Advances in Manufacturing Production

Management and Process Control

Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
Conferences on Human Aspects of
Advanced Manufacturing Advanced
Production Management and Process
Control and Additive Manufacturing
Modeling Sys Beata Mrugalska
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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1216

Beata Mrugalska · Stefan Trzcielinski ·

Waldemar Karwowski ·
Massimo Di Nicolantonio ·
Emilio Rossi Editors

Advances in
Manufacturing,
Production Management
and Process Control
Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
Conferences on Human Aspects
of Advanced Manufacturing, Advanced
Production Management and Process
Control, and Additive Manufacturing,
Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping,
July 16–20, 2020, USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 1216

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
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Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
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of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
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Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
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Beata Mrugalska Stefan Trzcielinski
• •

Waldemar Karwowski •

Massimo Di Nicolantonio •

Emilio Rossi
Editors

Advances in Manufacturing,
Production Management
and Process Control
Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
Conferences on Human Aspects of Advanced
Manufacturing, Advanced Production
Management and Process Control,
and Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems
and 3D Prototyping, July 16–20, 2020, USA

123
Editors
Beata Mrugalska Stefan Trzcielinski
Faculty of Engineering Management Poznan University of Technology
Poznan University of Technology Poznan, Poland
Poznan, Poland
Massimo Di Nicolantonio
Waldemar Karwowski Architecture Department
University of Central Florida University of Chieti-Pescara
Winter Park, FL, USA Pescara, Pescara, Italy

Emilio Rossi
Lincoln School of Design
University of Lincoln
Lincoln, UK

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-51980-3 ISBN 978-3-030-51981-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51981-0
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Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2020

AHFE 2020 Series Editors

Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

11th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the
Affiliated Conferences

Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Production Management and

Process Control, Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing and the Additive
Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping, July 16–20, 2020, USA

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Hasan Ayaz and Umer Asgher

Engineering
Advances in Industrial Design
Advances in Ergonomics in Design
Advances in Safety Management and Human
Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Simulation and Digital Human
Modeling
Advances in Human Factors and Systems
Interaction
Advances in the Human Side of Service
Engineering
Advances in Human Factors, Business
Management and Leadership
Advances in Human Factors in Robots, Drones
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity
Giuseppe Di Bucchianico, Cliff Sungsoo
Shin, Scott Shim, Shuichi Fukuda,
Gianni Montagna and Cristina Carvalho
Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo Soares
Pedro M. Arezes and Ronald L. Boring
Jay Kalra and Nancy J. Lightner
Daniel N Cassenti, Sofia Scataglini,
Sudhakar L. Rajulu and Julia L. Wright
Isabel L. Nunes
Jim Spohrer and Christine Leitner
Jussi Ilari Kantola, Salman Nazir and
Vesa Salminen
Matteo Zallio
Isabella Corradini, Enrico Nardelli and
Tareq Ahram
(continued)

v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2020
(continued)
Advances in Human Factors in Training,
Education, and Learning Sciences
Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and
Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors in Architecture,
Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure
Advances in Physical, Social & Occupational
Ergonomics
Advances in Manufacturing, Production
Management and Process Control
Advances in Usability, User Experience, Wearable
and Assistive Technology
Advances in Creativity, Innovation,
Entrepreneurship and Communication of Design
Salman Nazir, Tareq Ahram and
Waldemar Karwowski
Neville Stanton
Tareq Ahram
Jerzy Charytonowicz
Waldemar Karwowski, Ravindra S.
Goonetilleke, Shuping Xiong,
Richard H.M. Goossens and Atsuo
Murata
Beata Mrugalska, Stefan Trzcielinski,
Waldemar Karwowski, Massimo Di
Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi
Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão
Evangelos Markopoulos, Ravindra S.
Goonetilleke, Amic G. Ho and Yan
Luximon
Preface

Contemporary manufacturing enterprises aim at delivering a great number of

consumer products and systems through friendly and satisfying working environ-
ments for people who are involved in manufacturing services. Human-centered
design factors, which strongly affect manufacturing processes, as well as the
potential end-users, are crucial for achieving continuous progress in this respect.
They have been extensively discussed at the AHFE International Conference on
Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing and addressed in this book.
Researchers around the world attempt to improve the quality of consumer
products and working environments. The AHFE International Conference on
Advanced Production Management and Process Control (APMPC) promotes the
exchange of ideas and developments in production, sustainability, life cycle,
innovation, development, fault diagnostics and control systems. It addresses a
spectrum of theoretical and practical topics.
This book also covers topics in additive manufacturing, modeling systems and
3D prototyping. Digital modeling systems are empowered systems of tangible and
intangible tools that, using a large number of technologies such as ICTs, virtual
environments, cloud computing, user interfaces, connected tools and hybrid sys-
tems, are used to conceive, model, analyze, virtualize, simulate and present solu-
tions. Additive manufacturing (AM) refers to all production processes made with
3D printers, rapid prototyping systems, methods for remote fabrication, etc., which
use raw materials to create three-dimensional objects; every day, fabricated solu-
tions become pervasive in many environments, decreasing in costs and in time the
entire manufacturing processes.
We believe that findings presented in this book can inspire and support others in
the field of manufacturing and process control to advance their designs and
implement them into practice. Therefore, this book is addressed to both researchers
and practitioners. The papers presented in this book have been arranged into five
sections. The first three sections focus mainly on topics in advanced manufacturing,
while the remaining six sections focus on topics related to advanced production
management and process control.

vii
viii Preface

Section 1 Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing

Section 2 Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping
Section 3 Production Management and Process Control
Section 4 Human Aspects in Industrial Environment
Section 5 Productivity and Quality Improvements in Manufacturing and Service
Systems
The contents of this book required the dedicated effort of many people. We
would like to thank the authors, whose research and development efforts are pub-
lished here. Finally, we also wish to thank the following Editorial Board Members
for their diligence and expertise in selecting and reviewing the presented papers:
Advanced Manufacturing
M. Araujo, Portugal
D. Besson, France
L. Botti, Italy
A. Chan, China
K. Darji, India
E. Fallon, Ireland
S. Fletcher, UK
W. Ge, China
H. Hamada, Japan
I. Hejduk, Poland
J. Kalkowska, Poland
A. Kozlov, Russia
G. Luo, China
P. Nair, India
E. Pawlowski, Poland
A. Polak-Sopinska, Poland
V. Salminen, Finland
A. Soares, Portugal
L. Sulkowski, Poland
G. Szabó, Hungary
Y. Wang, China
M. Weber, Germany
H. Wlodarkiewicz-Klimek, Poland
Production Management and Process Control
S. Ávila Filho, Brazil
M. Gibson, USA
A. Goto, Japan
A. Hamrol, Poland
A. Maldonado Macias, Mexico
J. Niemann, Germany
T. Ota, Japan
Preface ix

E. Ramos, Peru
C. Raymundo, Peru
S. Simani, Italy
Y. Tansel İÇ, Turkey
M. Wyrwicka, Poland
Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping
P. Barcarolo, Italy
M. Calvano, Italy
J. Keist, USA
J. Lagatta, Italy
F. Medola, Brazil
R. Narayan, USA
E. Pei, UK
P. Rao, USA
F. Sandnes, Norway
M. Wilson, UK

July 2020 Beata Mrugalska

Stefan Trzcielinski
Waldemar Karwowski
Massimo Di Nicolantonio
Emilio Rossi
Contents

Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing

A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the Internet
of Production – An Intra-company Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Philipp Brauner, Florian Brillowski, Hannah Dammers, Peter Königs,
Frauke Kordtomeikel, Henning Petruck, Anne Kathrin Schaar,
Seth Schmitz, Linda Steuer-Dankert, Alexander Mertens, Thomas Gries,
Carmen Leicht-Scholten, Saskia Nagel, Verena Nitsch, Günther Schuh,
and Martina Ziefle
A Detailed Investigation on Apparent and Root Causes of Accidents
in Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Lucia Botti, Riccardo Melloni, Simone Mosconi, and Maniva Oliva
The Influence of Human Capital Management on Implementation
of Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Stefan Trzcielinski
Management of Intelligent Autonomous Environment in a Context
of Competitive Forces. The Case of Polish Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Miroslaw Kruszynski and Edmund Pawlowski
Professional Competencies and Research to Offer Integrated
Manufacturing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Antonieta Carmona-Lopez,
Marco Antonio Juarez-Mendoza, and Oscar Jesus Sanchez-Puga
Research on Green Efficiency of Life Cycle of Customized
Intelligent Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Junxia Wang and Tao Xi
Internet of Things in the Enterprise as a Production Process
Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Michal Trziszka

xi
xii Contents

Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping

The Human Integration into Sustainable 3D Printing Systems Part I:
Methodological Setting and Human-System Integration Strategy . . . . . . 65
Emilio Rossi and Massimo Di Nicolantonio
The Human Integration into Sustainable 3D Printing Systems Part II:
Design Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Massimo Di Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi
Effects of Deposition Current on the Microstructure
and Pseudoelasticity of Wire-Arc Additively Manufactured
Ni-rich NiTi Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Jun Wang, Zengxi Pan, Yangfan Wang, Kristin Carpenter, and Huijun Li
Bioplastic Modified with Woodflour for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . 86
Kristen McLaughlin, Allison Webb, Kaitlin Brӓtt, and Daniel Saloni
A Review of Sustainable Materials Used in Thermoplastic Extrusion
and Powder Bed Melting Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Nicole Mervine, Kaitlin Brӓtt, and Daniel Saloni
Quantifying Discrepancies at Positioning Custom 3D-Printed Surgical
Guides for Bone Tumor Resection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Carlos G. Helguero, Fausto Maldonado, Emilio A. Ramirez,
Paulina Arnés Urgellés, Jorge Hurel, and Jorge L. Amaya
Design of 3D Printed Cellular Meta-materials for Improved
Tool-Handle Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Andrej Cupar, Jasmin Kaljun, Bojan Dolšak, and Gregor Harih
Destructive Tests of an Additively Manufactured Compressor Wheel
Performed at High Rotational Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Artur Andrearczyk, Magdalena Mieloszyk, and Paweł Bagiński
Research on Body Type’s Characteristics of Young Men and Women
Based on 3D Body Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Jing Zhao, Fan Zhang, Chao Zhao, Gang Wu, Haitao Wang,
and Wenxing Ding
Product Development with Biopolymers Made from Brewers’ Spent
Grain (BSG) and Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), Using 3D
Food Printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Claudia Cirineo Ferreira Monteiro, Antonio Roberto Giriboni Monteiro,
and Fernando Moreira da Silva
Contents xiii

