1

Technology for Teaching and Learning 1 - We forget that classroom management is not about
achieving order for order’s sake;
William Arthur Ward - It’s about achieving order so that productive learning
- The mediocre teacher tells. can occur - to promote learning.
- The good teacher explains.
- The superior teacher demonstrates. SEVEN THINGS
- The great teacher inspires. - 7 colors make a rainbow
- 7 chords make music
Malcolm S. Forbes - 7 days make a week
- Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with - 7 continents make the world
an open one. - 7 beautiful letters make me a TEACHER
- 7 letters make teachers transform into:
The Classroom Environment: - Parents
- Crowded - Friends
- Complex - Adviser
- Potentially Chaotic
SOCRATIC INSTRUCTION (questioning)
6 Features of the Classroom Setting that make it complex: - It forsters critical thinking, evaluation, and
knowledge application in students and should be used
1. MULTIDIMENSIONALITY as frequently as possible in assignments and class
- The classroom is a setting of a broad range of events. discussions.
- Students read, write, discuss, form friendships, argue, - Give students time to consider the question and their
celebrate birthdays, play games, etc. response before requesting them to answer.
- Teachers not only instruct, the take attendance, - Avoid yes-no questions.
counsel students with problems, and meet with - Be sure students have the needed background and
Parents. resources to respond to the questions posed.
2. SIMULTANEITY - Open-ended and closed questions are useful.
- Many of these activities take place at the same time. - Open-ended promote critical thinking while closed
3. IMMEDIACY questions can focus attention.
- The rapid pace at which things happen. - Include clarifying questions, demands, and
4. UNPREDICTABILITY statements.
- Classroom events cannot always be anticipated, - Use questions from all levels of thinking.
despite the most careful planning.
5. LACK OF PRIVACY THOMAS EDISON
- Classrooms are public places; each person’s behavior - I never worked a day in my life- it was all fun.
can be observed by many others.
- Teachers and students continually monitor each INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
other’s behavior.
6. CONSTRUCT JOINT HISTORY Johnson, RELC Journal.
- Classes, like families, remember past events - both - Especially designed classroom tools that contain
positive and negative. instructions to learners and teachers.
- Class memory means what happens today affects - Specify for each increment of learning: the content to
what happens tomorrow. be learned; the techniques of presentation, practice,
- Teachers must work to shape history that will and use of that content; and the modes of teaching
support, rather than frustrate future activities. associated with those techniques.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IMs

- Sometimes we become so preoccupied with basic - Are an important element within the curriculum and
management issues (like getting everyone to sit are often the most tangible and visible aspect of it.
down), (Nunan, 1991)

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- They can define the goals of the syllabus, and the - Bloom found that over 95% of test questions students
roles of the teachers and the learner within the encountered require them to think only at the lowest
instructional process. (Wright, 1987) possible level: the recall of information

APPROPRIATE STRATEGY Before = Now

- Learners - Knowledge = Remembering
- How child/adult prefer to learn - Comprehension = Understanding
- Desired performance objectives - Application = Applying
- Learning and working environments - Analysis = Analyzing
- Constraints on the instructional design process - Synthesis = Evaluating
- Evaluation = Creating
DELIVERY & MEDIA SELECTION
- Limitations of time ASSESSMENT FOR DIFFERENT LEVELS OF
- Equipment EXPERTISE
- Staff skills - Knowledge-based objectives (Cognitive) the most
- Costs and Learner commonly used assessment tool is a variety of
- Management Preference teacher-made test.
“ Remember the ultimate goal is to select methods of
instruction that are experienced-centered and problem-
centered to maximize learning.”

LEARNING PYRAMID
Lecture - 5%
Reading - 10%
Audio Visual - 20%
Demonstration - 30%
Discussion Group - 50%
Practice by Doing - 75%
Immediate Use of Learning - 90%

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
1. Redirection
- Asking of single question to which there are
several answers.
2. Prompting
- Uses hints, clues and prompting to assist
student to come up with the response
successfully.
Bloom’s Taxonomy 3. Probing
- Benjamin Bloom (1956) headed a group of - Is a qualitative technique and should be used
educational psychologists who developed a for the promotion of reflective thought and
classification level of intellectual behavior important critical thinking.
in learning. 4. Wait Time
- Amount of time spent or wasted for students to
respond

