Comparative Politics

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COMPARATIVE
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COMPARATIVE POLITICS BY KAPIL SIKKA
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
COMPARATIVE POLITICS: NATURE AND MAJOR APPROACHES,
POLITICAL ECONOMY, POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY PERSPECTIVES;
LIMITATIONS OF COMPARATIVE METHOD
Nature of Comparative Politics

1. Comparative Politics is a sub-discipline of political science with a goal of developing perspectives
on uniformities and differences between different political systems.
a. It is about comparing two political phenomenons, whereby the method of inquiry is
comparative and the substance of inquiry is political phenomena.
b. It involves the study of different political systems, institutions, and processes across countries
or regions.
c. According to Freeman, “comparative politics is comparative analysis of various forms of
government and diverse political institutions”.
2. Comparative politics is as old as political theory.
a. Aristotle who studied 158th constitutions and gave theory of constitutions, is regarded as
father of comparative method.
b. It was then used by Machiavelli, Tocqueville (compared USA and France) and Montesquieu
in his Spirit of Laws.
3. Nature of the discipline:
a. Interdisciplinary in nature, drawing on a variety of fields such as economics, sociology and
history.
b. It shares subject matter and concerns of political science.
c. It makes a conscious and systematic use of comparisons to identify similarities and
differences and understanding consequences and causes of these variations.
d. It aims to use knowledge grained from comparisons to develop general theories about
political systems.
e. It focuses on wide range of topics including political institutions, political culture, political
economy, political behavior, and international relations.
4. Advantages
a. Tool to understand political world and its complexities by studying different political systems
and processes.
b. Brings scientific and objective analysis into political science, thereby it avoids ethnocentrism.
c. It helps identify common patterns and trends (to strengthen hypothesis) and variations
and differences (identifying factors which make difference).
d. Allows for combining multiple perspectives and use of different theoretical methods and
approaches.
e. Makes room for both, contextualization and generalization in political science.
f. Can be used to test theories of politics and political systems, and to develop new theories.
g. Provides a broader perspective of the political systems, institutions and processes across
different countries, regions and cultures.
5. Limitations
a. Range of variables affect politics like society, history, economy, and so on where not all
factors can be quantified and observed.
b. Data availability greatly varies across regimes, making accurate comparisons difficult.
c. No unanimity on method to be used, hence, different methods are employed depending
upon the function.
d. Problems of selection bias and lack of representativeness are common.
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e. Challenge to determine causality as multiple factors can contribute to political outcomes in
different countries.
f. Dynamic nature of discipline, which is shaped by many factors, hence what is relevant
today might not be tomorrow.
g. Often times it is ethnocentric in nature, by taking the western model as ideal.
h. Data driven nature leads to prioritization of methodological analysis over indigenous
research systems.
i. Comparison based on data alone, are prone to be falsified by a different set of data.
Approaches in Comparative Politics

1. Comparative politics is sub-discipline of political science. There are various approaches to in
comparative politics.
2. There are two phases of Comparative Politics: traditional phase up to the World War 1 and the
modern phase since the World War 2.
3. Traditional methods
1. Normative, speculative and static in nature
2. Main focus of study are laws and constitution, institutions, historical study of govt and state
3. Since western culture is largely same (liberal), they only differ in govt and not politics
(culture, society, economy)
4. Legal-institutional approach
1. Cicero, Jean Bodin and James Bryce
2. Study of western countries and their constitution and laws
5. Philosophical approach
1. Plato, Aristotle and Leo Strauss
2. Has predetermined norms and values based on upon which it seeks to make
comparisons
6. Historical approach
1. Machiavelli and Sabine
2. Emphasized on study of history of every political reality to analyze
7. Criticism
1. Roy Macarids described it as non-comparative, parochial, static and monographic.
Studies comparative govt rather than politics.
1. Gave alternative approaches
2. Narrow in scope as it excluded political systems of non-western nations
3. Static as it focused on study of constitutions and institutions, not politics
4. Ethnocentric, parochial and limited approaches by taking western liberal democracies
as the paradigm
5. Politics of developing countries could not be explained by traditional approach, hence
new ones, like systems approach, structural functional approach and political sociology
approach were developed
8. Provided a base for modern methods to develop, and are still relevant in the study of developed countries
1. Comparative politics cannot ignore institutional approach and has re-emerged in the form
of neo-institutionalism
4. Modern methods
1. Modern comparative politics treats politics as a set of processes.
1. Hence, along with constitutions it also studies society, politics, culture, civil society.
2. Modern approaches are based on Behavioralism which seeks to provide an objective
and quantified approach to explaining and predicting political behavior.
3. In the post-World War scenario when traditional methods were no longer sufficient to
understand political systems.