Smart Garden (SMAG): A System of Outdoor Furniture Equipped

with Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Eleonora Trivellin, Marco Marseglia, Jurji Filieri, Giuseppe Lotti,
Francesco Cantini, Alessio Tanzini, and Elisa Matteucci

Production Management and Process Control

Mixed Reality for Visualization of Operating Data and Semantic
Self-Descriptions of Machines using OPC UA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Johannes Olbort, Heiko Herden, Vladimir Kutscher, and Reiner Anderl
From Working for Others to Working for Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Shuichi Fukuda
Mathematical Model for Ergonomic Job Rotation Scheduling
to Balance the Workload of Employees in Assembly Lines . . . . . . . . . . 163
Esra Dinler and Selin Işık
Simulated Ergonomics Evaluation Using Modern Multi-task
Evaluation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Murray Gibson and Bob Sesek
Model-Based Interconnection of Digital and Physical Twins
Using OPC UA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Vladimir Kutscher, Johannes Olbort, Carsten Steinhauer,
and Reiner Anderl
Educational Effects by Formalizing of Traditional Backing
Techniques in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Akihiko Goto, Oka Iwataro, and Yuka Takai
Dynamic View of Human Elements Design and Projection
of Human Factors in Critical Task Operation Using
Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Salvador Ávila, Jade Ávila, Lucas Pereira, and Elvis Renan Fagundes Lima

Human Aspects in Industrial Environment

Activity Process Analysis in Automobile Sheet Metal Dent Repair . . . . . 203
Yuka Takai and Shigeru Ikemoto

Productivity and Quality Improvements in Manufacturing

and Service Systems
Quality Circles and Kaizen Award Evaluation Process Improvement
in KALDER: Application of Multi-criteria Decision
Making Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Neslisah Albayrak and Baris Kececi
xiv Contents

Factory Change Agent Combining Lean Manufacturing Concept

and Environmental Management in Construction Production . . . . . . . . 220
Krzysztof Sterna, Magdalena K. Wyrwicka, and Beata Mrugalska
A Kanban Implementation Study in a Production Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Mustafa Yurdakul, Yusuf Tansel İç, and Mehmet Gulsen
Instruments for Shaping the Quality of Production Processes
in the Conditions of Coopetition of Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Józef Frąś and Krzysztof Czyrka

Production System: Modelling, Analysis, Design and Implementations

Approach for a Digital Operator Support System for Manual
Machine Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Florian Maier, Martin Ihle, Tina Paschke, and Vlad Valea
Modeling the Integration in the Peruvian Quinoa Supply Chain:
A Sustainability Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Ivonne Román, Manuel Ramírez, Edgar Ramos, Andrea Patrucco,
and Monika Flanigan
Readiness and Maturity of Manufacturing Enterprises
for Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Beata Mrugalska and Anna Stasiuk-Piekarska
Success Factors Impacting Nowadays Technologically Driven
Medical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Omar Kheir, Alexis Jacoby, and Stijn Verwulgen
User-Oriented Service Systems in Resource Efficient
Production Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Cordula Czwick, Stefan Kugler, and Reiner Anderl
Technology-Based Lifecycle Assessment of Software Components
in Automotive Product Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Frank Bodendor and Jörg Franke
Expert Systems in the Reengineering of Technological Equipment . . . . 294
Kamil Wróbel
Determination and Management of Gas Distribution Companies’
Competitive Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Kostiantyn Pavlov, Olena Pavlova, Myroslav Korotia, Liliana Horal,
Ihor Ratushniak, Mykola Semenov, Liubov Ratushniak,
Yuriy Shapovalov, Sergey Anastasenko, Iryna Hryhoruk,
and Nazariy Popadynets
Contents xv

Research on the Relationship Between Chemical

Composition of Tobacco and Field Type Bases on the Multivariate
Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Chao Zhao, Jing Zhao, Fan Zhang, Gang Wu, Haitao Wang, Xinyu Cao,
and Fengguang Wu
Research on the Effect of Chemical Component
on Tobacco Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Xuan Zhang, Chao Zhao, Fan Zhang, Gang Wu, Haitao Wang,
Xinyu Cao, and Jing Zhao
Design and Implementation of a Wastewater Heat Recovery System
Prototype for Electric Showers in Quito-Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Byron Remache-Vinueza, Gustavo Espín Calderón, and Mireya Zapata
Demand Management in the Supply Chain: A Focus
on Agribusiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Rossana Flores, Eileen Lázaro, Edgar Ramos, Kelsey Provost,
and Mamun Habib
Application of an ABC Costing Model to an MSME Company
in the Manufacturing Sector into the UDA ERP
Administrative System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Esteban Crespo-Martínez, Gabriela Chica,
Catalina V. Astudillo-Rodríguez, Andrés Patiño, and Jenny Tapia
Discussion on the Homogeneity Test for Microbiological
Reference Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fan Zhang, Jing Zhao, Chao Zhao, Gang Wu, Xinyu Cao,
and Haitao Wang
A Practical Review of Inventory Models in Supply Chain:
A Special Focus in Agribusiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Nicole Barrientos, Luz Tapia, Edgar Ramos, Steven Dien,
and Kelsey Provost
Developing a Two-Echelon Inventory Framework
in Pharmaceutical Supply Chain: An Empirical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Kevin Arana, Katherinee Flores, Edgar Ramos, and Ron Mesia
Development of HACCP as a Quality Tool in a Hybrid
Agribusiness System: A Case Study in Piura, Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Pedro Infantes, Leonardo Torres, Edgar Ramos, Fernando Sotelo,
and Steven Dien
Influence of Refined Pulping and Environmental Exposure Time
on the Color of Mango (Mangifera Indica) Puree Creole Variety
of Chulucanas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Ernesto Hernandez, Miguel Hernandez, Tania Choque, and Zury Sócola
xvi Contents

A New Mathematical Solution for Packaged Food

Thermal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
William Rolando Miranda Zamora, Susana Soledad Chinchay Villarreyes,
Nelly Luz Leyva Povis, Leandro Alonso Vallejos More,
Manuel Jesús Sánchez Chero, Cynthia Milagros Apaza Panca,
and María Verónica Seminario Morales

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Human Aspects of Advanced
Manufacturing
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects
in the Internet of Production –
An Intra-company Perspective

Philipp Brauner1, Florian Brillowski2, Hannah Dammers2,

Peter Königs3, Frauke Kordtomeikel4, Henning Petruck5(&),
Anne Kathrin Schaar1, Seth Schmitz6, Linda Steuer-Dankert4,
Alexander Mertens5, Thomas Gries2, Carmen Leicht-Scholten4,
Saskia Nagel3, Verena Nitsch5, Günther Schuh6, and Martina Ziefle1
1
Human-Computer Interaction Center, RWTH Aachen University,
Aachen, Germany
2
Institut für Textiltechnik of RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
3
Human Technology Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
4
Research Group Gender and Diversity in Engineering, RWTH Aachen
University, Aachen, Germany
5
Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics,
RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
h.petruck@iaw.rwth-aachen.de
6
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering,
RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
iop-ws.d.i@lists.rwth-aachen.de

Abstract. Digitalization in the production sector aims at transferring concepts

and methods from the Internet of Things (IoT) to the industry and is, as a result,
currently reshaping the production area. Besides technological progress, changes
in work processes and organization are relevant for a successful implementation
of the “Internet of Production” (IoP). Focusing on the labor organization and
organizational procedures emphasizes to consider intra-company factors such as
(user) acceptance, ethical issues, and ergonomics in the context of IoP
approaches. In the scope of this paper, a research approach is presented that
considers these aspects from an intra-company perspective by conducting
studies on the shop floor, control level and management level of companies in
the production area. Focused on four central dimensions—governance, orga-
nization, capabilities, and interfaces—this contribution presents a research
framework that is focused on a systematic integration and consideration of
human aspects in the realization of the IoP.

Keywords: Human factors
Digitalization
Acceptance
Ethics
Human-

robot collaboration
Decision support-systems
Internet of Things
Internet
of Production

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
B. Mrugalska et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1216, pp. 3–17, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51981-0_1
4 P. Brauner et al.