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THINGS TO REMEMBER AS TEACHER
- We must have the mastery of the subject matter.
- We should never read from a script.
- We must be prepared with audio-visual materials.
- We must have good time management as well as
classroom management.
- We should be relaxed and confident.
- Keep an eye on the audience’s body language.
- We should make used of body language accurately
and appropriately.
Vitamin C of Teachers
- Cheerful
- Committed
- Compassionate
- Contemplative
- Competent
LESSON 1: Introduction to Flexible Learning Design
- Utilizing technology in education by no means new.
- It has always existed since mathematical systems
were understood through the use of computing
machines.
- However, there is a need to reevaluate what is and
isn’t negotiable in these learning ecosystems as many
of them transition to blended and/or flexible learning
and deal with the difficulties of a worldwide
pandemic.
VUCA
- An acronym that was based on the theories of Warren
Bennis and Burt Nanus in 1987 but was used by the
US armed forces afterward. Each letter stands for a
condition or a situation that is present now.
VOLATILITY
- The challenge is unexpected or unstable and may be
unknown duration but it’s not necessarily hard to
understand; knowledge about is often available.
- Understanding nature and dynamic of chance.
UNCERTAINTY
- Despite a lack of other information the event’s basic
cause and effect are known. Change is possible but
not a given.
- Dealing with unpredictability though the cause and
effect are determinable.
COMPLEXITY
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- The situation has many interconnected parts and
variables. Some information is available or can be
predicted, but the volume or nature of it can be
overwhelming to process.
- Referring to multiple interconnected parts and
variables.
AMBIGUITY
- Casual relationships are completely unclear. No
precedents exist; you face “unknown unknowns”.
- Facing the unknown. Involves vagueness of data or
presentation, which can have multiple interpretations
or mixed meanings.
PETER DRUCKER
- The greatest danger in times of turbulence is not the
turbulence, instead, it is to act with yesterday’s logic.
- This impels us to consider appropriate and effective
ways of moving forward as we face continual
changes in our world.
JACK WELCH
- If the rate of change outside exceeds the rate of
change inside, the end is in sight.
1. Vision gives the direction and the orientation of
education institutions as they adapt to the changes in
learning environments.
2. Understanding creates interconnections.
3. Clarity involves simplicity and streamlining
information to the most basic and nonnegotiable
aspects of learning.
4. Agility points to flexibility; this facilitates innovation
and helps build resilience.
LESSON 2: Pedagogical Principles
Principle 1: Flexible Learning
- The Philippines government used this learning idea to
explore the changes that need to be implemented in
response to the global pandemic.
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- Having flexibility has the same principles as having 2. Coach

Adaptability. - Coach is a teacher.
- The principle of flexible learning is the adaptability - Experts are coaches.
that makes possible accommodation to the learner’s - If you are coach there is a need for you to be felt regardless
different and plural learning contexts. of learning modalities.
- Flexible makes sense only because the goal of - A teacher plans and designs the learning experience.
education remains the same but the mediation and - A coach is a planner and designer of interactions that will
mode are different. transpire in and out of the classroom.
- With this course on educational technology, it needs - Everything must be strategically designed and scheduled.
to be pointed out and even asserted that technology is - Engaging activities are required.
only the means to the greater goal of learning. - Coaches are hardworking.
- There is a saying that technology is just useless if it - You cannot give what you do not have.
does not facilitate or lead to something or to learning. - You cannot teach what you do not know.
- Only when the mediator and manner of instruction
are different but the objective are different but the 3. Classmates
objective of education stays the same does flexibility - They are cohorts with whom the learners can discuss and
make sense. work on any platform.
- It is important to emphasize-even to state out loud- - Learners need to work with their classmates to make their
that technology is merely a tool for achieving experience memorable and worthwhile.
learning’s ultimate objective of educational
technology.
REMOTE ONLINE REMOTE
- There’s a proverb that says, “Technology is TEACHING LEARNING SELF-STUDY
meaningless if it doesn’t help with anything or CONTENT
promote learning.”
Coach + Content + Posting Online
Principle 2: Three Cs Content Coach + Assignments
- Content Community
Exclusively For learners to
- Coach or the Teacher
synchronous Design of OL accomplish
- Community, Cohort, or Class delivery of experiences asynchronous.
- The interaction between these three interrelated online lecturer. that allows
aspects constitutes learning or makes possible interaction
learning. among 3
- Having the right balance of these three makes a good elements.
learning experience.
Principle 3: Bisynchronous (Asynch & Synch)
1. Content
- Content is part of the learning competencies that teacher - A lesson is synchronous when the teacher chooses to
must prepare and the learners need to acquire or to learn. meet with the class at the same time for lectures and
- Content is what the teachers curated for learning to interact lessons, or just to lead discussion.
with such as: Series of lectures, Readings, Videos, and Other - Which is also called a remote way of teaching.
IMs. - Asynchronous learning occurs when a teacher assigns
- Content preparation is non-negotiable. students recorded video lessons and other learning
- “Less is more” is an adage that tells teachers to provide resources and then steps back and lets them work on
engagement rather than pure lectures. their own.
- Teaching content refers to the materials used in class or to - Learning can be purely synchronous, purely
construct a lesson plan. asynchronous, or a combination of both.
- This content can include newspapers, books, podcasts, and - These three principles we have serves as a quick
puzzles. checklist as we move forward; by no means are they
- The goal of this content is to promote learning. absolute principles.

