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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
K. V. L. Subramaniam
Mohd Ataullah Khan Editors
Advances in
Structural
Engineering
Select Proceedings of FACE 2019
Volume 74
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Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
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K. V. L. Subramaniam Mohd Ataullah Khan
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Advances in Structural
Engineering
Select Proceedings of FACE 2019
123
Editors
K. V. L. Subramaniam Mohd Ataullah Khan
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad Mahindra Ecole Centrale
Sangareddy, India Hyderabad, India
ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-15-4078-3 ISBN 978-981-15-4079-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4079-0
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Preface
The primary objective of this book is to bring excerpts from the structural engineering
community comprising researchers and practitioners, inculcating the state of the art
and state of the practice. This communication was established through the conference
Futuristic Approaches in Civil Engineering (FACE) 2019 held at Mahindra Ecole
Centrale, Hyderabad, during August 30–31, 2019. The papers submitted to the FACE
2019 are published in two volumes covering the subareas of structural, geotechnical
and environmental engineering. These papers were peer-reviewed and concurrently
independently reviewed by the editors for quality. Subsequently, Springer as a
publisher went through a general quality and plagiarism check for the accepted
papers. Finally, a total of twenty papers passed through the scrutiny of a thorough
peer-review process to become a part of this book. This book is one of the two
volumes from the papers accepted through a peer-review process, and it presents
high-quality research papers for researchers and practitioners in the area of structural
engineering.
It has been a delightful experience editing the vital contributions from FACE
2019 in the form of a book. The experimental evaluation has always been a key to
capturing the mechanics of existing and novel structures while the structural
modeling and simulation capabilities have been the catalyst in establishing their
response. The state of the practice hinges on the confidence of the practicing
engineers in the existing and developed techniques. In this book, research devel-
oped in the areas of construction materials, structural health monitoring, earthquake
engineering, fiber-reinforced polymer composites is covered.
In the area of construction materials, the book covers a range of new knowledge
on raw materials and manufacture of cement, mixing, rheology and hydration,
admixtures, structural characteristics and performance of cement-based materials,
characterization techniques and modeling, use of fiber in cement-based materials,
degradation and repair of cement-based materials, novel testing techniques such as
digital image correlation (DIC) and applications. In addition, performance assess-
ment and suitability of sustainable alternatives to the present building materials are
also covered. For example, a few chapters suggest geopolymer as a replacement for
cement and one chapter presents the usage of recycled aggregates for concrete
v
vi Preface
production. Techniques such as fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks to

understand the experiments and establish the response are also discussed.
In the area of earthquake engineering, papers related to the areas of seismic
response of load-bearing unreinforced masonry wall, reinforced concrete frames,
buildings with dampers are covered. The focus of these chapters is the numerical
modeling driven by the material response of such structural components under
earthquake stimuli. Additionally, there are chapters on structures subjected to
vehicular impact and fire. Fundamental contributions toward bond behavior
between steel and concrete at elevated temperatures and moment–curvature rela-
tionship are also included.
From the organizers and the editors of FACE 2019, we would like to express
heartfelt gratitude toward the authors, for contributing chapters. The reviewers
played a vital role in ensuring the quality of the papers by providing critical
reviews. We would also like to thank Mahindra Ecole Centrale (MEC) in providing
us the opportunity to organize FACE 2019. Lastly, we would like to thank our
publisher, Springer, for accepting our proposal to publish the proceedings from
FACE 2019 as a part of this book. The support from Dr. Akash Chakraborty
(Associate Editor, Applied Science and Engineering, Springer), Mr. Daniel Joseph.
G (Project Coordinator, Book Production, Springer) and Rekha Nimesh (Editorial
Assistant, Applied Science and Engineering, Springer) is gratefully acknowledged.
Sangareddy, India Dr. K. V. L. Subramaniam

Hyderabad, India Dr. Mohd Ataullah Khan
Contents
Seismic Fragility Assessment of Unreinforced Masonry

Shear Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jayaprakash Vemuri and K. V. L. Subramaniam
Axial Behaviour of Corroded CFST Columns Wrapped with GFRP
Sheets—An Experimental Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy and S. Sivasankar
Tensile Membrane Structures: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Allan L. Marbaniang, Subhrajit Dutta, and Siddhartha Ghosh
Investigation of Cold-Formed Steel Members Subjected to Extreme
Low Temperatures Relevant to the Arctic Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Gaurav S. Chobe and Mahendrakumar Madhavan
Experimental Investigation on Crack-Arresting Mechanism
of Steel Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Prism Specimens Using DIC
and AE Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chandrashekhar Lakavath, Aniket Bhosale, and S Suriya Prakash
Estimation of Fly Ash Reactivity and Dissolution Characteristics . . . . . 67
G. V. P. Bhagath Singh and K. V. L. Subramaniam
Numerical Modelling of Continuous Composite Beam
Under Fire Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Priya S. Natesh and Anil Agarwal
Effect of Heating Rate on Bond Behavior Between Steel and Concrete
at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Ira Banoth and Anil Agarwal
Idealised Bilinear Moment-Curvature Curves of Reinforced Masonry
(RM) Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Jacob Alex Kollerathu
vii
viii Contents
Performance of Self-flowing Concrete Incorporated with Alumina

Silicates Subjected to Elevated Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Manish S. Dharek, Prashant Sunagar, K. Harish,
K. S. Sreekeshava, S. U. Naveen, and Bhanutej
Response of RC Short Column Under Combined Fire
and Axial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chinthapalli Hemanth Kumar, B. Subash, and Anil Agarwal
Numerical Analysis of Post-earthquake Fire Resistance
of Concrete-Filled Tubular Steel Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Smita Singh and Anil Agarwal
Mathematical Model for Prediction of Compressive Strength
of Normal, Standard and High Strength SCC with RCA . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Srinivas Vasam, K. Jaganadha Rao, and M. V. Seshagiri Rao
Seismic Response of UHPC Strengthened Reinforced Concrete
Frame Using Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Nidhi Sannametla and Jyosyula Sri Kalyana Rama
Mix Design Methodology for Fly Ash and GGBS-Based
Geopolymer Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
G. Mallikarjuna Rao and M. Venu
Experimental and Analytical Behavior of Recycled Aggregate
Concrete Using ANN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
B. Suguna Rao, Vithal Joshi, and Srikanth M. Naik
Effect of Vehicle Impact on Reinforced Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . 195
Mohammed Mujeeb, Venkata Dilip Kumar Pasupuleti,
and Archanaa Dongre
Seismic Behaviour of G+7 RC Open Ground Storey Buildings
with Fluid Viscous Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Shaik Shayza and Bodige Narender
Mathematical Model for the Compressive Strength and Elastic
Properties of Triple-Blended Steel Fiber Self-Compacting Concrete
Based on the Experimental Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
S. Vijaya Kumar, B. Dean Kumar, and B. L. P. Swami
Prediction of Concrete Compressive Strength Using Fuzzy Logic
and Model Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Vardhan Nagarkar, Preeti Kulkarni, and Shreenivas Londhe
About the Editors
Prof. K. V. L. Subramaniam is a Professor in the Department of Civil

Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IITH). Prior to joining
IITH, he was Professor and Catell Fellow in Department of Civil Engineering at
the Grove School of Engineering, the City College of New York (CCNY).
Dr. Subramaniam obtained a B.Tech. in Civil Engineering from IIT Delhi and Ph.D.
in Structural Engineering and Materials from Northwestern University, Evanston.
After graduation, Dr. Subramaniam worked as Research Associate at the NSF
Center for Advanced Cement Based Materials. Dr. Subramaniam was awarded the
Early Career Award from the National Science Foundation of USA for investi-
gating the early-age changes in cementitious materials. He received the James
Instrument Award from the American Concrete Institute (ACI) in 1999 for his
research on nondestructive evaluation of concrete. He is the recipient of the out-
standing young researcher award at the Grove School of Engineering in 2006. He
was the Chairman, committee 215 on Fatigue of Concrete of the ACI. In 2009, he
was elected Fellow of the American Concrete Institute for notable contribution in
the area of fracture and fatigue of concrete. He has served on the Editorial Boards
of the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering and the Journal of Bridge
Engineering of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He is a life member of the
Indian Concrete Institute. Prof. Subramaniam is currently the Director of the Center
of Excellence in Sustainable Urban Development of the Ministry of Human
Resource Development at IIT Hyderabad. He is the Program leader for the
Sustainable Development thrust in the Friendship program of the Japan
International Cooperation Agency. He was the recipient of excellence in teaching
award at IIT Hyderabad in 2011 and 2015.
Dr. Mohd Ataullah Khan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil

Engineering, Mahindra Ecole Centrale (MEC), Hyderabad, India. He has a master’s
in Structural Engineering from the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore,
India and a PhD in Interdisciplinary Engineering from the Khalifa University of
Science and Technology (KUST), Abu dhabi. His PhD was funded by the Masdar
institute (a part of KUST) – Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MI-MIT)
ix
x About the Editors
cooperative agreement. The doctoral work of Dr. Mohd was focused on theoretical
and computational modeling, 3D printing and experimental evaluation of material-
tailored multilayers. Dr. Mohd has published articles in the top quartile mechanics
journals along with peer-reviewed conferences. His research interest lies in the
areas of mechanics of adhesively bonded joints, micro-/nano- fibre-reinforced
composites, novel bio-inspired composites and concrete 3D printing. Dr. Mohd also
had experience working as structural engineer for the design of steel structures,
prior to joining PhD.
Seismic Fragility Assessment
of Unreinforced Masonry Shear Walls
Jayaprakash Vemuri and K. V. L. Subramaniam
1 Introduction
The Kutch region in the western part of India is seismically active and has been
struck by destructive earthquakes in the past. The Mw 7.6 earthquake which struck
Kutch on 26 January 2001 was the largest intraplate earthquake to strike in India [1].
Post-earthquake damage surveys reported intensity levels up to X on the Modified
Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale [2]. The epicentre lay about 9 km southwest of the
village of Chobari in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India [3]. The earthquake caused
widespread damage in the province of Gujarat. Overall, over a million structures
were damaged, and the consequent economic loss was close to US$10 billion [4]. In
the Kutch region, the earthquake destroyed several towns causing major devastation
of low-rise unreinforced masonry (URM) structures [5]. Typically, URM structures
in the region consist of load-bearing masonry shear walls made of low-strength
bricks. The performance of shear walls greatly affects the vulnerability of masonry
buildings, and it is imperative to assess their seismic fragility.
In India, 69% of buildings are constructed using unreinforced brick masonry [6].
However, barring a few classical studies [7, 8] the in-plane behaviour of URM walls
has not received much attention [9, 10]. The research reported varies widely due
to inconsistency in test practices [11]. While researchers have conducted nonlinear
time-history analyses of URM structures, there is no available literature presenting
the correlation between ground motion parameters and URM structural response.
Also, the lack of recorded seismic data from major earthquakes of the Kutch region
presents a major challenge to the seismic assessment. Even the available information
J. Vemuri (B)
Mahindra Ecole Centrale, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: jayaprakash.vemuri@mechyd.ac.in
K. V. L. Subramaniam
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, India
e-mail: kvls@iith.ac.in
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1
K. V. L. Subramaniam and Mohd. A. Khan (eds.), Advances in Structural
Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 74,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4079-0_1
2 J. Vemuri and K. V. L. Subramaniam
following the major Kutch earthquake (M w 7.6 at 8:46 a.m. on 26 January 2001)
is limited to recorded peak ground accelerations (PGA) at selected towns. Since
the accuracy of seismic assessment depends on capturing the local soil effects, the
absence of seismic records from the Kutch region complicates our understanding of
the actual seismic hazard.
In this study, ground motions are generated at rock level by the modified stochastic
finite-fault method. The PGAs of these synthetic ground motions generated at rock
level are compared with bedrock-level PGAs, which are available at thirteen stations.
After validation, strong ground motions are generated at surface level by accounting
for varied local topography by using site amplification functions for various towns
available in the literature [12]. The ground motions are generated at bedrock level
and amplified to surface level using the soil amplification functions corresponding
to each particular site. The cyclic response of masonry, which is generated using an
analytical-based model for the shear response of masonry, is used to investigate the
vulnerability of the masonry to different parameters of the ground motions.
2 Material and Geometric Properties of URM Walls
Under lateral forces, a URM wall may fail due to sliding, flexure/rocking or shear.
Sliding occurs along bed and head joints under low values of normal stress. Masonry
can also crack under direct tension. Walls with high aspect ratios typically exhibit
flexural or rocking behaviour while those with moderate aspect ratios fail in shear.
In shear failures of URM walls, pre-cracking behaviour is characterised by mild
hysteresis. Flexural cracks originate first, and then diagonal cracks start close to the
ultimate shear strength. Diagonal cracking is visible when the peak lateral force is
achieved, followed by a degradation in strength. In the post-peak regime, strength
and stiffness drop rapidly, and high level of energy is dissipated. The wall collapses
by stepped cracking along mortar joints. Cyclic response of the wall is bounded
by the monotonic shear–deformation (V − ) envelope. To obtain the monotonic
envelope for URM walls, an incremental procedure available in the literature [13,
14] is used, where the lateral force is increased in increments, and at each step, the
shear and flexural deformations are combined to obtain the load–deformation curve
(V − curve). The flexural strength is computed [7] as:

p Dt p
Vr = 1− (1)
2αv k fu
where p = P/H t is the vertical compressive stress and P is the vertical compressive
force. H , D and t represent the height, length and thickness of the wall, f u is the
masonry strength in compression, k is a coefficient which accounts for vertical stress
distribution at the compressed toe, αv = M/(V D) is the shear ratio. The shear
strength can be computed [7] as:
Seismic Fragility Assessment of Unreinforced Masonry Shear Walls 3
Vd = Dtτu ; τu = minimum(τcs ; τws ; τb ) (2)
τcs is the shear stress corresponding to the cracked section and is given by:
1.5c + μp
τcs = (3)
1 + 3cα
p
v
τws is the shear stress of the complete section and is given by:
c + μp
τws = (4)
1 + αv
τb is the shear stress based on brick cracking and is given by:

f bt p
τb = 1+ (5)
2.3 f bt
where c is the joint cohesion, μ is the joint friction coefficient, f bt is the tensile
strength of brick. The expressions for joint cohesion and joint friction have been
defined [15] as c = kc and μ = kμ where k is:
1
k=
(6)
1 + μ2 xy
where x and y are the height and length of the brick unit, respectively. Due to
the absence of experimental data on shear walls from India, two shear walls [16,
17] were selected from literature, which are representative of the typical masonry
construction in Kutch [18]. Table 1 shows the properties of the two URM walls. The
monotonic backbone envelope is computed for both the walls.
The cyclic behaviour was modelled in SAP2000 [19] where the link element is
chosen to model the URM wall. The multilinear-plastic pivot model is used to define
the hysteresis loop. The four pivot parameters, α1 , α2 , β1 and β2 , govern the shape of
the cyclic loops and the degradation in strength and stiffness. The optimum values
for the four parameters were obtained using the least-squares method to minimise the
error concerning the values obtained from experiments. For the wall with lower axial
stress, α1 , β1 , α2 and β2 are 0.90. The symmetrical response and no pinching resulted
in the parameters to be equal in magnitude. The hysteresis behaviour obtained from
the experiment matches well with the loops obtained from the pivot model (Fig. 1a).
For the shear wall having higher axial stress, α1 , β1 , α2 and β2 were computed to
be 0.90. Figure 1b shows the match between the experimental hysteresis loops of
the wall and the loops obtained from the pivot model. Limit states corresponding to
cracking, ultimate strength and collapse are noted for both walls.
Table 1 Properties of the two URM shear walls considered in the present study
Property Wall-1 Wall-2
H (mm) 1350 3000
D (mm) 1000 1500
t (mm) 250 380
p (MPa) 0.6 1.24
f b (MPa) 16 19.7
f bt (MPa) 1.22 1.07
f m (MPa) 3.31 4.33
f u (MPa) 6.2 7.9
c (MPa) 0.23 0.21
c (MPa) 0.17 0.14
μ 0.58 0.81

μ 0.43 0.55
strength
250
strength
a 100 b
cracking
collapse
cracking
collapse
Force (kN)
Force (kN)
80 200
60 150
40 100
20 50
0 0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
-20 Displacement (mm) -50 Displacement (mm)
-40 -100
-60 Experiment -150 Experiment

-80 Pivot Model Pivot Model
-200
-100 -250
Fig. 1 Comparison between experiment and pivot model. a URM wall with diagonal shear cracking
through mortar joints; b URM wall with shear–tensile cracking of bricks
3 Nonlinear Time-History Analyses Using Synthetic

Ground Motions
Seismic records for the 2001 Kutch earthquake are not available. In such regions
where a rich database of historical strong motions is unavailable, modified records
may be obtained either by generating artificial records or by altering natural records.
The modified stochastic finite-fault method [20] has been used by researchers [21]
to generate surface-level synthetic ground motions for the 2001 Kutch earthquake.
From these synthetic accelerograms, ground motion characteristics such as PGA,
PGV, predominant period, mean period, significant duration and response spectra
are computed. Figure 2 shows the ground motions generated at surface level. At
each site, ten synthetic ground motions were generated by conducting trials. The
modified stochastic finite-fault method is extended to derive synthetic ground motions
at surface level, for towns across various seismic zones. These synthetic ground
motions are used for nonlinear time-history analyses.
The earthquake hazard in the province of Gujarat ranges from low to high. Based
on the estimated hazard level, the seismic zoning map of India IS1893:2016 [22]
has assigned four seismic zones to Gujarat, ranging from Zone 2 (low) to Zone 5
(high). The Kutch region has the highest earthquake hazard and lies in Zone 5 (SA
at DBE level of 0.45 g), and intensity levels more than IX may be expected in this
region. Zone 4 (SA at MCE level of 0.30 g) comprises regions from Saurashtra and
Kutch, within a belt with a width of 60–70 km around Zone 5 and intensity VIII
may be expected in this zone. Mainland Gujarat is assigned Zone 3 (SA at DBE
level of 0.20 g) where intensity level of VII may be expected. Table 2 shows the
characteristics of the surface-level synthetic ground motions generated for various
towns in Gujarat. These towns are situated across various seismic zones as per the
seismic zonation map of India (IS1893:2016). The epicentral distance of the station,
the PGA, PGV, the significant duration and, the mean displacements for both walls
are tabulated. The MMI data as observed from the earthquake isoseismals [23] to
indicate the overall damage to structures in each town is also tabulated in Table 2.
Additionally, in this study, two scalar measures, the predominant period, Tp , and the
mean period, Tm , were used to assess frequency content in ground motion. Both scalar
frequency parameters exhibited a weak correlation with the structural displacements
of the two walls. Nevertheless, it is observed that ground motions at most sites
exhibited very low predominant periods. From Table 2, it is observed that the mean
periods of the ground motions are higher than predominant periods but higher than the
natural periods of the walls. Observation of experimental hysteresis loops for wall-1
shows that the stiffness decreased by nine times, causing the fundamental period
to increase three times. For wall-2, experimental hysteresis loops indicate that the
stiffness decreased by three times. The increased natural period of both walls is close
to the frequency content, indicated by Tm , in the ground motion. The low values of
both frequency parameters indicate that the seismic energy of the ground motions
generated due to the 2001 Kutch earthquake was concentrated in the low time period
range. This makes the masonry structures vulnerable to collapse once there is an
increase in time period due to damage in the walls.
From Table 2, it is observed that URM walls in Seismic Zone 5 witnessed high
displacements which caused collapse. Most ground motions from Zone 5 have PGV
values > 0.1 m/s and PGA values > 0.1 g and caused the walls to reach the collapse
displacement levels. In Figs. 3 and 4, the PGA and the PGV are correlated with
structural displacements of the two walls. The three limit states are marked for
reference. Ground motions in the epicentral region, with PGAs > 0.1 g, caused a
1.00
Acceleration (g) 0.50 Time (sec)