1 Introduction

This contribution presents the research approach of an interdisciplinary research group

(including ethicists, communication and social scientists, computer scientists, business
psychologists and engineers) within the German Research Cluster “Internet of Pro-
duction”1 (IoP) that is focused on the impact of intra-company aspects (governance,
organization, capabilities, interfaces) on the realization of the IoP vision.
The research cluster IoP is an interdisciplinary research project set up to investigate
the potentials of industrial digitalization, which is currently reshaping the industrial
area [1]. Digitalized information opens new possibilities for the optimization and
further development of production processes. The IoP is the industrial equivalent of the
IoT (Internet of Things), which describes the network of smart and interconnected
consumer devices. The large number of devices that track the same features from
different persons produces a vast amount of data, thereby enabling big data analytics
and artificial intelligence to create value added services for the customer [2]. Data are
also collected in the manufacturing industry, but at the moment the industry works
mostly independently in each domain, creating silos for their domain specific models
and data [3]. This prevents the cross-domain data and knowledge sharing by the
restrained accessibility, being further reinforced by the heterogeneity of data. Often
only outdated information from other domains can be used [4]. The underlying idea of
the IoP is to transfer concepts, ideas and methods from the IoT to production and
develop advanced data-based applications, to break with the domain specific models
and data in order to increase productivity and agility. Therefore, the idea of the IoP-
framework is to provide semantically adequate and context-aware data in real-time as
well as on a use-appropriate level of granularity. The provided data are gathered from
development, production and usage of technical products with the intention to enable a
new level of cross-domain collaboration. This approach introduces the idea of the
World-Wide Lab, where every operation on real machines in real production scenarios
represents an experiment, which generates data. These data from multiple machines,
processes, and process chains are then used to identify new process models and
parameters using big data analytics.
Against the background of the resulting technical developments and changes in
industry, as well as their influence on work processes and organizational procedures, it
is essential to consider the role of human agents, who are a crucial part of social-
technical production systems [5]. Therefore requirements, chances, consequences and
limitations of the IoP must be analyzed with respect to their impact on humans. With
this contribution, we focus on humans across the whole production (shop floor, control
level and management level of a company). The main goal considering human aspects
in company internal production is fostering of IoP-based value creation during usage of
connected data, products, and equipment by design of interfaces, development of
capabilities, a specific organizational structure, and the selection of a governance mode.
This leads to a research focus on the adaptation of work processes to new

1
https://www.iop.rwth-aachen.de/.
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP 5

circumstances, knowledge transfer between users and digitalized production technol-

ogy, the handling of new team structures (hybrid human-machine), but also the
adaptation of organizational structures and management strategies. Furthermore, the
exploration of social, ethical and safety dimensions is of high relevance for the intra-
company user perspective. The data security must be ensured, especially for sensitive
user-related data, and the intended use of them must be jointly agreed upon. This raises
the following main research questions:
1. How can moral and social concerns (governance), such as the responsible use of AI
and the protection of data privacy, be aligned with economic interests, such as
operational efficiency and profit maximization?
2. Which organizational underlying conditions must be created to support or facilitate
the implementation of an IoP and how can these be established? Which aspects of
change management must be considered in this process?
3. Which capabilities for both technical and human components of the IoP are
required for a seamless human-machine interaction and hybrid teamwork in the IoP,
also considering the need to compensate for possible capability deficits of other
entities?
4. How can novel human-machine interfaces such as human-robot collaboration or
AI-driven (Artificial Intelligence) decision support systems be designed, taking into
account the experiences and competences of each individual user and establishing
trust in automation?
To answer these research questions a business technology platform perspective on
the IoP vision is adopted (see Sect. 2). The adoption of the presented framework leads
to an approach for a research framework that allows a systematic investigation of
human aspects in the context of an intra-company perspective in the IoP (see Sect. 3).
The referred framework by Gawer [6] is used as a common thread in the project to link
the results of the different project teams together, therefore the focus will be on this
specific framework. Furthermore, this article also presents the application of the pre-
sented research framework w.r.t. use-cases, i.e. human-robot workstations in assembly
and textile forming, global production control centers and acceptance studies in
companies (see Sect. 4).

2 The Internet of Production as a Platform

If we think of the IoP’s vision and the development of a World-Wide Lab as a platform
with a corresponding business model, different aspects must be considered. Gawer [6]
has dealt with the different perspectives on technological platforms. In her framework,
she analyzed a platform’s so-called “innovation ecosystems” [7, 8] or “ecologies of
complex innovation” [9] that represent the network of firms dealing with technological
platforms in the digital sector. In her research, she detects two theoretical perspectives.
On the one hand, the economic perspective, which focuses on economic considerations
like competition, on the other hand, the engineering perspective, which places focus in
6 P. Brauner et al.

innovation and design [6]. The findings from her analysis are brought together into a
theoretic framework with the goal of developing platforms that “[…] can be usefully
conceptualized as evolving organizations or meta-organizations […]” [6] (p. 1239)
From her point of view, this can be achieved by reflecting the organizational form,
interfaces, capabilities and governance, which are jointly called the “organizational
continuum of technological platforms”.
However, in the frame of Gawer’s [6] analysis it becomes clear that one must pay
particularly close attention to human behavior in a meta-organization. For example,
Gawer [6] points out that “[a]gents’ changing roles within platform-based ecosystems
[…] and associated shifting patterns of collaboration and competition, are in fact a
feature of ecosystems [10], one that ought to be treated explicitly in rigorous attempts
to theorize technological platforms.” (p. 1243). Gawer [6] refers primarily to the role of
companies as organizations and their positioning. However, a closer look also reveals
the need to reflect on the people in an organization as agents of technological platforms.
Especially against the background that technological platforms generally originate from
already existing organizations and systems, the integration of the people, who also act
in these systems but also on the respective platforms, is of special importance. In this
context, psychological aspects of change [11–14] as part of a transformation process
towards a meta-organization need to be reflected.
For this reason, the project presented deals with the research of human acceptance
behavior in the context of the establishment of the IoP. The approach strives for a
holistic perspective on acceptance of a platform environment and implementing the
idea of the IoP into the enterprise.
If reference is made to technology acceptance research, two objectives can be
defined: 1) a better understanding of acceptance phenomena, i.e. the analysis of factors
and mechanisms that promote or impede the emergence of acceptance; 2) results should
contribute towards shaping the introduction and implementation of technology and
technical innovations themselves in such a way that they meet with the greatest pos-
sible acceptance [15, 16]. Research objects are therefore the management level as well
as the employees of organizations that seek to participate in the IoP with the aim to
continuously improve the individual production process.
The presented research approach is based on Gawer’s [6] four-stage “organizational
continuum of technological platforms”. Those four layers - governance, organization,
capabilities, interfaces - represent at the same time the research objects that must be
investigated within the framework of acceptance research. Focusing on the internal
perspective, the acceptance behavior of different target groups is defined on the levels
and investigated w.r.t. specific use cases.

3 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP

In this chapter, we describe the different research approaches that are taken in the IoP-
research project. The research approaches are oriented towards Gawer’s organizational
continuum of technological platforms and, as a result, focus on aspects of governance,
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP 7

organization, capabilities and interfaces. As already mentioned, the focus is on the

integration of human agents in the IoP’s concept of a World-Wide Lab. Since the focus
thus deviates from Gawer’s perspective on platforms, a redefinition of the four levels of
observation is necessary.
Governance can be understood to include ethical issues surrounding the IoP, such
as the responsible use of AI and the protection of data privacy.
In the frame of the research project, the term organization stands for two different
perspectives. On the one hand, organization is understood as a formal set of rules of a
system based on the division of labor (process organization). On the other hand, the
organization stands for a framework in which people interact (organizational structure).
In this context, structures, hierarchies, authorities to issue directives, but also authority
and power gaps need to be considered, as the so-called internal organization regulates
cooperation by distributing tasks as functionally as possible.
Capabilities indicate products and services provided through the agents (humans,
organizations, machines, as well as joint-cognitive systems) of the (internal) platform
of socio-technical production systems.
Interfaces refer to human-machine interfaces, ranging from new forms of human-
robot collaboration to interfaces to automated systems. Interfaces interconnect IoP
agents yielding the emergence of new capabilities.

3.1 Governance
The IoP involves major changes in how workers go about performing their work and in
the way the management organizes the work processes. These changes, besides offering
sizable benefits for businesses, also create ethical challenges. By altering the traditional
working environment, the introduction of the IoP is likely to affect the welfare of the
employees in numerous ways. Two critical issues at stake are the privacy of the
employees and the just allocation of responsibility in contexts that involve autonomous
robots.
Privacy is widely regarded as an essential component of an individual’s wellbeing.
Control over one’s personal information has been suggested to be instrumental, among
other things, to the protection of an individual’s autonomy [17], human dignity [18],
and social integrity [19]. The introduction of the IoP is associated with the collection
and evaluation of large swaths of data about the performance of employees, potentially
threatening their privacy and the values privacy protects. Part of our project is therefore
to determine the extent to which workplace surveillance is ethically justifiable [20]. We
seek to identify a fair balance between employees’ legitimate claim to privacy and
businesses’ equally legitimate attempt to render production processes more efficient
and profitable. The fairness of any data collection policy will depend, among other
things, on 1) whose data are collected, 2) what kind of data are collected, 3) how long
the data are stored, 4) who has access to these data, 5) whether the data are processed
by a computer or a human agent, 6) what the data are used for, and 7) on how
transparent the data collection policy is.
The introduction of robots in the work process constitutes another potential source
of ethical concern. While robots in the workplace can bring about an increase in
productivity, they raise questions regarding the attribution of responsibility. This is
8 P. Brauner et al.

especially true if work robots are equipped with artificial intelligence that provide them
with a certain degree of autonomy. The use of autonomous robots may lead to a moral
muddying of the waters, making it difficult to assign responsibility in case of a mishap
or accident. In such a situation, it may not always seem obvious whom to hold
accountable – the operator/worker, the management, the programmer of the algorithm,
the manufacturer of the robot, or the robot itself. This has led some scholars to speak of
a ‘responsibility gap’ [21], resulting directly from the autonomy of intelligent robots.
Businesses that introduce the IoP must therefore at an early stage adopt a fair and
transparent scheme of responsibility attribution, which is acceptable to all stakeholders.
Due to the novelty of the problem, it may be necessary to rethink our traditional ethical
practices of responsibility allocation and to adapt them to an environment that includes
autonomous systems.