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- There will always be exceptions, but what matters is - Time Management

that the exceptions are made consciously. - Diversity and Respect
- Teamwork
- Effective Communication Skills

PAINFUL TRUTH
- Very strict
- Laissez-Faire: LET IT GO
- Super dedicated that they become task-oriented
bastard
- Punishments: physical or psychological
- Internet Acces - Doesn’t Listen
- Less Real-Time Demand on Teachers - Favoritism
- Better Engagement and Effectiveness

The classroom is a:
Mode of Delivery - Workshop/Factory
- Learner Access - Playground
- Learner Autonomy - Parade Ground
- Learner Task - Courtroom/Church
- Greenhouse
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT - Prison
- Minefield
- 57.1% (4 out of 7) of students get through high
school and graduate.
- 49.9% (5 out of 10) graduate in college.
- 3 out of 5 (60%) of Philippine 6th Graders are not
ready for high school or Grade 7 work.
- 2 out of 5 (40%) High School graduates are not ready
for college work.
- UNESCO reports in its National Education Support
Strategy (UNESS) that the quality of Elementary
Education in the Philippines has deteriorated over the
years as indicated by low achievement rates for
students.

- All scored were below as compared to our ASEAN

neighbors 75%.

Designing & Facilitating Homeroom Guidance

- Planning and Organizing
- Flexibility

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Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education - Environmental

- Prenatal
LEARNING DISABILITY - Perinatal
- Postnatal
WHO ARE EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS? Characteristics
- Foundational Phase (1800-1930) - Hyperactivity
- Transition Phase (1930-1960) - Perceptual-motor impairments
- Integration Phase (1960-1974) - Emotional Lability
• Term "learning disability" coined - Coordination deficits
Current Phase (1974-present) - Attention disorders
- Impulsivity
WHAT IS THE IDEA DEFINITION OF - Memory & thinking disorders
LEARNING DISABILITIES? - Specific learning disabilities
- Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or - Speech & hearing disorders
more of the basic psychological processes involved in - Equivocal neurological signs
understanding or in using language, spoken or written,
that may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical WHAT ARE SOME COMMON ACADEMIC DEFICITS?
calculations including conditions such as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, Reading - Phonological awareness, vocabulary,
dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. comprehension
- Specific learning disability does not include learning Mathematics - Calculation, math facts and concepts,
problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, problem- solving, word problems, math anxiety
or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional Writing and Written Expression - Handwriting, spelling,
disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic written expression
disadvantage. Expressive and Receptive Language - Speaking, listening,
understanding, following directions
HOW DO THE IDEA AND NJCLD DEFINITIONS OF
LEARNING DISABILITIES COMPARE? WHAT OTHER DEFICITS SHOULD BE
CONSIDERED?
Similarities to IDEA Definition
- Both define learning disabilities as involving deficits in a Cognitive-Related Characteristics - Attention, memory,
number of academic and cognitive areas strategy use, metacognition
Differences from IDEA Definition Social and Emotional Characteristics - Social skills deficits,
- NJCLD definition eliminated psychological processing learned helplessness, low self- concept, anxiety
deficit requirement
- Redefined exclusion aspect of IDEA definition stating HOW ARE STUDENTS WITH LEARNING
that a learning disability cannot be the result of other DISABILITIES IDENTIFIED?
disabilities or extrinsic factors, but that they can coexist.
Response to Intervention - Three-tier model to identify
WHAT IS THE PREVALENCE OF LEARNING students who might have a learning disability.
DISABILITIES?
THREE-TIERED RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION
- 3.4% of students 6-21 received services for learning (RTI) MODEL
disabilities in 2016. Tier 1
- Largest area of IDEA disability - 39.1% of all served - Students receive effective instruction in the general
under IDEA have a learning disability. education setting, using validated practices
- 66% of students receiving services are male. - Student progress is monitored on a weekly basis (In
- African-American and Hispanic students are some approaches, universal screening is considered
overrepresented in many states. part of Tier 1)
- Prevalence by state varies. Tier 2
- Students whose progress is less than desired receive
WHAT ARE CAUSES AND POSSIBLE different or additional support from the classroom teacher
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES? or another educational professional
No known cause. Possible causes: - Student progress continues to be monitored
- Neurological Tier 3
- Genetic