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.50
Bhachau
-1.00
0.20
Acceleration (g)
0.10
Time (sec)
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.10
Adesar
-0.20
1.00
Acceleration (g)
0.50
Time (sec)
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-0.50
Dhori
-1.00
1.00
Acceleration (g)
0.50
Time (sec)
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.50
Dudhai
-1.00
0.40
Acceleration (g)
0.20
Time (sec)
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.20
Khavda
-0.40
0.40
Acceleration (g)
0.20
Time (sec)
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-0.20
Mandvi
-0.40
0.30
Acceleration (g)
0.20
0.10 Time (sec)
0.00
-0.10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-0.20 Nakhatrana
-0.30
0.30
0.20
Acceleration (g)
0.10 Time (sec)

0.00
-0.10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.20 Morbi
-0.30
Fig. 2 Synthetic ground motions generated at surface-level using site amplification functions
Table 2 Results from nonlinear time-history analyses of URM walls using surface-level synthetic ground motions
S. No. Station Dist. (km) MMI PGA (g) PGV (m/s) T p (s) T m (s) Significant Disp. wall-1 Disp. wall-2
duration (s) (mm) (mm)
Sites in Zone 5 (IS1893:2016)—PSA(DBE) = 0.45 g
1 Dudhai 15 X 0.74 0.87 0.21 0.55 12.81 7.5 16
2 Bhachau 19 X 0.64 0.54 0.10 0.31 18.08 7.5 16
3 Suvai 34 IX 0.38 0.32 0.22 0.35 21.38 7.5 16
4 Lakadia 36 IX 0.42 0.53 0.18 0.50 21.73 7.5 16
5 Rapar 46 IX 0.33 0.18 0.11 0.19 22.80 7.5 16
6 Dhori 49 X 0.74 0.63 0.26 0.40 5.92 7.5 16
7 Khavda 73 IX 0.35 0.18 0.15 0.23 12.24 7.5 16
8 Bela 77 IX 0.12 0.12 0.19 0.41 21.39 7.5 16
9 Adesar 78 VIII 0.15 0.13 0.19 0.38 22.88 7.5 16
10 Mandvi 111 VIII 0.24 0.17 0.14 0.26 9.26 7.5 16
11 Dayapur 141 VIII 0.13 0.09 0.16 0.29 7.80 7.5 13.6
12 Nakhtarana 155 VIII 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.33 8.31 7.5 16
13 Naliya 192 VIII 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.39 8.07 7.5 16
Seismic Fragility Assessment of Unreinforced Masonry Shear Walls

14 Dwarka 183 VIII 0.03 0.03 0.25 0.46 9.95 3.4 3.99
15 Lalpur 122 VIII 0.09 0.05 0.11 0.18 13.67 6.11 6.19
16 Morbi 93 VIII 0.16 0.12 0.17 0.25 21.13 7.5 16
17 Radhanpur 148 VIII 0.06 0.07 0.30 0.49 24.33 7.5 10.81
18 Sipu 235 VIII 0.02 0.01 0.10 0.25 25.13 1.73 1.90
(continued)
7
8
Table 2 (continued)
S. No. Station Dist. (km) MMI PGA (g) PGV (m/s) T p (s) T m (s) Significant Disp. wall-1 Disp. wall-2
duration (s) (mm) (mm)
19 Amreli 256 VII 0.017 0.006 0.08 0.13 20.51 2.91 1.04
20 Gandhinagar 248 VI 0.012 0.010 0.15 0.32 25.44 1.91 1.38
21 Jhagadia 354 VI 0.002 0.001 0.24 0.36 25.68 0.17 0.18
22 Junagadh 235 VII 0.019 0.010 0.09 0.17 18.45 1.71 1.37
23 Kadana 369 V 0.004 0.002 0.11 0.15 27.53 0.18 0.20
24 Kevadia 396 V 0.002 0.001 0.13 0.19 26.96 0.08 0.08
25 Rajkot 129 VII 0.065 0.074 0.45 0.54 19.16 7.5 9.80
26 Surendranagar 158 VII 0.047 0.041 0.21 0.36 23.34 5.21 5.41
27 Ukai 422 V 0.002 0.001 0.07 0.15 26.14 0.10 0.10
28 Una 280 V 0.009 0.005 0.17 0.24 19.61 1.41 0.63
29 Vadodara 321 V 0.004 0.003 0.22 0.32 25.61 0.33 0.35
J. Vemuri and K. V. L. Subramaniam
8 8
a b
7 7
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
6 6
Collapse Collapse
5 5
Cracking Cracking
4 4
Ultimate Ultimate
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
PGA (g) PGV (m/s)
Fig. 3 a Displacement versus PGA (wall-1), b displacement versus PGV (wall-1)
a 18 b 18
16 16
14 14
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
12 12
10 Collapse 10 Collapse
8 Cracking 8 Cracking
6 Ultimate 6
Ultimate
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
PGA (g) PGV (m/s)
Fig. 4 a Displacement versus PGA (wall-2), b displacement versus PGV (wall-2)
collapse of the walls: this observation matches well with reconnaissance survey
which reports catastrophic damage to low-rise masonry structures in this region.
Figure 3 and Table 2 show that most towns in Seismic Zone 5 were assigned high
MMI levels (X, IX and VIII) due to extensive damage observed to masonry structures
[2, 5]. On the other extreme, ground motions from Zone 3 had very low PGA values
and did not cause the collapse of the two URM walls. Some ground motions caused
the walls to reach the cracking limit. This also corresponds well with data from
reconnaissance surveys [2, 21] which show little or no damage to low-rise masonry
construction in the 2001 Kutch earthquake. It is to be noted that the MMI levels for
some towns in Zone 3 are higher due to high damage levels of mid-rise concrete
buildings due to poor construction practices [2]. Ground motions in towns situated
in Zone 4 caused the walls to exhibit displacements not exceeding the limit state
of peak strength. Substantial damage to masonry structures was reported [5] in one
particular town, Morbi, which is situated in Zone 4. In the current study, it is observed
that surface-level ground motions in Morbi had high PGA values of 0.16 g, causing
both URM walls to collapse. The high PGAs observed in Morbi town are primarily
due to site amplification [21].
The method of maximum likelihood has been recommended by several researchers
[24–26] for fitting fragility curves for displacement data. The fitted fragility function
is a lognormal cumulative distribution function, with a median, θ , and dispersion, β.
Table 3 shows that for wall-1, the median values for cracking, ultimate strength and
collapse are 0.01 g, 0.02 g and 0.06 g, respectively. For wall-2, the median values for
cracking, ultimate strength and collapse are 0.01 g, 0.03 g and 0.12 g, respectively. In
IS1893:2016, the peak spectral acceleration for design basis earthquake for seismic
Zones 3, 4 and 5 are prescribed as 0.20 g, 0.30 g and 0.45 g, respectively. The median
values are lower than expected seismic intensity indicating the high vulnerability of
both walls.
Figure 5a, b show seismic demand fragility curves for both walls. The seismic
intensity is represented by PGA. Figure 6 shows the fragility curves for the two walls,
with PGV as the seismic intensity measure. The graphs provide a means to visually
assess the vulnerability in terms of probability of exceedance of various limit states
of the masonry shear walls, considering variability in demand. The damage state
displacement thresholds were identified earlier, in Fig. 2, from the cyclic hysteric
curves. The median values for achieving strength limit states for wall-1 and wall-2
Table 3 Fragility curves: median and dispersion