3.2 Organization
The implementation of the IoP vision in existing corporate structures requires a change
at different levels. The reasons to initiate a change are manifold. In a study conducted
with 3,199 executives from industries and regions worldwide, the researchers asked for
the reasons for change [22]. With regard to the question which overarching objective
was pursued by the company in the frame of the transformation, 35% answered
“Moving from good performance to great performance”, 15% of respondents stated,
“Reducing costs” and 12% indicated the need for “Turning around a crisis situation”.
Despite the important entrepreneurial intentions to initiate a change (such as, for
example, the digitalization of a company), change projects fail. The risk of failure while
establishing and securing organizational changes is between 40% and 70% [23, 24].
Reasons for that can be seen in the psychological effects of changes, and resulting fear
and reactance [25].
Within the context of change, acceptance is an important aspect and needs to be
reflected on all company levels. While Sauer et al. [26] define an unacceptance-
acceptance-scale which leads in 8 steps from active opposition as the highest form of
unacceptance over indifference and tolerance to engagement as the highest form of
acceptance, Müllerleile [27] points out that in practice the silent form of unacceptance
is problematic as it is not obviously recognizable. Conversely this means that chal-
lenges regarding acceptance of implementing operating processes can exist in an
organization even though there is no recognizable active opposition [27]. In this
context, the psychological effect of a change on employees at all levels of a company
plays an important role.
Regarding the IoP project outlined above, it is therefore of particular importance to
reflect on attitudes, opinions and possible reactances before integrating an appropriate
system in order to be able to link them up within the framework of a change man-
agement approach. For this reason, on the one hand an investigation of behavioral
aspects of acceptance as well as prevailing mindsets in the digitalization context is
necessary, on the other hand structural barriers and organizational framework condi-
tions must be analyzed in order for being able to develop appropriate implementation
concepts.
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP 9

3.3 Interfaces
For the implementation of the vision of the IoP at the various stages of manufacturing
companies (from shop floor operation to strategic planning), new human-machine
interfaces are needed that facilitate the viability of the socio-technical production
system [28]. The successful development, implementation, and use of these novel tools
and interfaces, needs an understanding of both, what future interfaces in production
systems are, and which specific requirements future employees have. We expect that
the diversity of production yields a variety of different user-, context-, and task-
adaptive (combination of) interfaces. Examples are new forms of human-robot col-
laboration, smart AI-driven decision support systems at the shop floor, or tightly
integrated data-driven dashboards and decision simulations for the strategic production
planning.
In the context of human-robot collaboration the elimination of the border between
robots and operators enables seamless and tightly coupled interaction; promising the
optimal combination of both actors’ capabilities. Smart AI-driven decision support
systems for the shop floor level or for strategic planning need adequate information
aggregation and visualizations to make very large volumes and varieties of data from
production accessible, transparent, and actionable.
Considering the human side, it is essential to consider prior research on automation
research. For example, Parasaruman et al. found that people interact differently with
automated systems, based on user, system, and interaction features. They defined three
different forms of interaction: Use, misuse, and disuse [29]. Use refers to the adequate
usage of an automated system, misuse signifies the nonreflected usage of the system,
e.g., by not checking if the automation works correctly. Disuse denotes to the inten-
tional neglect of automated decision aids due to, e.g., missing trust in automation.
Furthermore, they defined abuse of automation as an organizational aspect, where
automation is implemented by superiors and managers without considering the fit
between automation, the context, and the operators.
On this basis, prior research identified various human, interface, and system factors
that influence efficiency and trust in automation (cf. [30]). However, new forms of
automation must be specifically tailored to the operators, the context, and the task to
generate high utility, trust, and user satisfaction. On the contrary, if interfaces of
automated systems are not designed well, this may negatively impact production
performance (e.g., quality, efficiency, costs, …), the company (e.g., cohesion, autop-
oiesis, economic viability, …) and the individuals (e.g., autonomy, stress, job satis-
faction, …).
In the IoP we study novel human-machine interfaces in different use cases (see
below). In particular, we will analyze which design factors (interface design and
visualizations, support systems and their comprehensiveness, explainability, and
transparency) yield higher utility, acceptance, and trust in automated systems.
10 P. Brauner et al.

3.4 Capabilities
Based on the agents and relevant entities in socio-technical production systems, our
research framework operationalizes capabilities in relation to humans, machines (+data
processing), organization and society. For each of the four aspects we have to examine
the baseline capabilities and the expansion potential. Thus, in the context of humans,
we have to consider their cognitive and motor capabilities as well as their specific
dispositions e.g. to trust in automation, personality states and traits, or technology
acceptance. By operationalizing human factors, their fit, potential and advantage in the
socio-technical system can be applied and matched with the other agents to foster
emergence within the socio-technical systems. Besides the human capabilities, the
technological capabilities within a company must be also taken into account. Tech-
nological capabilities are the technological infrastructure of cyber-physical production
systems e.g., machines, software, algorithms or AI applications of a company.
In the IoP, it is essential not only to consider the specific capabilities of different
agents (e.g., technical and human), but to integrate these into a holistic concept. Novel
concepts and approaches from production engineering, computer science, and data
science (such as Data Lakes, Digital Shadows, or the Lab of Labs) need to be integrated
with specific sensory, motoric, and cognitive skills and procedural and contextual
expertise of humans. Only this multi-agent integration yields the emergence of
advanced capabilities which are required to harness the full potential of digitalization in
production. In order for the full potential of capabilities to unfold, suitable interfaces
between the agents in the IoP, as well as appropriate governance and organizational
structures are required.
Joint-cognitive systems that combine the capabilities of experts with smart agents
(data analytics, artificial intelligence, decision support systems) need humane interfaces
that provide trusted, interpretable, and actionable user- and context-adaptive informa-
tion for the human operator. Additionally, these interfaces must capture the knowledge
of human operators to enhance the system’s future knowledge base.

4 Use Cases

The challenges, which were described within the four aspects governance, organiza-
tion, interfaces and capabilities, are addressed by analyzing the specific use cases
Corporate Organizational Structures, Global Production Control, Assistance Systems in
Textile Composite Production and Human-Robot Collaboration in Assembly by the
project team (see Fig. 1). The following subsections briefly describe which aspects are
addressed by the individual use cases.
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP 11

Non-persistent
Legal aspects for
performance evaluation
implementation of the IoP
of workers

Determine prerequisites Task allocation in

and hurdles collaborative systems

Decision Support Robots, Adaption to user behavior

Systems, Trust Smart Agents

Exploration of human and Real time updates of

Integration of tacit technical capabilities predicted time of task
knowledge finishing for production
control

Fig. 1. Core-research aspects of analyzed use cases.

4.1 Corporate Organizational Structures

In order to find approaches to answer the central research question number 2 mentioned
before, a qualitative approach (participatory observation, qualitative survey, focus
groups) will be conducted targeting in a first step the middle and higher management of
several companies with influence on strategic corporate decisions, which are gathered
in the so called “Industrial Advisory Board” (IAB). The IAB is a conglomerate of 35
industrial companies varying in branches, sizes, and structures, but united in the
common target to implement approaches of digitization in their corporate systems.
Branches vary from mechanical engineering, over automation, automotive, and IT.
Regarding the headcounts there is a range of 60 employees until more than 400.000
with a median of 13.420, which represents the heterogeneity of the board. The IAB will
be the research object for a qualitative survey to capture the mind-set in the given
companies and to determine the perceived prerequisites and hurdles in the organiza-
tions of real companies to transfer the vision of IoP into reality. In a second step, it is
planned to investigate the acceptance behavior of employees from IAB companies. The
goal is to identify and develop organizational processes and management approaches
that will facilitate the implementation of the IoP idea.
12 P. Brauner et al.

4.2 Global Production Control

Value creation in companies is increasingly globally distributed. Increasing product
complexity and market volatility make it necessary for companies to actively monitor
and control the network with its multitude of players, intransparencies and conflicting
objectives. The use case addresses a global production control center to increase
productivity through real-time online monitoring. Thereby, the production control
center consists of multiple decision support systems, for instance, an enterprise cockpit
or an application to identify production correlation based on real feedback data, for
their development the above-mentioned dimensions of capabilities and interfaces need
to be addressed.
The integration of tacit knowledge into decision support systems is part of the
capability dimension, as some decisions cannot only be made based on data. They
require domain-specific knowledge and interpretations. It examines, which decisions
can be made data-based by systems, such as order replenishment, and which requires
production knowledge and human interactions. For instance, process weaknesses
cannot be automatically improved by the system. Data-based analysis can describe the
process performances, which have to be interpreted afterwards by production or pro-
cess experts whether they are good or bad, planned or unplanned. To increase decision
quality, speed, satisfaction and trust in the support systems the interface dimension is
directly affected. The complexity of the decisions must be made comprehensible by a
suitable interface and must not lead to incorrect interpretations and actions. For this
purpose, it should be examined how an intuitive operation mode can be ensured.
Complex analyses have to be presented in a way that they are comprehensible for the
user in order to trust in the decision. Basically, for each decision system it is necessary
to research how information should be visualized to enable people to understand and
react appropriately.