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- Students whose progress is still insufficient in Tier 2 may Strategies Instruction

receive even more intensive instruction, which can be
provided in a variety of ways WHAT IS STRATEGIES INSTRUCTION?
- Then, depending on a state's or district's policies, students Cognitive Strategies
may qualify for special education services based on the - Deliberate, planned activities used to acquire
progress monitoring data or they may receive either an information or knowledge
abbreviated or a comprehensive evaluation for the - Example: mnemonics, acronyms, acrostics, keyword
identification of learning disability methods
Metacognitive Strategies
COGNITIVE-METACOGNITIVE MODEL OF - Self-regulatory strategies to plan, monitor and check
MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING (MPS) outcomes
Mathematical problem solving
 Cognitive strategy steps WHAT PROCEDURES CAN BE EFFECTIVE WITH
- Read (for understanding) ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS?
- Paraphrase (in my own words) - Using visuals
- Visualize (a picture or a diagram) - Utilizing cooperative learning
- Hypothesize (plan how to solve) - Setting up peer tutors
- Estimate (predict the answer) - Allowing use of the native language to organize
- Compute (do the math) thoughts
- Check (make sure it's right) - Providing sufficient time to use language
- Focusing on vocabulary to teach concepts
 Metacognitive Strategies - Providing multi-sensory teaching
- Self-instruct (Say) - Using supplementary materials
- Self-question (Ask)
- Self-monitor (Check) WHAT ARE CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE
INSTRUCTIONAL ENVIRONMENT?
WHAT IS THE SEVERE DISCREPANCY FORMULA? - Physical arrangements
Severe discrepancy between intelligence and - One-to-one instruction
achievement to identify individuals with learning - Instructional grouping
disabilities* - Small group, whole class, peer tutoring
Example:
- IQ = 90 or above and WHAT TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
- Significant deficit in Achievement Score (in reading, CAN BE EFFECTIVE?
math, spelling, handwriting, listening, speaking, 1. Word processing
etcetera) 2. Speech recognition
- *Not required by IDEA 3. Digital voice recorders
4. Computer programs
WHAT DO I TEACH STUDENTS WITH LEARNING
DISABILITIES? TIPS FOR SOFTWARE SELECTION
Knowledge - When selecting software, make sure:
- Declarative knowledge - facts - Content is free of gender, cultural, and racial stereotypes
- Procedural knowledge - how to learn - Content is interesting, engaging, and encourages
- Conditional knowledge - when and why exploration and imagination
Reading - Phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, - Activities require decision making and judgments
vocabulary, comprehension. - It has a high degree of interactivity
Written language - Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, - The screen is not cluttered. The less clutter on the screen,
final draft. the better
Mathematics - Problem solving, computation, self-regulation, - Procedures and goals match those being taught in school
strategy use. - Directions are simple to read or have images or speech to
Study Skills - Listening, note taking, time management, guide use
comprehension, test taking, memory strategies, textbook - Software is modifiable (examples: speed, quantity of
usage. problems, levels)
Task Analysis - Breaking a task down into simpler - Programs contain more than one activity
components to be taught in sequence. - There are small increments between levels
Direct Instruction - Daily review, presentation, guided - Only a limited number of incorrect responses are allowed
practice, independent practice, and weekly and monthly per problem
reviews.