Damage state Wall-1 Wall-2
Median, θ Dispersion, β Median, θ Dispersion, β
Cracking 0.01 0.10 0.01 0.41
Strength 0.02 0.40 0.03 0.23
Collapse 0.06 0.52 0.12 0.26
1 b 1
a
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Pf
Pf
Cracking Cracking
0.4 Strength 0.4 Strength
Collapse Collapse
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.1 0.2
PGA (g) PGA (g)
Fig. 5 a Seismic fragility curves (w.r.t. PGA) for wall-1, b seismic fragility curves (w.r.t. PGA) for
wall-2
a 1 b 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Pf
Pf
Cracking Cracking
0.4 0.4
Strength Strength
Collapse Collapse
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
PGV (m/s) PGV (m/s)
Fig. 6 a Seismic fragility curves (w.r.t. PGV) for wall-1, b seismic fragility curves (w.r.t. PGV)
for wall-2
are 0.05 g and 0.1 g, respectively. The median values for achieving cracking limit
for wall-1 and wall-2 are 0.01 g in both walls. The seismic fragility of the wall with
higher axial load (wall-2) is only slightly lower than the wall with lower axial load
(wall-1).
4 Anomalous Displacements/Outliers
In general, the wall displacement is observed to increase linearly with PGA, till
collapse. However, it is observed that for two cases, Radhanpur (Zone 4) and Rajkot
(Zone 3), the wall with lower axial load, differs slightly from the overall trend as
the limit state of peak strength is reached at low PGA. These two outliers were
shown, marked in Fig. 3. Figures 7 and 8 show velocity pulses from Radhanpur and
Rajkot. Although the two records had low PGA, the occurrence of sharp velocity
pulses triggered the collapse of the URM. The displacement time history in both
cases shows that the velocity pulse imposed a high strength demand on the walls.
Subsequently, there is a degradation in strength and stiffness of walls, leading to high
displacements.
5 Summary and Conclusions
The 2001 Kutch earthquake was one of the most destructive intraplate earthquakes
ever recorded. It had a moment magnitude of 7.6 and caused heavy damage to
URM structures in the Kutch region. Unfortunately, no strong ground motions were
0.08 10
0.08 8
0.06 8
0.06 6
Displacement (mm)
6
Displacement (mm)
4 0.04
Velocity (m/s)
0.04 4
Velocity (m/s)
2 0.02
0.02 0 2
0
0 -2 0 10 20 30 40 0
0 20 40 -0.02 Time (sec) -2
-0.02 -4
Time (sec) -6 -0.04 Velocity -4
-0.04 Displacement -6
-8 -0.06
-0.06 Velocity -10 -0.08 -8
-0.08 Displacement -12
-0.1 -10
(a) (b)
Fig. 7 a Radhanpur velocity pulse and displacement (wall-1), b Rajkot velocity pulse and
displacement (wall-1)
0.08 8 0.08 10
0.06 6 0.06 8
Displacement (mm)
4 6
Displacement (mm)
0.04 0.04
Velocity (m/s)
2
Velocity (m/s)
4
0.02
0.02 0 2
0
0 -2 0 10 20 30 40 0
0 20 40 -0.02
-0.02 -4 Time (sec) -2
Time (sec) -0.04
-6 -4
-0.04 Velocity -0.06 Velocity
-8 -6
Displacement Displacement
-0.06 -10 -0.08 -8
-0.08 -12 -0.1 -10
(a) (b)
Fig. 8 a Radhanpur velocity pulse and displacement (wall-2), b Rajkot velocity pulse and
displacement (wall-2)
recorded in this earthquake. Only PGA values from structural response recorders at
thirteen sites are available. In this paper, nonlinear time-history analyses of URM
walls are performed using surface-level synthetic ground motions. Characteristics of
the ground motions such as PGA, PGV, frequency content and duration are tabulated.
It is observed that ground motions have low values of predominant period. Such high-
frequency ground motions could be particularly damaging to low-rise structures. A
mechanics-based technique is used to develop the monotonic load envelope for two
masonry shear walls. Using stress-based criteria, various displacement limit states
are identified. Results from the dynamic analyses performed on calibrated hysteretic
models were used to derive seismic fragility curves. Examination of the fragility
curves indicates that the collapse limit state is reached for most towns in Zone 5, the
highest seismic zone as per IS1893:2016. Most ground motions from Zone 5 have
PGV values > 0.1 m/s and PGA values > 0.1 g and cause the walls to reach the collapse
displacement levels. These results confirm satisfactorily with reconnaissance studies
which report catastrophic damage to masonry structures in Zone 5, particularly in the
epicentral region. Results from NTHA for towns situated in Seismic Zones 3 and 4
vary between no damage to collapse, which correlate well with post-earthquake field
surveys carried out in these two zones, where varying levels of damage intensities
were observed. The wall displacement is observed to vary linearly with PGA and
PGV, until the collapse of the wall. Pulse ground motions from two distant sites,
Radhanpur and Rajkot, had a destructive effect on the walls. It is concluded that
URM structures with shear walls are highly vulnerable for expected ground motions
in the Kutch region. Such URM structures existing in the Kutch region need to be
upgraded to resist the expected level of seismic forces.
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Axial Behaviour of Corroded CFST
Columns Wrapped with GFRP
Sheets—An Experimental Investigation
S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy and S. Sivasankar
1 Introduction
Corrosion causes severe deterioration both in reinforced concrete (RC) and steel
structures like buildings, bridges and marine structures. Once they got corrosion, their
structural performance and safety get reduced significantly. Recent days concrete-
filled steel tubular (CFST) members are widely served as structural elements (beams,
columns and slabs) both in onshore and offshore applications. Since, composite mem-
bers have concrete and steel, resulting in a member that has the beneficial qualities
of both materials [1]. Also, they have very good strength and ductility properties
compare to reinforced concrete structures. Offshore structures are more prone to
corrosion, since they are directly contacted with very severe environment like sea
water. In offshore CFST members, steel is directly exposed to sea water, and there-
fore, they get deteriorated by corrosion due to long-term chloride ingress. As the
amount of corrosion increases, CFST member starts loosing design strength, and
finally, the structure fails as a whole. In addition, maintenance losses such as cost
and time needed to make the replacements of corroded objects are incurred. The
ancient and traditional method of retrofitting is providing additional plates on cor-
rosion affected region by welding techniques. They increase the self-weight of the
section further affecting the design strength. Also, the welded plates get further cor-
rosion when it is exposed to the sea water. So, we need a permanent, easy to use
and cost-effective solution to overcome these issues. For the past few decades, a lot
of RC structural members were failed by corrosion and other severe environmental
deterioration, and they are successfully repaired by fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP)
S. V. B. Reddy · S. Sivasankar (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Technical Campus, Medchal, Hyderabad, Telangana
501401, India
e-mail: drsssphd@gmail.com
S. V. B. Reddy
e-mail: vbsgen06@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 15
K. V. L. Subramaniam and Mohd. A. Khan (eds.), Advances in Structural
Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 74,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4079-0_2
16 S. V. B. Reddy and S. Sivasankar
composites [2–4]. FRP composites are made up of high-tensile strength fibres embed-
ded in an epoxy matrix; they afford superior resistance to corrosion, low weight, high
strength-to-weight ratio, impact resistance, high mechanical strength, fast and eco-
nomical way of rehabilitation or repair of beams, columns and slabs [6]. Due to the
superior mechanical and physical properties, FRP composites are widely used for
external strengthening of RC columns [4–6], beams [2, 3, 8], slabs [7, 9], bridge
decks [8], impact [10] and fatigue strength [11]. After the successful use of FRP
composites in RC structures, researchers and engineers are now using FRP in steel
structures for strengthening and retrofitting applications. Al-Saidy et al. [12] per-
formed a study on corrosion damaged beam retrofitted with CFRP plates. Results
showed that the strength and stiffness of beam retrofitted by CFRP plates increased
significantly. Photiou et al. [13] studied the applications of high modulus CFRP
composites for beams artificially corroded. Four beams were wrapped, two utilizing
U-shaped prepreg units, whereas the other two beams used a flat plate prepreg. From
the results, it was found that the beam wrapped by high modulus CFRP composite
showed higher load-carrying capacity and ductility compared to unwrapped beam.
Sundarraja and Sivasankar [14] did an experimental study on square steel tubular
members strengthened by CFRP strips. It was found that the specimen wrapped by
CFRP strips exhibited higher strength and ductility compared to control specimen.
Teng and Hu [15] suggested the use of FRP sheets for circular steel specimens. Steel
members were wrapped with one, two and three layers of GFRP sheets around the
periphery throughout the height. Test results indicated that the specimen wrapped
by three GFRP layers showed higher axial load-carrying capacity and stiffness com-
pared to that of specimens wrapped with one and two layers of GFRP sheets. Also,
it was found that the GFRP sheets significantly reduce the local buckling. Seica and
Packer [16] performed study on retrofitting of steel members using CFRP composites
for underwater and in-air applications. Two specimens were wrapped in normal con-
dition and the remaining four were wrapped in underwater. Test results showed that
the CFRP sheets significantly increase the load and stiffness of both in-air and under-
water wrapped specimens. Also, they strongly recommended the CFRP sheets for
underwater applications. Keykha et al. [17] done both investigational and numerical
analyses on steel columns reinforced by CFRP sheets. Experimental and numerical
studies results are close to each other.
From the previously published journal results, it has been found that the FRP is
the most suitable composite materials for strengthening and retrofitting of RC and
steel structures. To date, only a limited number of studies have specifically reported
on corroded CFST members repaired with GFRP sheets. Nowadays, CFST members
were broadly used in the marine and other structural applications. The prime goal
is to experimentally explore the usefulness of GFRP (full wrapping) on corroded
CFST column members subjected to axial compression.
Axial Behaviour of Corroded CFST Columns Wrapped with GFRP … 17
2 Material Properties
2.1 Steel Tube
Circular hollow steel tube confirming to IS 1239-1983 having length and diameter
600 and 101.6 mm was used in this experiment. Thickness and height of the CCFST
members are 3.6 mm and 600 mm, respectively. The yield strength provided by the
manufacture is 250 N/mm2 .
2.2 Concrete Mix
Concrete strength of M25 was achieved by using commercially available materials