4.3 Assistance Systems in Textile Composite Production

Composites made of glass and carbon fibers offer excellent mechanical properties in
relation to their weight. For this reason, they are increasingly used in the aviation,
automotive and energy sectors. However, as production poses extremely high demands
on the deposition accuracy and flawlessness of the single fiber layers, their processing
is very complex compared to conventional materials such as metal or wood. In small
and medium sized enterprises, composites are mostly produced manually by human
workers (Fig. 2). Due to their rapid adaptability to varying requirements regarding
component geometry and complexity, production environments are being enabled to
offer a vast amount of component variants. At the same time, the achievable component
quality is strongly dependent on the respective specialist’s experience. Therefore, it is
essential to support the human both in making decisions and in practical work.
In this research project, the influence of different assistance systems (e.g. human-
robot collaboration, augmented reality, decision support systems) on human workers
and component quality is investigated. With this approach, the four previous mentioned
dimensions are addressed. To successfully use assistance systems in composite pro-
duction, a high acceptance in the whole organization – from employee to management
 A Research Framework for Human Aspects in the IoP 13

level – is necessary. That is why it is important to develop human-machine interfaces

that achieve great trust in smart agents and automation solutions. In this context, the
flexible cooperation between human workers, robots and smart agents is examined to
find the best fitting degrees of automation and assistance. Furthermore, the capabilities
of both human workers and assistance systems are explored, as well as how they
correspond to the achievable component quality. Additionally, the work in hybrid
teams with smart agents and robotics raises questions of responsibility and ethical
concerns regarding privacy.

Fig. 2. Manual production of a composite engine hood.

4.4 Human-Robot Collaboration in Assembly

In this use case, a robot supports the human working person, by handing over the
necessary components for the assembly step, so that the human working person can
fully concentrate on the assembly task (Fig. 3). By analyzing the human working
behavior in terms of working speed for each assembly step, the system predicts the
duration of the current assembly steps and uses this information to adapt the timing of
the handover process to the working speed of the working person.
This approach addresses several aspects of the previously mentioned areas. By
monitoring the working speed, a performance evaluation is automatically generated.
This will automatically raise the question whether and in what form these data can/must
be stored. With the prediction of the users working speed and automated timing of the
14 P. Brauner et al.

handover process a new human-machine interface, which allows the human to control
the robot implicitly, is implemented. The individual needs of the users should be
considered during its development in order to achieve trust in automation and a high
level of acceptance. By predicting the duration of assembly steps, the capability of real
time updates concerning the estimated task finish time is enabled, which can be used in
a dynamic rescheduling of production tasks. The goal of this development is to achieve
a match between the capabilities of the human to work with this robot and the capa-
bilities of the robot, in order to create a system that offers a high degree of adaptability
and at the same time achieves acceptance and considers usability. Therefore, studies are
conducted to analyze the acceptance of the adaptive human-robot collaboration in
assembly.

Fig. 3. Handover process in the collaborative assembly scenario. (Picture: Ahrens + Steinbach
Projekte)

5 Discussion and Outlook

In this contribution, we have outlined how the IoP may reshape production and
illustrated that people are likely to remain essential in socio-technical production
systems. We have further hypothesized that, in order to unfold its full capabilities, the
development and implementation of new production technologies must be harmonized
with human requirements, and outlined a concept for the related research. These human
requirements are linked to the areas governance, which includes data security and
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regularity:—varying their phases from full to new and from new to
full, and frequently eclipsing the sun and each other, at least to the
equatorial parts of Jupiter; and almost in every revolution suffering
eclipses themselves by falling into Jupiter’s shadow; excepting that
the outermost will seem, like a traveller fond of the sun-beams,
cautiously to avoid the shadow for whole years together. Since we
are advanced so far, if not tired of the journey, let us proceed a step
further; it is but 400 millions of miles to the globe of Saturn. Here
again all will be lost, but Jupiter itself. The Sun will put on something
of a starlike appearance, but with excessive brightness. The five[A33]
satellites of Saturn will exhibit appearances similar to those of
Jupiter, but they will very rarely eclipse the Sun, or suffer eclipses
themselves. The particular phænomena of Saturn’s ring, we cannot
explain, unless we knew the time and plane of Saturn’s revolution on
his axis. But this we know, that it must sometimes appear, by night,
like a prodigious luminous arch, almost equal to one quarter of the
heavens; and at other times, dark, so as to afford no light itself, but
to intercept the light of every star beyond it, by night, and of the sun
itself by day. And to conclude, if borne on the wings of a comet we
should travel with it to the remotest part of its orbit; our whole
planetary system would disappear, and the sun become a star, only
more refulgent than Sirius perhaps, because less distant.

The opinion of the earth’s rotation on its axis was once violently
opposed, from a notion of its dangerous tendency with respect to the
interests of religion:[A34] But, as truth is always consistent with itself,
so many new proofs were furnished from time to time by new
discoveries, that a mistaken interpretation of some passages in the
bible was compelled to give way to the force of astronomical
evidence. The doctrine of a plurality of worlds, is inseparable from
the principles of Astronomy; but this doctrine is still thought, by some
pious persons, and by many more I fear, who do not deserve that
title, to militate against the truths asserted by the Christian religion. If
I may be allowed to give my opinion on a matter of such importance,
I must confess that I think upon a proper examination the apparent
inconsistency will vanish. Our religion teaches us what philosophy
could not have taught; and we ought to admire with reverence the
great things it has pleased divine Providence to perform, beyond the
ordinary course of Nature, for man, who is undoubtedly the most
noble inhabitant of this globe. But neither religion nor philosophy
forbids us to believe that infinite wisdom and power, prompted by
infinite goodness, may throughout the vast extent of creation and
duration, have frequently interposed in a manner quite
incomprehensible to us, when it became necessary to the happiness
of created beings of some other rank or degree.

How far indeed the inhabitants of the other planets may resemble
man, we cannot pretend to say. If like him they were created liable to
fall, yet some, if not all of them, may still retain their original
rectitude. We will hope they do: the thought is comfortable.—Cease,
Galileo, to improve thy optic tube: and thou, great Newton, forbear
thy ardent search into the distant mysteries of nature: lest ye make
unwelcome discoveries. Deprive us not of the pleasure of believing
that yonder radiant orbs, traversing in silent majesty the etherial
regions, are the peaceful seats of innocence and bliss: where neither
natural nor moral evil has ever yet intruded; where to enjoy with
gratitude and adoration the creator’s bounty, is the business of
existence. If their inhabitants resemble man in their faculties and
affections, let us suppose that they are wise enough to govern
themselves according to the dictates of that reason their creator has
given them, in such manner as to consult their own and each other’s
true happiness, on all occasions. But if, on the contrary, they have
found it necessary to erect artificial fabrics of government, let us not
suppose that they have done it with so little skill, and at such an
enormous expence, as must render them a misfortune instead of a
blessing. We will hope that their statesmen are patriots, and that
their kings, if that order of beings has found admittance there, have
the feelings of humanity.—Happy people! and perhaps more happy
still, that all communication with us is denied. We have neither
corrupted you with our vices, nor injured you by violence. None of
your sons and daughters, degraded from their native dignity, have
been doomed to endless slavery by us in America, merely because
their bodies may be disposed to reflect or absorb the rays of light, in
a way different from ours. Even you, inhabitants of the moon,
situated in our very neighbourhood, are effectually secured, alike
from the rapacious hand of the haughty Spaniard, and of the
unfeeling British nabob. Even British thunder impelled by British
thirst of gain, cannot reach you: And the utmost efforts of the mighty
Frederick, that tyrant of the north and scourge of mankind, if aimed
to disturb your peace, becomes inconceivably ridiculous and
impotent.

Pardon these reflections; they rise not from the gloomy spirit of
misanthropy. That being, before whose piercing eye all the intricate
foldings and dark recesses of the human heart become expanded
and illuminated, is my witness with what sincerity, with what ardor, I
wish for the happiness of the whole race of mankind: how much I
admire that disposition of lands and seas, which affords a
communication between distant regions, and a mutual exchange of
benefits:[A35] how sincerely I approve of those social refinements
which really add to our happiness, and induce us with gratitude to
acknowledge our great Creator’s goodness:—how I delight in a
participation of the discoveries made from time to time in nature’s
works, by our Philosophic brethren in Europe.

But when I consider, that luxury and her constant follower tyranny,
who have long since laid in the dust, never to rise again, the glories
of Asia, are now advancing like a torrent irresistible, whose weight
no human force can stem, and have nearly completed their conquest
of Europe; luxury and tyranny, who by a vile affectation of virtues
they know not, pretend at first to be the patrons of science and
philosophy, but at length fail not effectually to destroy them; agitated
I say by these reflections, I am ready to wish—vain wish! that nature
would raise her everlasting bars between the new and old world; and
make a voyage to Europe as impracticable as one to the moon. I
confess indeed, that by our connections with Europe we have made
most surprising, I had almost said unnatural, advances towards the
meridian of glory; but by those connections too, in all probability, our
fall will be premature. May the God of knowledge inspire us with
wisdom to prevent it: let our harbours, our doors, our hearts, be shut
against luxury. But I return to my subject, and will no longer indulge
these melancholy thoughts.