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- There are built-in instructional aids (virtual manipulatives

in math)
- There are minimal keyboard skill requirements and easy-
to-understand icons
- There are praise and helpful feedback provisions It has a
built-in review
- Real-life solutions are simulated
- It has good record-keeping capabilities
- Remember software is a learning tool-not the total
solution
-

WHAT ARE SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE

GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHER?
Collaborate COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
Consider Using
- Accommodations WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION
- Adaptations DISORDERS?
- Parallel outcomes - Speech Correctionists
- An overlapping Curriculum - Speech Therapists
- Speech/Language Pathologists
ACCOMMODATIONS VERSUS ADAPTATIONS
1. Accommodations WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
- Changes based on student's needs in how information Communication is the process by which one individual
is presented by the teacher or how understanding is expresses ideas, feelings, opinions, or messages to others and
demonstrated receives and understands ideas, feelings, opinions, or
- Levels the playing field for the student messages from others.
2. Adaptations - Changes the methods, materials, or Language is a rule-governed system of arbitrary symbols that
concepts being taught based on the student's needs stand for meaning.
Speech is the physical production of that system.
ACCOMMODATIONS THAT CAN BE MADE IN THE
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM FOR WHAT ARE THE FOUR SPEECH SYSTEMS?
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES 1. Respiration - the breathing that supports speech
2. Voicing - the sound powered by the vocal folds/cords
3. Resonance - the means by which sound is changed as it
travels through the cavities of the neck and head
4. Articulation – the formation of speech sounds by the lips,
tongue, and other structures

WHAT ARE FIVE COMPONENTS OF SPOKEN

LANGUAGE?
- Phonology deals with the system of speech sounds and
the rules governing their use; the smallest significant unit
of sound is a phoneme.
- Morphology involves the rules governing the use of the
smallest significant unit of meaning, the morpheme.
- Syntax refers to the rules of word function and word
order.

WHAT IS THE IDEA DEFINITION?

A speech or language impairment is a
Communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired
articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment,
which adversely affects a child's educational performance.
Even after repair of structural malformations, speech therapy
will be needed.

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WHAT IS THE ASHA DEFINITION OF
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS?
- A speech disorder is an impairment of the articulation of
speech sound, fluency, or voice.
- A language disorder is an impairment or the deviant
development of comprehension and/or use of a spoken,
written, and/or other symbol system. It may involve (1)
the form of language, (2) the content of language, and/or
(3) the function of language in communication in any
combination.
WHAT IS THE PREVALENCE OF COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS?
- 1.5% of students aged 6-21 and 2.75% of students ages 3-
5 received services for speech and language impairments
in 2014 (O SE P, 2016)
- About 18% of all children, ages 6-21, who received
services for disabilities under IDEA in the 2014 school
year received services for speech disorders (U.S.
Department of Education, 2016)
- The National Center for Health Statistics (2012) reports
that approximately 8% of children entering school have a
communication disorder.
- If both primary and secondary disabilities were
considered, communication disorders would be the largest
IDEA category.
WHAT IS A SECONDARY LANGUAGE DISORDER?
Some children may have difficulty learning and using spoken
language as a result of another disability, such as an
intellectual disability, an emotional or behavioral disorder, a
learning disability, or an autism spectrum disorder.
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS?
 Language Disorders
- Functional and nonorganic
- Biological
- Environmental factors can increase risk
 Speech Disorders
- Structural malformations in or around the mouth
- Functional causes
- Interacting organic and functional
- Neurological damage and psychological factors
WHAT ARE POSSIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF
STUDENTS WITH LANGUAGE DISORDERS?
Primary Language Disorder
- Problems with one or several components of language
- Phonological disorder - using phonological processes,
rules that simplify adult speech forms, beyond the normal
period of using these processes
- Morphological disorder - omission or misuse of specific
morphemes beyond the normal age to do so
- Semantic Disorder - difficulties in vocabulary, retrieving
a word when it is needed, or multiple meanings and
figurative language
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- Pragmatics disorder - significant difficulties fitting into
social settings due to difficulties in language use
- Secondary Language Disorder - generally influenced by
cognitive abilities or by the underlying syndrome
WHAT ARE POSSIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF
STUDENTS WITH SPEECH DISORDERS?
- Characteristics of speech disorders relate to the areas of
voice, articulation of speech sounds, and/or fluency.
- A voice disorder is the atypical production of voice
quality, pitch, and/or loudness.
- An articulation disorder is the atypical production of
speech sounds.
- A fluency disorder is the atypical flow of verbal
expression, characterized by impaired rate and rhythm,
such as stuttering.
HOW ARE STUDENTS WITH LANGUAGE
DISORDERS IDENTIFIED?
- Speech-language pathologists (SLP) rely on standardized,
norm- referenced tests, informal measures, and the
perceptions and concerns of those who are significant in
the child's life
- A family history
- Tests of expressive and receptive language skills
- Observational checklists and teacher reports
- Interviews with the student, as appropriate
- Language sample, which is an analysis made of elicited
conversational speech
HOW ARE STUDENTS WITH SPEECH
DISORDERS IDENTIFIED?
- Articulation tests - the evaluation of child's ability to
produce speech sounds in isolation, words, sentences, and
spontaneous speech
- Auditory discrimination assessment - the ability to tell the
difference in different sounds
- Fluency evaluation
- Voice evaluation
- Hearing test
- Case history
- Samples of the child's work
- Checklists or scales completed by parents and/or those
who work with the child in the educational Setting
HOW SHOULD ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS BE
IDENTIFIED?
- First, determine whether the child should be assessed in
the native language.
- Determine whether presenting problems are also evident
in the home and community.
- Assess both basic interpersonal communication skills
(BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency
(CAL P) in both the first language and the second
language
- BICS are basic conversational abilities that LE P students
may master quite easily.
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- CALP entails more complex, abstract language use - Plan for heterogeneous groupings
related to problem solving, evaluating, and inferring. - Implement community instruction