with mixing using vibrators and simple curing methods. The design proportion of
1: 1.62: 2.58 was used to attain a maximum strength of 25 N/mm2 with w/c ratio
as 0.45. The average compressive strength of 26.29 N/mm2 was found at the end of
28 days.
2.3 Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Sheet
The unidirectional webbed glass fibre was used in the experimental investigation.
GFRP has Young’s modulus of 50 GPa and tensile strength can be up to 1600 N/mm2 .
The thickness and width of the glass fibre were 0.360 mm and 600 mm, respectively.
2.4 Adhesive
The most suitable adhesive material with GFRP fabrics with steel is epoxy resin.
The adhesive material consists of two compounds, namely resin and hardener. These
have a mixing ratio of 100: 10 (B: H) as specified by the manufacturer.
3 Experimental Investigation
A total of eight columns were used for this investigation. All the specimens are under-
gone corrosion by artificial corrosion process. Artificial corrosion was performed by
adding 70 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and 100 ml of acidic acid with one litre of
portable water. Thereafter, all samples are immersed in the solution for a period of six
weeks. To accelerate the corrosion, samples were taken out and cured in the ambient
18 S. V. B. Reddy and S. Sivasankar
Fig. 1 Samples before

corrosion
temperature for alternate days. Corrosion rate was calculated by weight loss method
at an interval of seven days. Samples before corrosion and after corrosion processes
were presented in Figs. 1 and 2. Corrosion rate calculation at seven days interval is
presented in Table 1.
3.1 Test Specimen Details
GFRP fabrics were used as continuous sheets wrapping around the peripheral of
the circular concrete-filled columns. Among the eight CCFST columns, two were
reference and rest of the specimens were confined with GFRP continuous sheets. For
easy identification, specimens were named such as CCFST-C, CCFST-1L, CCFST-2L
and CCFST-3L. For specimen CCFST-1L, CCFST denoted the corroded concrete-
filled steel tubes and 1L denoted the specimen confined by single layer of GFRP
sheets.
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decision never again to appear to the world.
At this point of the story the Professor had risen from his seat and
poured half the flagon in his glass. He was evidently as much
absorbed in the recital as if it had all happened yesterday. I could
see, too, that it appealed to those quaint, romantic views of life
which, for all their absurdities, endeared the old fellow to every one
who knew him.
“For a year,” he continued, “this seclusion was maintained; no one
saw the Contessa, not even her own servants. Her meals were
served behind a screen. Of course, all Venice was agog. Every
possible solution of so strange and unexpected a seclusion was
suggested and discussed.
“In the beginning of the following winter vague rumors reached the
good father’s ears. One morning he left his devotions, and,
waylaying her duenna outside the palace garden, pressed his rosary
into her hands and said: ‘Take this to the Contessa.’” Here the
Professor became very dramatic, holding out his hand with a quick
gesture, as if it clasped the rosary. “‘Tell her that to-night, when San
Giorgio strikes twelve, I shall be at the outer gate of the palace and
must be admitted.’”
Then, pacing up and down the narrow arbor, his face flushed, his
eyes glistening, the old fellow told the rest of the story. “When,” said
he, “the hour arrived, the heavy grated door, the same through which
you can now see the wine casks, was cautiously opened. A moment
later the priest was ushered into a dimly lighted room, luxuriously
furnished, and screened at one end by a silken curtain, behind which
sat the Contessa. She listened while he told her how all Venice was
outraged at her conduct, many hearts being grieved and many
tongues dropping foul slander. He remonstrated with her about the
life she was leading, condemning its selfishness and threatening the
severest discipline. But neither threats nor the voice of slander
intimidated the Contessa. She steadfastly avowed that her life had
been blameless, and despite the earnest appeals of the priest
persisted in the determination to live the rest of her days in quiet and
seclusion. The most he was able to effect was a promise that within
a month she would open the doors of her palace for one more great
ball. Her friends would then be reassured and her enemies silenced.
“The records show that no such festival had been seen in Venice for
many years. The palace was a blaze of light. So great was the crush
of gondolas bringing their beauteous freight of richly dressed
Venetians, that the traffic of the canal was obstructed for hours. Ten
o’clock came, eleven, and still there was no Contessa to welcome
her guests. Strange stories were set afloat. It was whispered that a
sudden illness had overtaken her. Then, as the hours wore on, the
terrible rumor gained credence, that she had been murdered by her
servants, and that the report of her illness was only a cloak to
conceal their crime.
“While the excitement was at its height, a man, in the costume of a
herald, appeared in the great salon and announced the arrival of the
hostess. As the hour struck twelve a curtain was drawn at the farther
end of the room, revealing the Contessa seated upon a dais,
superbly attired in velvet and lace, and brilliant with jewels. When the
hum and wonder of the surprise had ceased, she arose, stood like a
queen receiving the homage of her subjects, and, welcoming her
guests to her palace, bade them dance on until the sun rose over the
Lido. Then the curtains were drawn, and so ended the last sight of
the Contessa in Venice. Her palace was never opened again. Later
she disappeared completely, and the spiders spun their webs across
the threshold.
“Years afterward, a man repairing a high chimney on a roof
overlooking this very garden—the chimney can still be seen from the
far corner below the landing—saw entering the arbor a noble lady,
leaning upon the arm of a distinguished looking man of about her
own age. In the lady he recognized the Contessa.
“Little by little, the story came out. It appeared that immediately after
the ball she had moved to this château, a part of her own estates,
which had been quietly fitted up and restored. It was then
remembered that soon after the château had been finished, a certain
Marquis, well known in France, who had adored the Contessa for
years, and was really the only man she ever loved, had disappeared
from Paris. He was traced at the time to Milan and Genoa, and finally
to Venice. There all trace of him was lost. Such disappearances
were not uncommon in those days, and it was often safer even for
one’s relatives to shrug their shoulders and pass on. Further
confirmation came from the gondolier, who had landed him the night
of his arrival at the water-gate of this garden,—just where we landed
an hour ago,—and who, on hearing of his supposed murder, had
kept silent upon his share in the suspected crime. Inquiries
conducted by the State corroborated these facts.
“Look around you, mon ami,” exclaimed the Professor suddenly.
“Underneath this very arbor have they sat for hours, and in the
window of that crumbling balcony have they listened to the low
sound of each other’s voice in the still twilight, the world shut out, the
vine-covered wall their only horizon. Here, as the years passed
unheeded, they dreamed their lives away. L’amour, l’amour, vous
êtes tout puissant!”
The Professor stopped, turned as if in pain, and rested his head on
his arm. For some moments neither of us spoke. Was the romance
to which I had listened only the romance of the Contessa, or had he
unconsciously woven into its meshes some of the silken threads of
his own past? When he raised his head I said: “But, Professor, you
have not told me the secret she kept from the priest. Why did she
shut herself up? What was it that altered the whole course of her
life?”
“Did I not tell you? Then listen. She had overheard her gondolier say,
as she stepped into her gondola on the fatal night of the great fête at
the Foscari, ‘The Contessa is growing old; she is no longer as
beautiful as she was.’”
I looked at the old fellow to see if he were really in earnest, and,
throwing back my head, laughed heartily. For the first time in all my
intercourse with him I saw the angry color mount to his cheeks.
He turned quickly, looked at me in astonishment, as if unable to
believe his ears, and said sharply, knitting his brows, “Why do you
laugh?”
“It seems so absurd,” I replied. “What did she expect; to be always a
goddess?”
“Ah, there you go!” he burst out again, with flashing eyes. “That is
just like a cold-blooded materialist. I hate your modern Shylock, who
can see a pound of flesh cut from a human heart with no care for the
hot blood that follows. Have you no sympathy deep down in your
soul for a woman when she realizes for the first time that her hold on
the world is slipping? Can you not understand the agony of the
awakening from a long dream of security and supremacy, when she
finds that others are taking her place? The daily watching for the loss
of color, the fullness of the waist, the penciling of care-lines about the
eyes? We men have bodily force and mental vigor, and sometimes
lifelong integrity, to commend us, and as we grow older and the first
two fail, the last serves us best of all; but what has a woman like the
Contessa left? I am not talking of an ordinary woman, nor of all the
good daughters, good wives, and good mothers in the world. You
expect in such women the graces of virtue, duty, and resignation. I
am talking of a superb creature whom the good God created just to
show the world what the angels looked like. I insist that before you
laugh you must put yourself in the place of this noble Contessa
whom all Venice adored, whose reign for fifteen years had been
supreme, whose beauty was to her something tangible, a weapon, a
force, an atmosphere. She had all the other charms that adorned the
women of her day, good-humor, a rich mind, charity, and wit, but so
had a hundred other Venetians of her class. I insist that before
censuring her, you enter the salon and watch with her the faces of
her guests, noting her eagerness to detect the first glance of delight
or disappointment, and her joy or chagrin as she reads the verdict in
their eyes. Can you not realize that in a beauty such as hers there is
an essence, a spirit, a something divine and ethereal? A something
like the bloom on these grapes, adding the exquisite to their
lusciousness; like the pure color of the diamond, intensifying its
flash? A something that, in addition to all her other qualities, makes a
woman transcendent and should make her immortal? We men long
for this divine quality, adore it, go mad over it; and yet when it has
faded, with an inconstancy and neglect which to me is one of the
enigmas of human nature, we shrug our shoulders, laugh, and pass
on. Believe me, mon ami, when that gondolier confirmed the looking-
glass of the Contessa, his words fell upon her ears like earth upon
her coffin.”
If the Professor’s emotion at the close of the story was a surprise to
me, this frenzied outburst, illogical and quixotic as it seemed, was
equally unexpected. I could hardly realize that this torrent of fiery
passion and pent-up energy had burst from the frail, plain little body
before me. Again and again, as I looked at him, the thought ran
through my mind, Whom had he loved like that? What had come
between himself and his own Contessa? Why was this man an exile
—this cheery, precise, ever courteous dignified old thoroughbred,
with his dry, crackling exterior, and his volcano of a heart beneath?
Or was it Venice, with her wealth of traditions,—traditions he had
made his own,—that had turned his head?
Long after the Professor left the garden, I sat looking about me,
noting the broken walls overhung with matted vines, and the little
lizards darting in and out. Then I strolled on and entered the doorway
of the old château, and looked long and steadily at the ruined
balcony, half buried in a tangle of roses, the shadows of their waving
blossoms splashing the weather-stained marble; and thence to the
apartment above, where these same blossoms thrust themselves far
into its gloom, as if they too would search for the vision of loveliness
that had vanished. Then I wandered into an alcove sheltering the
remains of an altar and font—the very chapel, no doubt, where the
good priest had married her; on through the unkept walks bordered
on each side by rows of ancient box, with here and there a gap
where the sharp tooth of some winter more cruel than the rest had
bitten deep, and so out again into the open garden, where I sat down
under a great tree that sheltered the head of a Madonna built into the
wall—the work of Canova, the Professor had told me.
Despite my own convictions, I seem to feel the presence of these
spirits of the past that the Professor, in his simple, earnest way, had
conjured up before me, and to see on every hand evidences of their
long life of happiness. The ruined balcony, with its matted rose vines,
had now a deeper meaning. How often had the beautiful Venetian
leaned over this same iron grating and watched her lover in the
garden below! On how many nights, made glorious by the radiance
of an Italian moon, had they listened to the soft music of passing
gondolas beyond the garden walls?
The whole romance, in spite of its improbability and my thoughtless
laughter, had affected me deeply. Why, I could not tell. Perhaps it
was the Professor’s enthusiasm; perhaps his reverence for the
beauty of woman, as well as for the Contessa herself. Perhaps he
had really been recalling a chapter out of his own past, before exile
and poverty had made him a wanderer and a dreamer. Perhaps!—
Yes, perhaps it was the thought of the long, quiet life of the Contessa
with her lover in this garden.
AMONG THE FISHERMEN
KNOW best the fishing quarter of Ponte Lungo and the
district near by, from the wooden bridge to the lagoon, with
the side canal running along the Fondamenta della
Pallada. This to me is not only the most picturesque
quarter of Venice, but quite the most picturesque spot I know in
Europe, except, perhaps, Scutari on the Golden Horn.
This quality of the picturesque saturates Venice. You find it in her
stately structures; in her spacious Piazza, with its noble Campanile,
clock tower, and façade of San Marco; in her tapering towers, deep-
wrought bronze, and creamy marble; in her cluster of butterfly sails
on far-off, wide horizons; in her opalescent dawns, flaming sunsets,
and star-lit summer nights. You find it in the gatherings about her
countless bridges spanning dark water-ways; in the ever-changing
color of crowded markets; in lazy gardens lolling over broken walls;
in twisted canals, quaint doorways, and soggy, ooze-covered
landing-steps. You find it, too, in many a dingy palace—many a lop-
sided old palace—with door-jambs and windows askew, with lintels
craning their heads over the edge, ready to plunge headlong into the
canal below.
The little devils of rot and decay, deep down in the water, are at the
bottom of all this settling and toppling of jamb and lintel. They are
really the guardians of the picturesque.
Search any façade in Venice, from flowline to cornice, and you
cannot find two lines plumb or parallel. This is because these imps of
destruction have helped the teredo to munch and gnaw and bore,
undermining foundation pile, grillage, and bed-stone. If you listen
some day over the side of your gondola, you will hear one of these
old piles creak and groan as he sags and settles, and then up comes
a bubble, as if all the fiends below had broken into a laugh at their
triumph.
This change goes on everywhere. No sooner does some inhabitant
of the earth build a monstrosity of right-angle triangles, than the little
imps set to work. They know that Mother Nature detests a straight
line, and so they summon all the fairy forces of sun, wind, and frost,
to break and bend and twist, while they scuttle and bore and dig,
until some fine morning after a siege of many years, you stumble
upon their victim. The doge who built it would shake his head in
despair, but you forgive the tireless little devils—they have made it
so delightfully picturesque.
To be exact, there are really fewer straight lines in Venice than in any
place in Europe. This is because all the islands are spiked full of
rotting piles, holding up every structure within their limits. The
constant settling of these wooden supports has dropped the
Campanile nearly a foot out of plumb on the eastern façade,
threatened the destruction of the southwest corner of the Doges’
Palace, rolled the exquisite mosaic pavement of San Marco into
waves of stone, and almost toppled into the canal many a church
tower and garden wall.
Then again there are localities about Venice where it seems that
every other quality except that of the picturesque has long since
been annihilated. You feel it especially in the narrow side canal of
the Public Garden, in the region back of the Rialto, through the Fruit
Market, and in the narrow streets beyond—so narrow that you can
touch both sides in passing, the very houses leaning over like
gossiping old crones, their foreheads almost touching. You feel it too
in the gardens along the Giudecca, with their long arbors and
tangled masses of climbing roses; in the interiors of many courtyards
along the Grand Canal, with pozzo and surrounding pillars
supporting the rooms above; in the ship and gondola repair-yards of
the lagoons and San Trovaso, and more than all in the fishing
quarters, the one beyond Ponte Lungo and those near the Arsenal,
out towards San Pietro di Castello.
This district of Ponte Lungo—the one I love most—lies across the
Giudecca, on the “Island of the Giudecca,” as it is called, and is
really an outskirt, or rather a suburb of the Great City. There are no
grand palaces here. Sometimes, tucked away in a garden, you will
find an old château, such as the Contessa occupied, and between
the bridge and the fondamenta there is a row of great buildings,
bristling with giant chimneys, that might once have been warehouses
loaded with the wealth of the East, but which are now stuffed full of
old sails, snarled seines, great fish-baskets, oars, fishermen, fisher-
wives, fisher-children, rags, old clothes, bits of carpet, and gay,
blossoming plants in nondescript pots. I may be wrong about these
old houses being stuffed full of these several different kinds of
material, from their damp basement floors to the fourth story garrets
under baking red tiles; but they certainly look so, for all these things,
including the fisher-folk themselves, are either hanging out or thrust
out of window, balcony, or doorway, thus proving conclusively the
absurdity of there being even standing room inside.
Fronting the doors of these buildings are little rickety platforms of
soggy planks, and running out from them foot-walks of a single
board, propped up out of the wet on poles, leading to fishing-smacks
with sails of orange and red, the decks lumbered with a
miscellaneous lot of fishing-gear and unassorted sea-truck—
buckets, seines, booms, dip-nets, and the like.
Aboard these boats the fishermen are busily engaged in scrubbing
the sides and rails, and emptying the catch of the morning into their
great wicker baskets, which either float in the water or are held up on
poles by long strings of stout twine.
All about are more boats, big and little; row-boats; storage-boats
piled high with empty crab baskets, or surrounded with a circle of
other baskets moored to cords and supported by a frame of hop-
poles, filled with fish or crabs; barcos from across the lagoon, laden
with green melons; or lighters on their way to the Dogana from the
steamers anchored behind the Giudecca.
Beyond and under the little bridge that leads up the Pallada, the
houses are smaller and only flank one side of the narrow canal. On
the other side, once an old garden, there is now a long, rambling
wall, with here and there an opening through which, to your surprise,
you catch the drooping figure of a poor, forlorn mule, condemned for
some crime of his ancestors to go round and round in a treadmill,
grinding refuse brick. Along the quay or fondamenta of this narrow
canal, always shady after ten o’clock, lie sprawled the younger
members of these tenements—the children, bareheaded,
barefooted, and most of them barebacked; while their mothers and
sisters choke up the doorways, stringing beads, making lace, sitting
in bunches listening to a story by some old crone, or breaking out
into song, the whole neighborhood joining in the chorus.
THE CATCH OF THE MORNING