Some have observed, that the wonderful discoveries of the

microscope ought to go hand in hand with those of the telescope;
lest whilst we contemplate the many instances of the wisdom and
power of divine Providence, displayed in the great works of creation,
we should be tempted to conclude that man, and other less
important beings of this lower world, did not claim its attention. But I
will venture to affirm, without at all derogating from the merits of
those who have so greatly obliged the world with the success of their
microscopical enquiries, that no such danger is to be apprehended.
Nothing can better demonstrate the immediate presence of the Deity
in every part of space, whether vacant or occupied by matter, than
astronomy does. It was from an astronomer St. Paul quoted that
exalted expression, so often since repeated; “In God we live, and
move, and have our being.” His divine energy supports that universal
substratum on which all corporal substances subsist, that the laws of
motion are derived from, and that wings light with angelic swiftness.

If the time would permit, how agreeable the task to dwell on the
praises of Astronomy: to consider its happy effects as a science, on
the human mind. Let the sceptical writers forbear to lavish
encomiums on their cobweb Philosophy, liable to be broken by the
smallest incident in nature. They tell us it is of great service to
mankind, in banishing bigotry and superstition from amongst us. Is
not this effectually done by Astronomy? The direct tendency of this
science is to dilate the heart with universal benevolence, and to
enlarge its views. But then it does this without propagating a single
point of doctrine contrary to common sense, or the most cultivated
reason. It flatters no fashionable princely vice, or national depravity.
It encourages not the libertine by relaxing any of the precepts of
morality; nor does it attempt to undermine the foundations of religion.
It denies none of those attributes, which the wisest and best of
mankind, have in all ages ascribed to the Deity: Nor does it degrade
the human mind from that dignity, which is ever necessary to make it
contemplate itself with complacency. None of these things does
Astronomy pretend to; and if these things merit the aim of
Philosophy, and the encouragement of a people, then let scepticism
flourish, and Astronomy lie neglected; then let the names of
Berkeley, and Hume, become immortal, and that of Newton be lost in
oblivion.

I shall conclude this part of my discourse with the words of Dr.

Barrow—It is to Astronomy we owe “that we comprehend the huge
fabric of the universe, admire and contemplate the wonderful beauty
of the divine workmanship, and so learn the invincible force and
sagacity of our own minds, as to acknowledge the blessings of
heaven with a pious affection.”

I now come, in the last place, to point out some of the defects of
Astronomy at this day. Which I am induced to undertake by the
hopes I entertain that some of those defects may be removed under
the auspices of this society, and of you my fellow citizens, who have
so zealously promoted its institution. “The advantages arising from
Astronomy, the pleasure attending the study of it, the care with which
it was cultivated by many great men among the ancients, and the
extraordinary attention paid to it in Europe by the present age,” all
contribute to recommend it to your protection, under which we have
the best reason to expect that it will flourish.

The mildness of our climate and the serenity of our atmosphere,

perhaps not inferior to that of Italy, and likewise our distant situation
from the principal observatories in the world (whence many curious
phænomena must be visible here that are not likely to be observed
any where else) are so many circumstances greatly in our favour.

And I trust there will not be wanting men of genius, to arise in this
new world, whose talents may be particularly adapted to
astronomical enquiries. Indeed I am persuaded that nature is by no
means so nigardly in producing them, as we are apt to imagine.
Some are never tempted forth from obscurity, some are untimely
snatched away by death, a striking instance whereof we have in
Horrox; and many are accidentally led to other pursuits.
 The Astronomy of comets is still in its infancy; not that the
attention of the learned and ingenious has at all been wanting for
more than a century past; but because it will necessarily require
many ages to bring it to perfection. I wish we were in a condition to
promote it in some degree, by carefully observing such comets as
may appear. As yet we scarce dare affirm that any one has or will
return a second time. It has never, that I know of, been certainly
proved by observation, that a comet has descended within a
parabolic orbit, and until that is done we have only a coincidence of
periods and orbits (none of which have been very precise) to depend
on for their return. Far less are astronomers able to determine the
changes that may, and probably do, happen in their orbits[A36] and
velocities in every period, so as to predict their nearer or more
remote approach to the earth or any planet. Whether their business
be to repair or destroy, whether they are worlds yet in formation or
once habitable worlds in ruins; whether they are at present habitable
and regular attendants of our Sun only, or whether they are the vast
links that connect the distant parts of creation by surrounding more
suns than one, we know not.

If we descend to the Planetary System, there are still many things

wanting to compleat Astronomy.

The orbits of the primary planets have at one time been supposed
moveable with various irregularities, at other times fixed and
permanent. It seems now generally granted, that according to the
theory of gravity they must change their situations; yet not long
since, some great astronomers warmly contended that this change
was altogether insensible.

According to the best tables we now have, the planes of the orbits
of Jupiter, the Earth and Mercury are immoveable, though the orbits
themselves have a progressive motion in their planes. On the
contrary, the poles of the orbits of Saturn, Mars and Venus are
supposed to revolve about the poles of the earth’s orbit, with such
velocities as at present nearly reconcile calculation to appearances.
But there is good reason to apprehend that such a supposition is not
true in fact, and a mistake in this matter will have some important
consequences. More probable is it, that the poles of the orbits of all
the planets, the earth not excepted, revolve about some common
centre. The several quantities of these motions, I am confident, are
to be had from observation, and not from theory alone. If such a
motion of the earth’s orbit be admitted, it will account for the
diminution[A37] of the obliquity of the ecliptic; which seems now
incontestible; and that in whatever manner we divide the forces
producing such motion, amongst the two superior planets and
Venus, or even amongst all of them. And I should suspect the further
diminution of obliquity, from this cause, will amount to about one
degree and an half.

But as Astronomy now stands, it seems doubtful whether this

change is owing to a deviation in the diurnal or annual motion of the
earth; which introduces a very disagreeable uncertainty in
conclusions drawn from some nice and useful observations.

The Lunar Astronomy has been brought so much nearer to

perfection, by the celebrated Mayer,[A38] than could have been
expected, that I shall mention no deficiency in it, but this. We do not
certainly know whether that apparent acceleration of the moon’s
motion, which Mayer with other great astronomers has admitted,
ought to be attributed to a real increase of velocity in the moon, or to
a diminution of the earth’s diurnal motion. If to the former, the
destruction of this beautiful and stupendous fabric, may from thence
be predicted with more certainty than from any other appearance in
Nature: But if to the latter, it may be prettily accounted for, by Dr.
Halley’s ingenious hypotheses concerning the change of variation in
the magnetical needle. The Doctor supposes the external crust or
shell of the earth to contain a nucleus detatched from it, and that the
impulse which first caused the diurnal motion, was given to the
external parts, and from thence in time communicated to the internal
nucleus, by means of an intervening fluid; but not so as perfectly to
equal the velocity of the superficial parts of the globe. Whence it will
follow, that the external shell of the earth is still communicating
motion to the internal parts, and losing motion itself proportionably.
The diurnal motion must therefore become slower and slower, yet
can never be retarded, by this cause, beyond certain limits; nor can
we conceive that any inconvenience will follow.

There is another physical question relating to the moon, which to

me appears extremely curious; it is this—Whence is it that the moon
always turns the same side to us? or, which is the same thing, How
comes the moon’s rotation on her axis, and her monthly revolution
about the earth, to be performed in the same time? None I believe
will suppose it to be accidental, nor will the astronomer be easily
satisfied with a final cause. Was it not originally brought about by a
natural cause which still subsists? Can the attraction of any foreign
body change a rotatory motion into a libratory one, and a libratory
motion into rest, in spaces so very free from all resistance as those
wherein the planets move? There are other defects in Astronomy
that are purely optical. Removing of those, depends on the further
improvement of telescopes, or rather on the more judicious use of
them, at times and places the most favourable.

In speaking of telescopic discoveries I purposely reserved those

made on Venus for this place, because they are still uncertain.
Burratini in Poland first discovered spots in Venus, then Cassini in
Italy; and afterwards Bianchini got a sight of them. But from all their
observations it is uncertain, whether Venus revolves on its axis once
in 23 hours, or once in 24 days. Perhaps it does neither. Nor is their
determination of the axis’ situation much more satisfactory. These
spots on Venus are not to be seen but through an excellent
telescope and a pure atmosphere.

In the year 1672 and 1676 Cassini saw a small star near Venus,
which he thought might be a satellite attending on her. It appeared to
have the same phase with Venus. In 1740 Mr. Short with a telescope
of 16 inches saw a small star at the distance of ten minutes from
Venus, which from its apparent shape he likewise thought might be a
satellite. And in 1761 Mr. Montaigne, in France, saw what he took to
be the satellite of Venus, on the 3d, 4th, 7th and 11th of May.[A39] But
whether Venus has a satellite or not, must still be left amongst the
doubtful things of Astronomy.