WHAT DO I TEACH STUDENTS WITH WHAT TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS? CAN BE USED?
- Enhance speech and language skills - Augmentative and alternative communication
- Enhance communication skills - Picture or word boards
- Teach functional skills for language - Voice output communication
- Use language intervention materials
- Supplement with computer software
- Collaboration efforts VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

HOW DO I TEACH STUDENTS WITH WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BLINDNESS

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS? AND LOW VISION?
- Teach skills as they would naturally occur in - Examples that illustrate accomplishments from early
conversation. times: Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey
- Use effective teaching strategies including: - 1800's Louis Braille developed a system for reading,
- Direct instruction writing, and music using raised dots which could be
- Reciprocal teaching "read" with one's fingers
- Cognitive and metacognitive strategies - Formal education for this population began in the U.S.;
- Graphic organizer and the American Printing House for the Blind was
- Modeling established.
- Expansion - Early 1900's saw emergence of public-school programs.
- Self-talk - Advocacy movements stressed integration into all facets
- Parallel-talk of society.
- Cloze procedures - 1990's Professionals developed a common core
curriculum and a national agenda for students with
ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE blindness and low vision.
PEER INTERACTIONS
WHAT IS THE LEGAL DEFINITION OF
BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION?
- Legal Blindness - vision of 20/200 or worse in the best
eye, with the best possible correction OR field of vision
limited to no more than 20 degrees (does not equate to
total blindness).
- Low vision - vision of 20/70 to 20/200 (also called partial
sight).
- Visual acuity - how sharp visual images are perceived.
- Visual field - the scope of what one can see without
turning the head or moving one's eyes.

WHAT IS THE IDEA DEFINITION?

Visual impairments including blindness are defined as "vision
that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's
educational performance. The term includes both partial sight
and blindness."

WHAT ELSE SHOULD I KNOW ABOUT THE

DEFINITIONS OF BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION?
- Legal definitions emphasize visual acuity and residual
WHAT ARE CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE vision.
INSTRUCTIONAL ENVIRONMENT? - Teachers should be concerned with how well a student
- Provide space can use residual vision and the impact on educational
- Clearly define areas performance.
- Vary materials - Students with low vision may be able to use printed
- Present authentic settings materials (for example, large print books).
- Encourage interaction and communication

