conical form, 2
twelfths in length, 4 twelfths in breadth at the base. The lobes of the
liver, b, c, are equal, 6 1/2 twelfths long. The œsophagus, d, e, is 1
inch 10 twelfths long, of a uniform diameter of 2 1/2 twelfths; behind
the liver, it enters as it were a large sac, f, g, h, 9 twelfths of an inch
long, which gradually expands to a diameter of 6 twelfths, forming a
broad rounded fundus g, then curves forwards on the right side, and
at h terminates in a small gizzard, about 3 twelfths long, and nearly
of the same breadth, from the left side of which comes off the
intestine. The latter passes forward, curving to the right, behind and
in contact with the posterior surfaces of the liver, then forms the
duodenal fold, h, j, k, in the usual manner. The intestine, on arriving
at the right lobe of the liver, at k, receives the biliary duct, curves
backward beneath the kidneys, and forms several convolutions,
which terminate above the proventriculus. It then becomes much
narrower, and passes directly backward, in a straight course to the
rectum, which is only 4 twelfths of an inch long. The cœca are
oblong, 1 1/4 twelfth in length, and 1/2 twelfth in diameter. The
intestine is 8 1/2 inches long, its diameter diminishing gradually from
2 twelfths to 3/4 of a twelfth.

Fig. 2.

In Fig 2. are represented:—the lower part of the œsophagus, d, e, f;

the proventricular sac, f, g, h; the very small gizzard, h; the duodenal
fold of the intestine, i, j, k. Here the parts are viewed from the left
side.