The spots on the sun, and those on the surfaces of several

planets, have been many years observed without our approaching
any nearer towards discovering their nature and cause. Dr. Wilson of
Glasgow, has lately succeeded in advancing one step at least, with
respect to those of the sun. He has proved from observation that
those spots are vast cavities, whose bottoms lie far below the
general surface of the sun, and whose sloping sides form the border
which we generally see surrounding them. If I should venture to add
one conjecture of my own, to those of this ingenious gentleman, I
would suppose that those prodigious cavities in the surface of the
sun, some of them capable of containing half our earth, are not
repeatedly formed by unaccountable explosions of a semifluid
substance, but permanent and solid, like the cavities within the
moon. And that it is the dark matter sometimes lodging in them, that
distinguishes them, and is only accidental.

The diurnal rotations of Saturn and Mercury are yet unknown; but
when further improvements shall be made in the art of using
telescopes, this circumstance will hardly escape the vigilance of
astronomers.

These are a few of the many things that are still left to the industry
of the ingenious in this science.

But if all higher and more sublime discoveries are not reserved for
us in a future and more perfect state; if Astronomy shall again break
those limits that now seem to confine it, and expatiate freely in the
superior celestial fields; what amazing discoveries may yet be made
amongst the fixed stars! That grand phænomenon the Milky-Way
seems to be the clue that will one day guide us. Millions of small
stars compose it, and many more bright ones lie in and near it, than
in other parts of heaven. Is not this a strong indication that this
astonishing system of worlds beyond worlds innumerable, is not
alike extended every way, but confined between two parallel planes,
of immeasureable, though not infinite extent? Or rather, is not the
Milky-Way a vein of a closer texture, running through this part of the
material creation? Great things are sometimes best explained by
small and small by great. Material substances, such as we daily
handle, have been thought composed of impenetrable particles in
actual contact: then again it has seemed necessary to suppose them
at a distance from each other, and kept in their relative situations by
attraction and repulsion. Many appearances require that those
distances should be very great in proportion to the size of the
particles. Hence some, with no small reason, have concluded that
matter consists of indivisible points endued with certain powers. Let
us compare these smaller portions of it with that great aggregate of
matter which is the object of Astronomy; Light will then appear to
have as free passage through a piece of glass, as the comets have
in the planetary regions; and several other new considerations will
arise.

If instead of descending we ascend the scale. If we consider that

infinite variety which obtains in those parts of nature with which we
are most intimate: how one order of most curiously organized
bodies, infinitely diversified in other respects, all agree in being fixed
to the earth, and receiving nourishment from thence: how another
order have spontaneous motion, and seek their food on different
parts of the earth, whilst by gravity they are confined to its surface,
but in other respects diversified like the former. How a third float in,
and below the surface of, a dense fluid, of equal weight with their
bodies, which would soon prove fatal to both the others: And a fourth
consisting of a vast variety too, have this property in common, that
by a peculiar mechanism of their bodies, they can soar to great
heights above the earth, and quickly transport themselves to distant
regions in a fluid so rare as to be scarcely sensible to us. But not to
pursue this boundless subject any further, I say, when we consider
this great variety so obvious on our globe, and ever connected by
some degree of uniformity, we shall find sufficient reason to
conclude, that the visible creation, consisting of revolving worlds and
central suns, even including all those that are beyond the reach of
human eye and telescope, is but an inconsiderable part of the whole.
Many other and very various orders of things unknown to, and
inconceivable by us, may, and probably do exist, in the unlimited
regions of space. And all yonder stars innumerable, with their
dependencies, may perhaps compose but the leaf of a flower in the
Creator’s garden, or a single pillar in the immense building of the
Divine Architect.

Here is ample provision made for the all-grasping mind of man!

If it shall please that Almighty Power who hath placed us in a

world, wherein we are only permitted “to look about us and to die;”
should it please him to indulge us with existence throughout that half
of eternity which still remains unspent; and to conduct us through the
several stages of his works; here is ample provision made for
employing every faculty of the human mind, even allowing its powers
to be constantly enlarged through an endless repetition of ages. Let
us not complain of the vanity of this world, that there is nothing in it
capable of satisfying us: happy in those wants, happy in those
restless desires, forever in succession to be gratified; happy in a
continual approach to the Deity.

I must confess that I am not one of those sanguine spirits who

seem to think, that when the withered hand of death hath drawn up
the curtain of eternity, almost all distance between the creature and
creator, between finite and infinite, will be annihilated. Every
enlargement of our faculties, every new happiness conferred upon
us, every step we advance towards the perfection of the divinity, will
very probably render us more and more sensible of his inexhaustible
stores of communicable bliss, and of his inaccessible perfections.

Were we even assured that we shall perish like the flowers of the
garden, how careful would a wise man be to preserve a good
conscience, during the short period of his existence; because by his
very constitution, which he cannot alter, this is his pride and glory,
and absolutely necessary to his present happiness; because this
would insure to him at the approach of death, the soothing reflection,
that he was going to restore, pure and uncorrupted, that drop of
divinity within him, to the original ocean from whence it was
separated. How much more anxiously careful ought we to be, if we
believe, as powerful arguments compel us to believe, that a conduct
in this life depending on our own choice, will stamp our characters
for ages yet to come. Who can endure the thought of darkening his
faculties by an unworthy application of them here on earth, and
degrading himself to some inferior rank of being, wherein he may
find both his power and inclination to obtain wisdom and exercise
virtue, exceedingly diminished? On the other hand, if that humble
admiration and gratitude, which sometimes rises in our minds when
we contemplate the power, wisdom and goodness of the Deity,
constitutes by far the most sublimely happy moments of our lives,
and probably will forever continue to do so, there cannot be a
stronger incitement to the exercise of virtue and a rational
employment of those talents we are entrusted with, than to consider
that by these means we shall in a few years be promoted to a more
exalted rank amongst the creatures of God, have our understandings
greatly enlarged, be enabled to follow truth in all her labyrinths with a
higher relish and more facility, and thus lay the foundation of an
eternal improvement in knowledge and happiness.

[TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN ORIGINAL.]

To the illustrious and celebrated Society of Sciences, at Philadelphia,

Christian Mayer, Astronomer to the most serene Prince, the

Elector Palatine, wisheth prosperity.

I have concluded on due reflection, that the opportunity of writing,

afforded me by the eminent Mr. Ferdinando Farmer, ought the less to
be neglected, as by this means I might make some small return for
the honour which the illustrious Society conferred on me, when they
enrolled me in the list of their members.

I learnt with great pleasure, by a work printed in Philadelphia, and

transmitted to me about three years since, that even there
Astronomy is cultivated. That book, together with my own
astronomical papers, having been destroyed by an unfortunate fire
about two years ago, I have been induced to address something to
your illustrious Society, concerning some of my new discoveries in
the heavens.

I occupy a new Observatory at Manheim, accommodated to all

astronomical purposes: nor is it deficient in any of the most valuable
London-made instruments. Among these, the one which principally
excels, is a mural quadrant of brass, of eight feet radius, made by
that celebrated artist Bird, in the year 1776; fitted with an achromatic
telescope, and firmly affixed to a wall, in the meridian; which I use
daily, when the weather permits. I observed, nearly two years since,
that, among the fixed stars, many of them from the first to the sixth
degree of magnitude, other small attendant stars (or satellites) were
distinguishable: some of which, by reason of their steady and dim
light, resemble an order of planets, while others do not exceed the
smallness of the telescopic size. The circumstance which principally
excited my surprize, is, that I found none of those little attendant
stars, a very few only excepted, contained in any known catalogue;
although I could clearly discover that their use, for the purpose of
determining the proper motion of the fixed stars, is very obvious. For
where the difference of right ascension and declination, of a few
seconds at most, is found between the brighter fixed star and its
attendant, the lapse of time could scarcely give any other variation to
the fixed star, than to its satellite: from what cause soever that
variation may arise, whether from the precession of the equinoxes,
the variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic, the deviation of the
instrument, or from the aberration of light or the nutation, or from any
other cause whatever, which may depend on the mutable state of the
atmosphere or the latitude of places, the fact is evident, that every
change of situation, observed, between the fixed star and its
satellite, affords the most certain proof of its actual motion; whether
this be referred to the fixed star or its satellite.

I knew that Halley, the celebrated English astronomer, was the

first, who, in the year 1719, from an actual comparison of
Flamstead’s observations with those of Ptolemy, respecting some
few fixed stars, Syrius, Arcturus, and Aldebaran, discovered that
these stars moved, with a motion peculiar to themselves: But I knew
at the same time, that in Flamstead’s British Celestial History, so
long ago as the year 1690, the name of attendant (or satellite) was
assumed by Flamstead; when that great man had not even thought
of the proper motion of the fixed stars.

Other astronomers, since the time of Halley, so far as they

examined the proper motion of the fixed stars, have followed the
Halleian method, in a comparison of their own observations with
those of the ancients. This method requires long and laborious
calculations; and continues liable to many doubts, on account of its
uncertainty, as well by reason of the inaccurate nature of the
instruments, as of the observations of the ancients. But this is not the
case with my new method; from which, by means of the variation
observed between the satellite and its brighter fixed star, it
necessarily results, that the appropriate motion, either of the one star
or the other, is to be attributed to it. Hence it is, that, within two years
past, I have observed almost two hundred attendants of divers fixed
stars; moving nearly in the same parallel, immediately before or after
their respective fixed stars: and I have communicated many
observations of this kind to the celebrated English astronomer, Nevil
Maskelyne, who assures me they prove highly acceptable to him.

From amongst many of my observations, I transmit to your

illustrious society a few, by way of specimen; the corresponding
observations to which, I find in the Britannic Celestial History of
Flamstead; whence at the same time it is obvious, that observations
of this kind are eminently useful, for the purpose of discovering the
proper motion of such stars.