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- Students with blindness may need to learn through means
other than printed materials.
- Individuals with the same visual acuity can function
differently in the same classroom.
WHAT IS THE PREVALENCE OF BLINDNESS
AND LOW VISION?
The 38th Annual Report to Congress indicated less than 0.05%
of the school-age population 6-21 years were served in this
disability category.
WHAT ARE SOME CAUSES OF BLINDNESS AND
LOW VISION?
Optical defects
- Refraction - focusing light as it passes through different
components of the eye.
- Refractive errors are more common and include:
- Astigmatism - focusing problems whether stimuli
are near or far; usually present at birth; may cause
headaches, nausea or tired eyes
- Hyperopia - can see better at far distances than close
up
- Myopia - can see better at close range than at
distances
Ocular Motility Defects
- Nystagmus - eyes move abruptly in continual jerky
types of involuntary motion; may cause the stud to
tilt or turn his/her head to try to see better
- Strabismus - any deviation in the alignment of the
eyes as a result of muscle imbalance or neurological
condition
- Amblyopia - suppression of images which causes a
blurred image in either or both eyes ("lazy eye"); can
lead to permanent vision loss if untreated
- External eye problems can affect the orbit,
- eyelids and cornea
- Growths, thinning, or inflammation of the cornea can
lead to problems with vision, pain, and tearing of the
cornea
- Internal eye problems can include Retinopathy of
Prematurity (a possible complication of
- premature birth)
- Cortical visual impairment - vision loss associated
with brain damage
WHAT ARE SOME POSSIBLE CHARACTERISTICS
OF STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND OR HAVE LOW
VISION?
- Intellectual Characteristics: The ability to see may have
little or no effect on one's general intelligence.
- Play and Social Interaction Skills: These may be
delayed.
- Language and Concept Development: Language does
not appear to be significantly affected for many students.
Association of words with concepts and understanding
concepts may be difficult without hands-on experiences.
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- Academic Achievement: When considering achievement,
assessment methods should be considered. Students with
blindness or low vision can succeed in academics at the
same rate as their peers.
- Perceptual Abilities: Visual perception may be
significantly affected and include orientation, mobility,
and wayfinding.
- Psychological and Social Adjustment: These areas may
be affected including social isolation and negative
reactions from peers.
HOW IS BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION IDENTIFIED
IN INFANTS AND TODDLERS?
- Medical professionals may diagnose based on a child's
lack of visual fixation on parents' faces or interesting
objects, abnormal eye movement, family history, and
visual acuity.
HOW IS BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION IDENTIFIED
IN SCHOOL-AGED STUDENTS?
- Snellen charts are used for screening.
- Teacher reports of frequent behaviors (rubbing eyes,
squinting, tilting head to look at books, holding objects
close to eyes, etc.) that indicate problems seeing.
- Comprehensive assessment – follows confirmation of a
vision loss adversely affecting educational performance.
- Functional vision, learning media, cognitive ability,
academic achievement, orientation and mobility skills,
social skills and independent living skills.
WHAT SHOULD I TEACH STUDENTS WHO ARE
BLIND OR HAVE LOW VISION?
- Regular curriculum plus expanded core curriculum to
address their needs specific to their vision loss.
- Expanded core curriculum may include skills needed in
the core curriculum at a greater depth than sighted peers
or skills sighted peers would not need.
- Self-advocacy and self-determination skills
WHAT IS THE EXPANDED CORE
CURRICULUM?
Skills students with blindness or low vision may need
- Compensatory skills
- Visual efficiency skills
- Literacy and Braille skills
- Listening skills
- Orientation and mobility skills
- Social interaction skills
- Independent living skills
- Recreation and leisure skills
- Career and transition skills
HOW SHOULD I TEACH STUDENTS WHO ARE
BLIND OR HAVE LOW VISION?
- In general, students with blindness and low vision should
learn the same information as general education students
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although more time and accommodations might be support, and may or may not identify with the Deaf
needed. culture
- Counseling to deal with reactions from others - Hearing Impairment - a medical condition which leads
- Possible teaching of care for prosthetic eye to hearing loss - also term used in IDEA
- Adaptations for color or visual discrimination problems
- Responding to traffic signals, etc. WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF HEARING
- Provide a copy of teacher's notes IMPAIRMENTS?
- Read aloud - Denied legal and human rights as well as education and
- Supply audio tapes/CD's of print materials social interaction
- Use hands-on models and manipulatives - 1500-1600's - Spanish began teaching deaf individuals to
communicate.
WHAT ARE CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE - 1700s - First free public schools for deaf individuals
INSTRUCTIONAL ENVIRONMENT? began in France.
- Assist through touch and sound, more than sight, for those - 1864 - A. Lincoln authorizes the National Deaf- Mutes
with little or no functional vision. College to grant degrees; the institution later becomes
- Use specialized equipment. Gallaudet University.
- Provide equal access to the core curriculum. - Late 1800s - Oralist movement
- Do not re-arrange the furniture or leave items in the path. - 20th Century - Advocacy for protection of individual
- Determine the LRE based on student needs and strengths, rights and access to inclusion in schools and communities
preferences, and related service needs.
- In general, provide appropriate lighting, tactile materials, WHAT ARE THE CLINICAL DEFINITIONS OF DEAF
necessary print size, and decrease visual clutter. AND HARD OF HEARING
- Based on type and degree of hearing loss
WHAT TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY - Decibels (dB) - measures intensity or loudness of sounds.
CAN BE USED? - Frequency (Hz) - measures the cycle of sounds per
- Use programs to magnify computer screens. second
- Scan materials for access. - Human hearing is between 20 - 20,000 Hz Most speech
- Provide Braille if the student uses it. occurs between 300-6000 H
- Always use captioned videos.
- Use of a guide dog may be needed. TABLE 8.1: HEARING LOSS EXPRESSED IN
DECIBELS,
WHAT ARE SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE LEVEL OF SOUND SIGNIFICANCE FOR HEARING
GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHER?
- Request large print materials in advance.
0 dB Softest sounds heard by humans
- Get training on the use of optical devices and software.
- Encourage student relationships and interaction. 0-20 dB Normal hearing level even if a
- Support emotional and learning needs. slight loss
- Provide daily cues. 20 dB Soft or low volume speech
- Consult with vision specialist regularly. 20-40 dB Mild hearing loss
- Use tactile materials.
- Reduce glare on materials. 40 dB Sound of a fan
- Speak in normal tones. 40-60 dB Moderate hearing loss
- Tell the student when you are leaving the room. 60 dB Typical loudness of conversation
- Maintain high expectations and give feedback. 60-80 dB Severe hearing loss
80 dB Sound of a vacuum cleaner
DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
90 dB or greater Profound hearing loss
WHAT ARE THE TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE 90 dB Sound of a motorcycle
HEARING PROBLEMS? 100 dB Sound of a semi-truck going by
- Deaf - refers to members of the Deaf community and
Deaf culture WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF HEARING LOSS?
- Deaf with a small "d" - refers to people who have - Sensorineural - Caused by auditory nerve damage
significant hearing loss, but are not identified as members - Conductive - Caused with transmission of sounds
of the Deaf community and culture - Mixed hearing loss - Both conductive and sensorineural
- Hard of Hearing - refers to those with mild to severe
hearing losses who probably use speech for WHAT ARE THE DEGREES OF HEARING
communication, will need educational and technological LOSS?