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1. Int the context of emerging 3rd world nations, political systems became too diverse
with a difference in theory and practice & text and context.
2. It was in this context, that the modern comparative approaches were developed.
4. Systems Approach by David Easton
1. Under this approach, politics is assumed to be a system of processes.
1. It was inspired by Talcott Parsons who developed social system analysis in sociology
2. Purpose of the approach was to develop a scientific model which can be used to study
political systems of different countries, and is value free
1. Easton replaced term state with political system, because it’s not just an institutional
entity but a system inclusive of all elements that affect a state and are affected by it.
3. In his framework, human behaviours either create input or are affected by output within a
system of political actions.
1. Inputs includes demands, which can be regulation, participation or communication;
and support which can be either material, obedience or attention.
2. Outputs of the system are decisions and policy.
3. Further, political actions are organized into loop of feedback b/w citizens and leaders
which act as system maintenance.
4. For traditionalists, state is a decision-making authority, but for Easton, system is an entity
for authoritative allocation of values.
5. Criticism of approach:
1. Traditionalists argue that it made no significant improvement, just cosmetic change.
1. Brings unnecessary complications and jargon.
2. Not much of analytical importance.
2. Marxists argue that is not value neutral, but an ideological weapon as most of behavioural
research taken by American political scientists were directed at social realities under
Communist regimes.
1. They argue that it is not change oriented, but status quoist due to its focus on system maintenance.
2. Further they criticize it for making no mention of crisis in political system like protests
and revolutions. It portrays lack of contradictions in western political systems.
3. Not universalist as its modelled on the political systems of the west which it assumes
as ideal. hence portrays others as defective.
3. It can also be criticized for ignoring the role of power and conflict in shaping political systems
and decision-making.
4. It tends to view political systems as a whole and neglects the role of individuals and groups
within those systems.
5. Structural Functional approach by Almond and Powell
1. It’s a theoretical framework that views political systems as integrated structures that perform
specific functions in society.
1. It was developed primarily developed for developing nations, influenced by David
Easton’s Behavioralism.
2. It was meant to address deficiencies in Easton’s approach which was too general
(does not talk about structures and processes) and too static (not relevant for developing
world).
2. This approach was inspired from anthropologists like Malinowski. It emphasizes the role
of institutions, such as the government and political parties, in maintaining social order
and stability.
1. According to Almond and Powell, every structure has to perform some essential functions
without which it cannot exist.
2. However, structures performing such functions may vary.
3. Systems approach remains basic conceptual framework of the structural functional
approach.
1. However, it takes micro-view and is aimed at formulating a more universalist model by
taking a dynamic view of political system.
2. It involves: 4 input functions (political socialization, communication and interest

articulation and aggregation) and 3 output functions (rulemaking, execution and
adjudication).
3. Further, the approach is positivist in nature and views political systems as objective
phenomenon that can be studied and analysed.
4. Criticism
1. Traditionalists criticize it on the same grounds as systems approach.
2. Marxists criticize it as ideologically inclined as it focuses on system survival and stability.
3. It assumes political systems are stable and unchanging, which does not account for dynamic
and unpredictable nature of politics.
4. It tends to view political systems as functional and harmonious but does not consider
difference in conceptions of what constitutes functional.
5. Overly deterministic in implying that political system is predetermined and cannot be
changed.
6. Political Developmental approach by Lucian Pye and FW Riggs
1. Focuses on determining how developing countries should develop
1. Applied behavioural approach to study developing countries.
2. Political development, different from economic, and implies development of democracy
3. Emphasizes 3 factors as parameters of development - equality among people (political
participation), capacity to deliver (enforce laws), and differentiation (functional specialization of bodies)
4. By these features, China is undeveloped country as these are features of liberal democracies
5. Applications
1. Gunnar Myrdal to develop a term ”soft state” in book Asian Drama to describe a general
indiscipline in South Asia, and by extension much of the developing world
2. FW Riggs used to it give concept of ”development trap” wherein, he argued when all three
parameters not develop equally, development will get trapped, i.e. if political participation
increases but capacity of state decreases
1. Hamza Alavi’s Overdeveloped State
3. Huntington gave the concept of ”development decay” wherein chaos and disorder can arise
as social modernization is more rapid than political modernization
1. Emergency (1975)
6. Seen as biased as defines political development in the form of movement of a political system
along lines of western liberal democracies.