[The Table, containing the Observations here referred to, will be

found in the second volume of the Society’s Transactions, annexed
to Mr. Mayer’s communication: he then proceeds thus, referring to
that Table.]
 The first and second left-hand column of the following Table are
easily understood, from the title. The third column shews the
difference of right ascension, in mean time, between the star and its
satellite: The attendant, preceding the fixed star, is set down in the
first place, in the table; the attendant, following, is placed after its
fixed star. The fourth column notes the difference between the fixed
star and its attendant, as I have observed it at Manheim. The letter A
denotes, that the attendant is to the southward; letter B more
northward. The following columns contain the observations of the
same star, made by Flamstead.

It appears from the whole of the observations, that, of all the stars,
Arcturus is carried with the greatest celerity, by his own motion,
westward; since the same attendant, which in Flamstead’s time, on
the 14th of February, 1690, preceded Arcturus 5″ in time, now enters
the meridian 6″ after him. From the diminished difference also, of
declination between Arcturus and his attendant, it is evident, that
Arcturus progresses annually, by his own appropriate motion, nearly
2″ in a circular course, towards the south. From this it clearly results,
that the declination of the attendant, as observed by me, reduced to
the parallel of Greenwich, produces the same altitude of the
Greenwich pole, as that deduced from Flamstead’s observation; but
not so, the declination of Arcturus, observed at the present day, even
with the aberration and nutation corrected.

A similar investigation may be made, with respect to the other

fixed stars and their attendants; and, from the comparison already
begun with other fixed stars, it may be ascertained whether an
appropriate motion is to be attributed to the fixed star or its
attendant, or to both.

All my observations are made in a meridienal plane with a mural

quadrant, at Manheim, in his Serene Highness the Elector Palatine’s
new Observatory, erected for me: its longitude, East from
Greenwich, is nearly 34′ 6″, in time; its latitude, nearly 49° 27′ 50″.

It will give me very great pleasure, if I shall learn that these

observations of mine do not prove unacceptable to your illustrious
society: to whose goodness I most respectfully commend myself;
being ever the very devoted admirer and humble servant of your
illustrious and celebrated Society.

Christian Mayer,
Astronomer to his Serene Highness the Elector
Palatine and Duke of Bavaria.
Manheim, in Germany, April 24, 1778.

Letter from Mr. Rittenhouse to Professor Mayer of Manheim, in

Germany.

Philadelphia, August 20th. 1779.

Sir,

I am directed by the Philosophical Society to acknowledge your

letter of the 24th of April, 1778, and to return you their thanks for
communicating the Observations it contains, wishing you success in
further prosecuting so curious a Discovery. They likewise embrace
this occasion to replace the volume of their Transactions which
shared the fate of your more valuable papers.

This country having been the seat of war, our meetings have been
interrupted for two years past, and the publication of a second
volume thereby prevented; but as the Society is again revived, and
we have materials for the purpose, it will not be much longer
delayed.

You will please to accept, by this conveyance, a discourse

delivered some years ago before the Philosophical Society, which I
the rather present you with, because I, therein, gave my opinion that
the fixed stars afforded the most spacious field for the industry of
future Astronomers, and expressed my hopes that the noblest
mysteries would sometime be unfolded in those immensely distant
regions.[A40] Your excellent discovery has proved that passage to be
well founded, and I shall be happy in hearing farther from you on this
subject. It is unnecessary for me to suggest to you a comparison
between the many Observations you have made, in order to
determine whether the several changes observed will agree with any
imagined motion of our system. Those you have communicated
seem to favour such a supposition. I am, Sir, your most obedient and
humble servant.

David Rittenhouse, Vice-President.

Some Remarks of Mr. Rittenhouse, on the famous Problem of

Archimedes.[A41]
To the Printers of the Pennsylvania Gazette.

Philadelphia, Oct. 8th. 1767.

Gentlemen,

In your paper, No. 2017, an ingenious gentleman who signs

himself T. T. has favoured the public with remarks upon that
celebrated saying of the famous Syracusean geometrician: “Give me
a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.” When these remarks
appeared, I was engaged in matters that would not allow me to pay
that attention to them, which they deserved. The justice, however,
due to Archimedes, and the respect I bear for that truly great man’s
memory, oblige me now (though late) to offer my sentiments upon
this interesting subject.

I readily agree with your sensible correspondent, as to the

conclusion he has drawn from the principles whereon he seems to
have founded his calculation, without being at the trouble to examine
his numbers. All that I propose is, to place this grand mechanical
problem in another light, wherein it will appear more feasible.

If a ball of earth, weighing 200 pounds, were left at liberty near the
surface of this globe, it would descend, by its own gravity, about 15
feet in one second of time, and about 20 miles in 80 seconds: And if,
as this gentleman supposes, there are about 2000 trillions of such
balls in the whole Earth,—the Earth, by their mutual attractions, in 80
seconds of time; will move toward the ball 1/1736,000,000,000,000
of an inch; and if the same force were to act continually for 105
years, it would move about one inch. Therefore, the force wherewith
a man acts, when he lifts a weight of 200 pounds, if applied without
intermission for the space of 105 years, is sufficient, without any
machinery, to move the Earth one inch in that time;[A42] and it must,
from the velocity received by that force alone, continue for ever after
to move at the rate of one inch in about 50 years.

A Mechanic.

Letter from Mr. Rittenhouse, to the Rev. Mr. Barton.

Norriton, July 20th. 1768.

Dear Brother,

In Hall and Sellers’ paper of last Thursday, we have some curious

remarks on an Essay for finding the Longitude, lately published in
the Pennsylvania Chronicle, and which I had before seen in the
London papers.

The first remark is no doubt just, and is perhaps the only one
made, which Mr. Wood’s essay gave just occasion for; how he could
commit such a mistake, is not easy to conceive. But the remarker
immediately charges him with another: for he tells us, that he (Mr.
Wood I suppose) says, that Mr. Harrison’s Machines were finished
about Christmas 1765; whereas his father (whether Wood’s father or
Harrison’s, is not clear,) made three, which the remarker saw in
motion about 18 years since. He then proceeds to assure us, (by the
spirit of prophecy I presume, at least I cannot conceive how he could
come by this piece of knowledge in a natural way,) that neither the
father or his son will ever be able to finish their machines.

A machine, says the remarker, to measure the mean motion, will

be far preferable to any other method yet proposed; and immediately
afterwards he confesses, he cannot conceive that a true meridian
can be found at sea, to several minutes. Now this “uncertain error”
must certainly affect any other machine for that purpose, as well as
Wood’s Sand-Glass, and exceed the error occasioned by turning the
glass somewhat quicker at one time than another. Besides, it would
not be easy to shew, why a machine to measure the Earth’s mean
motion on its axis, with respect to the Sun, will be preferable to one
that will measure the Earth’s true motion on its axis, with respect to
the fixed Stars.

I would not be thought to recommend Wood’s project. He himself

takes notice of two disadvantages attending it, viz. the wearing of the
orifice through which the sand passes, and the sand itself becoming
polished in time, so as to run more freely; to which if we add, that
perhaps it may be greatly affected by heat and cold, there seems to
be but little probability of its usefulness. Nor do I see how it can even
have the merit of being new: for the scheme itself, with all the
remarker’s objections that have any weight in them, must readily
occur to every person that thinks at all on the subject. I shall only
observe, that it appears doubtful to me, whether the remarker does
not equally deserve the censure he so freely bestows on Mr. Woods
—“His works are full of errors, and his writings of contradictions.”

* * * * * * * * * *

I remain your affectionate brother.

David Rittenhouse.
 Dr. Rittenhouse’s Chronometer.
The construction of this Time-piece is thus described by Mr. Henry Voight, chief
coiner in the Mint, heretofore an eminent clock and watch maker in
Philadelphia; an artist of great ingenuity, and well known for the excellence of
his workmanship. The description is given in Mr. Voight’s own words.

“The Clock which Dr. Rittenhouse made use of in his Observatory

was a construction of his own. It had but three wheels in its
movement, of high numbers. Only one pinion, without a wheel,
driven by the main wheel; whose axis goes through the front plate,
that carried the dial-work; and this wheel[A43] has a perpetual rochet.
[A44]
The seconds are eccentric, as in the common clocks.

“The pallet-wheel moves outside of the back-plate, and the pallets

are fastened to the rod of the pendulum, which has double
suspending springs fixed in a cross-bar, to which the rod is rivetted in
the middle. These springs are suspended as in common; but they
are not so long as in general, and have only one-and-an-half inch
free action, which keeps the pendulum very steady in its vibrations.

“On the rod of the pendulum there is fixed a glass tube, of the
thickness of a strong thermometer-tube, and is in the whole as long
as the rod: but it is bent, about one-third upwards; like a barometer,
but longer; and upon that end, on the top, the tube is as wide again
as it is below, for about one-and-an-half inch in length: the other two-
thirds of the length is filled with spirits of wine; and at this end, the
tube is hermetically sealed. The shorter part is filled with mercury, so
high as to fill the widest part of it, about half an inch, and is not
sealed but remains open. The bend is close together, and there is no
more space between the tubes than three-eighths of an inch.

“This tube is fastened to the pendulum-rod with common sewing-

thread, and rests upon two pins fixed in the bob of the pendulum, as
high up as possible. The bob has no slide, but is immoveable; and