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How one is able to use residual hearing is important in
addition to degree of hearing loss.
WHAT ARE THE TERMS USED TO DESCRIBED AGE
OF ONSET?
- Congenital: Hearing loss at birth
- Adventitious: Hearing loss acquired after birth
- Pre-lingual: Hearing loss prior to development of speech
and language
- Post-lingual: Hearing loss after the development of
speech and language
WHAT IS THE IDEA DEFINITION?
- Deafness means a hearing impairment that is so severe
that the child is impaired in processing linguistic
information through hearing, with or without
amplification, that adversely affects a child's educational
performance.
- Hearing impairment means an impairment in hearing,
whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a
child's educational performance but that is not included
under the definition of deafness.
WHAT IS THE PREVALENCE OF DEAFNESS AND
HARD OF HEARING?
- The 38th Annual Report to Congress indicated about
0.1% of the school-aged population was served in the
hearing impairments category
- Just over 1 in every 1,000, ages 6-21 years
WHAT ARE SOME POSSIBLE CAUSES OF DEAFNESS
AND HARD OF HEARING?
- Not always identifiable
- Excessive noise
1. Conductive hearing loss
- Abnormality in the pinna or bones in the ear drum
- Blockage
- Perforated eardrum
- Otitis media
2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss
- Genetic causes including Usher Syndrome, Pendred
Syndrome, Waardenburg Syndrome
- Environmental causes including rubella, viruses
POSSIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEAF STUDENTS
OR THOSE WHO ARE HARD OF HEARING
1. Cultural Characteristics
- The Deaf community is a distinct culture.
- Uses A S L as a primary means of communication
- Identify themselves as part of the Deaf community
2. Intellectual Characteristics
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- No significant differences in perception, learning, and
memory between hearing children and those who are deaf
3. Academic Characteristics
- Achievement scores are lower than for hearing peers, but
assessment issues may affect these scores. Reading
comprehension
- Written language
- Mathematics
- Speech and language
4. Speech and Language Characteristics
- Spoken language may be delayed.
- Can attain intelligible and age-appropriate speech
- May have language delays
- ASL may be the child's natural language and may best
prepare child for later learning of English language skills
5. Social/Emotional Characteristics
- Social-emotional skill development
HOW ARE STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF
HEARING IDENTIFIED?
- Typically identified by medical professionals
- Audiometric evaluation
- Speech reception
- Speech discrimination
- Hearing loss must adversely affect educational
performance for IDEA services.
WHAT DO I TEACH STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF OR
HARD OF HEARING?
- Focus on effective communication
- Social interaction
- Literacy
- Provide authentic experiences
- Read aloud or do signed reading