Up at the farther end of the Pallada and under another wooden
bridge, where two slips of canals meet, there is a corner that has
added more sketches to my portfolio than any single spot in Venice.
An old fisherman lives here, perhaps a dozen old fishermen; they
come and go all the time. There is a gate with a broken door, and a
neglected garden trampled down by many feet, a half-ruined wall
with fig-trees and oleanders peeping over from the garden next door,
a row of ragged, straggling trees lining the water’s edge, and more
big fish and crab baskets scattered all about,—baskets big as
feather-beds,—and festoons of nets hung to the branches of the
trees or thrown over the patched-up fences,—every conceivable and
inconceivable kind of fishing plunder that could litter up the premises
of a pescatore of the lagoon. In and out of all this débris swarm the
children, playing baby-house in the big baskets, asleep under the
overturned boat with the new patch on her bottom, or leaning over
the wall catching little crabs that go nibbling along a few inches
below the water-line.
In this picturesque spot, within biscuit-throw of this very corner, I
have some very intimate and charming friends—little Amelia, the
child model, and young Antonio, who is determined to be a gondolier
when he grows up, and who, perhaps, could earn a better living by
posing for some sculptor as a Greek god. Then, too, there is his
mother, the Signora Marcelli, who sometimes reminds me of my
other old friend, the “Grand Duchess of the Riva,” who keeps the
caffè near the Ponte Veneta Marina.
The Signora Marcelli, however, lacks most of the endearing qualities
of the Duchess; one in particular—a soft, musical voice. If the
Signora is in temporary want of the services of one of her brood of
children, it never occurs to her, no matter where she may be, to send
another member of the household in search of the missing child; she
simply throws back her head, fills her lungs, and begins a crescendo
which terminates in a fortissimo, so shrill and far-reaching that it
could call her offspring back from the dead. Should her husband, the
Signor Marcelli, come in some wet morning late from the lagoon,—
say at nine o’clock, instead of an hour after daylight,—the Signora
begins on her crescendo when she first catches sight of his boat
slowly poled along the canal. Thereupon the Signora fills the
surrounding air with certain details of her family life, including her
present attitude of mind toward the Signore, and with such volume
and vim that you think she fully intends breaking every bone under
his tarpaulins when he lands,—and she is quite able physically to do
it,—until you further notice that it makes about as much impression
upon the Signore as the rain upon his oilskins. It makes still less on
his neighbors, who have listened to similar outbursts for years, and
have come to regard them quite as they would the announcement by
one of the Signora’s hens that she had just laid an egg—an event of
too much importance to be passed over in silence.
When the Signor Marcelli arrives off the little wooden landing-ladder
facing his house, and, putting things shipshape about the boat,
enters his doorway, thrashing the water from his tarpaulin hat as he
walks, the Signora, from sheer loss of breath, subsides long enough
to overhaul a unique collection of dry clothing hanging to the rafters,
from which she selects a coat patched like Joseph’s of old, with
trousers to match. These she carries to the Signore, who puts them
on in dead silence, reappearing in a few moments barefooted but
dry, a red worsted cap on his head, and a short pipe in his mouth.
Then he drags up a chair, and, still silent as a graven image,—he
has not yet spoken a word,—continues smoking, looking furtively up
at the sky, or leaning over listlessly and watching the chickens that
gather about his feet. Now and again he picks up a rooster or
strokes a hen as he would a kitten. Nothing more.
Only then does the Signora subside, bringing out a fragment of
polenta and a pot of coffee, which the fisherman divides with his
chickens, the greedy ones jumping on his knees. I feel assured that
it is neither discretion nor domestic tact, nor even uncommon sense,
that forbids a word of protest to drop from the Signore’s lips. It is
rather a certain philosophy, born of many dull days spent on the
lagoon, and many lively hours passed with the Signora Marcelli,
resulting in some such apothegm as, “Gulls scream and women
scold, but fishing and life go on just the same.”
There is, too, the other old fisherman, whose name I forget, who
lives in the little shed of a house next to the long wall, and who is
forever scrubbing his crab baskets, or lifting them up and down, and
otherwise disporting himself in an idiotic and most aggravating way.
He happens to own an old water-logged boat that has the most
delicious assortment of barnacles and seaweed clinging to its sides.
It is generally piled high with great baskets, patched and mended,
with red splotches all over them, and bits of broken string dangling to
their sides or banging from their open throats. There are also a lot of
rheumatic, palsied old poles that reach over this ruin of a craft, to
which are tied still more baskets of still more delicious qualities of
burnt umber and Hooker’s-green moss. Behind this boat is a sun-
scorched wall of broken brick, caressed all day by a tender old
mother of a vine, who winds her arms about it and splashes its hot
cheeks with sprays of cool shadows.
When, some years ago, I discovered this combination of boat,
basket, and shadow-flecked wall, and in an unguarded moment
begged the fisherman to cease work for the morning at my expense,
and smoke a pipe of peace in his doorway, until I could transfer its
harmonies to my canvas, I spoke hurriedly and without due
consideration; for since that time, whenever this contemporary of the
original Bucentoro gets into one of my compositions,—these old fish-
boats last forever and are too picturesque for even the little devils to
worry over,—this same fisherman immediately dries his sponge,
secures his baskets, and goes ashore, and as regularly demands
backsheesh of soldi and fine-cut. Next summer I shall buy the boat
and hire him to watch; it will be much cheaper.
Then there are the two girls who live with their grandmother, in one
end of an old tumble-down, next to the little wooden bridge that the
boats lie under. She keeps a small cook-shop, where she boils and
then toasts, in thin strips, slices of green-skinned pumpkin, which the
girls sell to the fishermen on the boats, or hawk about the
fondamenta. As the whole pumpkin can be bought for a lira, you can
imagine what a wee bit of a copper coin it must be that pays for a
fragment of its golden interior, even when the skilled labor of the old
woman is added to the cost of the raw material.
Last of all are the boys; of no particular size, age, nationality, or
condition,—just boys; little rascally, hatless, shoeless, shirtless,
trouser—everything-less, except noise and activity. They yell like
Comanches; they crawl between the legs of your easel and look up
between your knees into your face; they steal your brushes and
paints; they cry “Soldi, soldi, Signore,” until life becomes a burden;
they spend their days in one prolonged whoop of hilarity, their nights
in concocting fresh deviltry, which they put into practice the moment
you appear in the morning. When you throw one of them into the
canal, in the vain hope that his head will stick in the mud and so he
be drowned dead, half a dozen jump in after him in a delirium of
enjoyment. When you turn one upside down and shake your own
color-tubes out of his rags, he calls upon all the saints to witness that
the other fellow, the boy Beppo or Carlo, or some other “o” or “i,” put
them there, and that up to this very moment he was unconscious of
their existence; when you belabor the largest portion of his surface
with your folding stool or T-square, he is either in a state of collapse
from excessive laughter or screaming with assumed agony, which
lasts until he squirms himself into freedom; then he goes wild,
turning hand-springs and describing no end of geometrical figures in
the air, using his stubby little nose for a centre and his grimy thumbs
and outspread fingers for compasses.
All these side scenes, however, constitute only part of the family life
of the Venetian fishermen. If you are up early in the morning you will
see their boats moving through the narrow canals to the fish market
on the Grand Canal above the Rialto, loaded to the water’s edge
with hundreds of bushels of crawling green crabs stowed away in the
great baskets; or piles of opalescent fish heaped upon the deck,
covered with bits of sailcloth, or glistening in the morning sun.
Earlier, out on the lagoon, in the gray dawn, you will see clusters of
boats with the seines widespread, the smaller dories scattered here
and there, hauling or lowering the spider-skein nets.
But there is still another and a larger fishing trade, a trade not exactly
Venetian, although Venice is its best market. To this belong the
fishermen of Chioggia and the islands farther down the coast. These
men own and man the heavier seagoing craft with the red and
orange sails that make the water life of Venice unique.
Every Saturday a flock of these boats will light off the wall of the
Public Garden, their beaks touching the marble rail. These are
Ziem’s boats—his for half a century; nobody has painted them in the
afternoon light so charmingly or so truthfully. Sunday morning, after
mass, they are off again, spreading their gay wings toward Chioggia.
On other days one or two of these gay-plumed birds will hook a line
over the cluster of spiles near the wall of the Riva, below the arsenal
bridge, their sails swaying in the soft air, while their captains are
buying supplies to take to the fleet twenty miles or more out at sea.
Again, sometimes in the early dawn or in the late twilight, you will
see, away out in still another fishing quarter, a single figure walking
slowly in the water, one arm towing his boat, the other carrying a
bag. Every now and then the figure bends over, feels about with his
toes, and then drops something into the bag. This is the mussel-
gatherer of the lagoon. In the hot summer nights these humble
toilers of the sea, with only straw mats for covering, often sleep in
their boats, tethered to poles driven into the yielding mud. They can
wade waist-deep over many square miles of water-space about
Venice, although to one in a gondola, skimming over the same
glassy surfaces, there seems water enough to float a ship.
These several grades of fishermen have changed but little, either in
habits, costume, or the handling of their craft, since the early days of
the republic. The boats, too, are almost the same in construction and
equipment, as can be seen in any of the pictures of Canaletto and
the painters of his time. The bows of the larger sea-craft are still
broad and heavily built, the rudders big and cumbersome, with the
long sweep reaching over the after-deck; the sails are loosely hung
with easily adjusted booms, to make room for the great seines which
are swung to the cross-trees of the foremast. The only boat of really
modern design, and this is rarely used as a fishing-boat, is the
sandolo, a shallow skiff drawing but a few inches of water, and with
both bow and stern sharp and very low, modeled originally for
greater speed in racing.
Whatever changes have taken place in the political and social
economy of Venice, they have affected but little these lovers of the
lagoons. What mattered it to whom they paid taxes,—whether to
doge, Corsican, Austrian, or king,—there were as good fish in the
sea as had ever been caught, and as long as their religion lasted, so
long would people eat fish and Friday come round every week in the
year.
A GONDOLA RACE
O-DAY I am interested in watching a gondolier make his
toilet in a gondola lying at my feet, for the little table holding
my coffee stands on a half-round balcony that juts quite
over the water-wall, almost touching the white tenda of the
boat. From this point of vantage I look down upon his craft, tethered
to a huge spile bearing the crown and monogram of the owner of the
hotel. One is nobody if not noble, in Venice.
The gondolier does not see me. If he did it would not disturb him; his
boat is his home through these soft summer days and nights, and
the overhanging sky gives privacy enough. A slender, graceful
Venetian girl, her hair parted on one side, a shawl about her
shoulders, has just brought him a bundle containing a change of
clothing. She sits beside him as he dresses, and I move my chair so
that I can catch the expressions of pride and delight that flit across
her face while she watches the handsome, broadly-built young
fellow. As he stands erect in the gondola, the sunlight flashing from
his wet arms, I note the fine lines of his chest, the bronzed neck and
throat, and the knotted muscles along the wrist and forearm. When
the white shirt with broad yellow collar and sash are adjusted and the
toilet is complete, even to the straw hat worn rakishly over one ear,
the girl gathers up the discarded suit, glances furtively at me, slips
her hand into his for a moment, and then springs ashore, waving her
handkerchief as he swings out past the Dogana, the yellow ribbons
of his hat flying in the wind.
Joseph, prince among porters, catches my eye and smiles
meaningly. Later, when he brings my mail, he explains that the pretty
Venetian, Teresa, is the sweetheart of Pietro the yellow-and-white
gondolier who serves the English lady at the Palazzo da Mula.
Pietro, he tells me, rows in the regatta to-day, and these
preparations are in honor of that most important event. He assures
me that it will be quite the most interesting of all the regattas of the
year, and that I must go early and secure a place near the stake-boat
if I want to see anything of the finish. It is part of Joseph’s duty and
pleasure to keep you posted on everything that happens in Venice. It
would distress him greatly if he thought you could obtain this
information from any other source.
While we talk the Professor enters the garden from the side door of
the corridor, and takes the vacant seat beside me. He, too, has come
to tell me of the regatta. He is bubbling over with excitement, and
insists that I shall meet him at the water-steps of the little Piazzetta
near the Caffè Veneta Marina, at three o’clock, not a moment later.
To-day, he says, I shall see, not the annual regatta,—that great
spectacle with the Grand Canal crowded with tourists and sight-
seers solidly banked from the water’s edge to the very balconies,—
but an old-time contest between the two factions of the gondoliers,
the Nicoletti and Castellani; a contest really of and for the Venetians
themselves.
The course is to begin at the Lido, running thence to the great flour-
mill up the Giudecca, and down again to the stake-boat off the Public
Garden. Giuseppe is to row, and Pasquale, both famous oarsmen,
and Carlo, the brother of Gaspari, who won the great regatta; better
than all, young Pietro, of the Traghetto of Santa Salute.
“Not Pietro of this traghetto, right here below us?” I asked.
“Yes; he rows with his brother Marco. Look out for him when he
comes swinging down the canal. If you have any money to wager,
put it on him. Gustavo, my waiter at Florian’s, says he is bound to
win. His colors are yellow and white.”
This last one I knew, for had he not made his toilet, half an hour
before, within sight of my table? No wonder Teresa looked proud and
happy!
While the Professor is bowing himself backward out of the garden,
hat in hand, his white hair and curled mustache glistening in the sun,
an oleander blossom in his button-hole, Espero enters, also
bareheaded, and begs that the Signore will use Giorgio’s gondola
until he can have his own boat, now at the repair-yard next to San
Trovaso, scraped and pitched; the grass on her bottom was the
width of his hand. By one o’clock she would be launched again. San
Trovaso, as the Signore knew, was quite near the Caffè Calcina;
would he be permitted to call for him at the caffè after luncheon? As
the regatta began at three o’clock there would not be time to return
again to the Signore’s lodging and still secure a good place at the
stake-boat off the Garden.
No; the illustrious Signore would do nothing of the kind. He would
take Giorgio and his gondola for the morning, and then, when the
boat was finished, Espero could pick up the Professor at the Caffè
Veneta Marina in the afternoon and bring him aboard Giorgio’s boat
on his way down the canal.
Giorgio is my stand-by when Espero is away. I often send him to my
friends, those whom I love, that they may enjoy the luxury of
spending a day with a man who has a score and more of sunshiny
summers packed away in his heart, and not a cloud in any one of
them. Tagliapietra Giorgio, of the Traghetto of Santa Salute, is his full
name and address. Have Joseph call him for you some day, and
your Venice will be all the more delightful because of his buoyant
strength, his cheeriness, and his courtesy.
So Giorgio and I idle about the lagoon and the Giudecca, watching
the flags being hoisted, the big barcos being laden, and various
other preparations for the great event of the afternoon.
After luncheon Giorgio stops at his house to change his tenda for the
new one with the blue lining, and slips into the white suit just
laundered for him. He lives a few canals away from the Calcina, with
his mother, his widowed sister and her children, in a small house
with a garden all figs and oleanders. His bedroom is next to his
mother’s, on the second floor, overlooking the blossoms. There is a
shrine above the bureau, decorated with paper flowers, and on the
walls a scattering of photographs of brother gondoliers, and some
trophies of oars and flags. Hanging behind the door are his oilskins
for wet weather, and the Tam O’Shanter cap that some former
padrone has left him, as a souvenir of the good times they once had
together, and which Giorgio wears as a weather signal for a rainy
afternoon, although the morning sky may be cloudless. All gondoliers
are good weather prophets.
The entire family help Giorgio with the tenda—the old mother
carrying the side-curtains, warm from her flat-iron, and chubby
Beppo, bareheaded and barefooted, bringing up the rear with the
little blue streamer that on gala days floats from the gondola’s lamp-
socket forward, which on other days is always filled with flowers.
Then we are off, picking our way down the narrow canal, waiting
here and there for the big barcos to pass, laden with wine or fruit,
until we shoot out into the broad waters of the Giudecca.
You see at a glance that Venice is astir. All along the Zattere, on
every wood-boat, barco, and barge, on every bridge, balcony, and
house-top, abreast the wide fondamenta fronting the great
warehouses, and away down the edge below the Redentore, the
people are swarming like flies. Out on the Giudecca, anchored to the
channel spiles, is a double line of boats of every conceivable
description, from a toy sandolo to a steamer’s barge. These lie
stretched out on the water like two great sea-serpents, their heads
facing the garden, their tails curving toward the Redentore.
Between these two sea-monsters, with their flashing scales of a
thousand umbrellas, is an open roadway of glistening silver.
Giorgio swings across to the salt warehouses above the Dogana and
on down and over to the Riva. Then there is a shout ahead, a red
and white tenda veers a point, comes close, backs water, and the
Professor springs in.
“Here, Professor, here beside me on the cushions,” I call out. “Draw
back the curtains, Giorgio. And, Espero, hurry ahead and secure a
place near the stake-boat. We will be there in ten minutes.”
The Professor was a sight to cheer the heart of an amateur
yachtsman out for a holiday. He had changed his suit of the morning
for a small straw hat trimmed with red, an enormous field-glass with
a strap over his shoulder, and a short velvet coat that had once done
service as a smoking-jacket. His mustachios were waxed into needle
points. The occasion had for him all the novelty of the first spring
meeting at Longchamps, or a race off Cowes, and he threw himself
into its spirit with the gusto of a boy.
“What colors are you flying, mon Capitaine? Blue? Never!” noticing
Giorgio’s streamer. “Pasquale’s color is blue, and he will be half a
mile astern when Pietro is round the stake-boat. Vive le jaune! Vive
Pietro!” and out came a yellow rag—Pietro’s color—bearing a strong
resemblance to the fragment of some old silk curtain. It settled at a
glance all doubt as to the Professor’s sympathies in the coming
contest.
The day was made for a regatta; a cool, crisp, bracing October day;
a day of white clouds and turquoise skies, of flurries of soft winds
that came romping down the lagoon, turned for a moment in play,
and then went scampering out to sea; a day of dazzling sun, of
brilliant distances, of clear-cut outlines, black shadows, and flashing
lights.
As we neared the Public Garden the crowd grew denser; the cries of
the gondoliers were incessant; even Giorgio’s skillful oar was taxed
to the utmost to avoid the polluting touch of an underbred sandolo, or
the still greater calamity of a collision—really an unpardonable sin
with a gondolier. Every now and then a chorus of yells, charging
every crime in the decalogue, would be hurled at some landsman
whose oar “crabbed,” or at some nondescript craft filled with “barbers
and cooks,” to quote Giorgio, who in forcing a passage had become
hopelessly entangled.
The only clear water-space was the ribbon of silver beginning away
up near the Redentore, between the tails of the two sea-monsters,
and ending at the stake-boat. Elsewhere, on both sides, from the
Riva to San Giorgio, and as far as the wall of the Garden, was a
dense floating mass of human beings, cheering, singing, and
laughing, waving colors, and calling out the names of their favorites
in rapid crescendo.
The spectacle on land was equally unique. The balustrade of the
broad walk of the Public Garden was a huge flower-bed of
blossoming hats and fans, spotted with myriads of parasols in full
bloom. Bunches of over-ripe boys hung in the trees, or dropped one

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Advances in Structural Engineering:

Select Proceedings of FACE 2019 K. V.

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ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

production. Techniques such as fuzzy logic and artiﬁcial neural networks to

Sangareddy, India Dr. K. V. L. Subramaniam

Seismic Fragility Assessment of Unreinforced Masonry

Performance of Self-ﬂowing Concrete Incorporated with Alumina

Prof. K. V. L. Subramaniam is a Professor in the Department of Civil

Dr. Mohd Ataullah Khan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil

Jayaprakash Vemuri and K. V. L. Subramaniam

2 Material and Geometric Properties of URM Walls

Vd = Dtτu ; τu = minimum(τcs ; τws ; τb ) (2)

τb is the shear stress based on brick cracking and is given by:

-60 Experiment -150 Experiment

3 Nonlinear Time-History Analyses Using Synthetic

Acceleration (g) 0.50 Time (sec)

0.10 Time (sec)

Sites in Zone 4 (IS1893:2016)—PSA(DBE) = 0.30 g

Fig. 3 a Displacement versus PGA (wall-1), b displacement versus PGV (wall-1)

Fig. 4 a Displacement versus PGA (wall-2), b displacement versus PGV (wall-2)

Table 3 Fragility curves: median and dispersion

5 Summary and Conclusions

S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy and S. Sivasankar

S. V. B. Reddy · S. Sivasankar (B)

2.1 Steel Tube

2.2 Concrete Mix

Concrete strength of M25 was achieved by using commercially available materials

2.3 Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Sheet

Fig. 1 Samples before

3.1 Test Specimen Details

THE CATCH OF THE MORNING

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