7. Political Modernization approach by Samuel P Huntington and Edward Shills
1. Political Order in Changing Societies
2. Said rather than development, go for modernization, which denotes economic development
3. Gave three parameters of modernization - rationalization, secularization, urbanization and
industrialization
4. In this approach, ideological dimension loses importance, thus overlaps with the end of
ideology thesis
1. Shows ideological considerations do not matter much as long as countries go towards
modernization
5. Huntington says when countries go for modernization, it ultimately moves towards
demography, however, such a thesis falls flat in context of China
8. Political Cultural Approach by Sidney Verba and Gabriel Almond
1. The Civic Culture
2. Since, culture is a long-term phenomenon, it provides basis to compare political systems
3. Political culture refers to set of norms, values and orientations of people towards political
system that shapes their political behavior
4. Gave 4 prominent types of cultures
1. Parochial culture: people are least interested in political system
2. Subject culture: people do not impact inputs, and might not be taken into consideration
when formulating policies, but do matter in terms of implementation
3. Participant culture: people play an active role at both levels that is input as well as
output
4. Civic culture: combination of participant, subject, parochial culture
1. Culture of consensus that permits change, but moderates it
2. Most conducive for democracy is when majority have participant culture, some
sections, also have subject & parochial
3. Prevents it from becoming to a mobocracy
9. Political Sociology Approach
1. Political sociology approach deals with interface of politics with society.
1. It assumes that political institutions largely reflect underlying social forces and that
study of politics should hence, begin with society and culture.
2. SM Lipset with his work “The Political Man” was one of the leading scholars of the
political sociology approach.
2. Political sociology approach in comparative politics focuses on the social and cultural factors
that shape political behavior and outcomes.
1. It emphasizes the role of social groups, such as classes, ethnic groups, and interest
groups, in shaping political systems and outcomes.
2. It also looks at the ways in which power is distributed within society and how it affects
political decision making.
3. Aristotle was father of political sociology. In his theory of revolution, he says rising social
inequalities and disequilibrium among classes as a factor of revolution.
1. Machiavelli too said form of govt depends on nature of society, if society is corrupt
then govt, then iron fist.
2. Others like Alexis De Tocqueville, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber made use of
this approach.
4. Modern Political Sociology can be traced to Marx, who said without understanding basic
structure of society we cannot understand nature of politics, and proposed his base &
superstructure model as method of analysis.
1. Countered by Weberian school as monocausal.
5. 3 major frameworks are employed
1. Pluralism which sees politics as contest between competing interests.
2. Elite theories which focus on the role of elites in management of power.
3. Class analysis which espouses that antagonistic class relations exist in every society.
6. Since in developing countries, there is difference between text of constitution and context
of the society, this the most relevant approach to study politics of prismatic societies.
1. Prominent scholars of this approach in Indian context include Andre Beteille (caste),
Paul Brass (religion), Christophe Jaffrelot (religion) and Yogendra Yadav (electoral
behavior).
7. Huntington observers that religion and culture have always been long term trend in shaping
politics, as people can change ideologies but not their identities.
1. In the age of end of ideology, parties do not differ on socio-economic issues, they rely
on identity as tool for mobilization.
8. Advantages
1. Since its multi perspective in nature, it allows for a more nuanced and complex
understanding of political phenomenon by taking into account the multiple & often
conflicting interests of social groups.
2. Comprehensive in nature as it allows for the study of politics both in developed and
developing countries.
3. By emphasis on culture and history, it provides a deeper understanding of why societies
have developed in specific ways.
9. Maurice Duverger argued political sociology ends isolated study of politics and locates it
in broad spectrum of social phenomenon.
1. It emphasized on essential unity of social sciences and broadened understanding of
political phenomenon.
2. Moreover, it highlights how politics doesn’t just take place only in government, but
amongst communities and groups.
10. Limitations
1. Makes politicsdependent upon social-cultural factors which may not be very relevant
even for developing societies.Instances exist where state has shaped society.
2. Fear of loss of independent identity of discipline of political science. Sartori argues we
have to establish autonomy of politics.
3. Undermines the role of state and institutions.Theda Skocpol calls for bringing the state
back in.
4. Society is complex and any comparison is not definite, unlike institutions and
constitutions.
5. Neo-liberal globalization with homogenization has limited the utility of this approach.
6. Re-emergence of state centrality in form of Neo-Institutionalism.
10. Political Economy Approach
1. Political Economy approach deals with the interface of politics and economy.
1. Compares political system based economic policies of state, the influence of economic
factors on political outcomes and vice versa.
2. It explores how industrial policy, agrarian policy like land reform, green revolution affect
politics.
3. It has been used by Rudolph &Rudolph, Pranab Bardhan, Atul Kohli, Francine Frankl,
Gunnar Myrdal to study the politics in India.
2. Key concepts that are central to the political economy approach are power relations in a
society, class relations, state intervention, global politics and historical context and how
these factors shape economic outcomes.
3. Kautilya’s Arthashastra is regarded as the first book on political economy.
1. The most important obligation of the state was material wellbeing of subjects; hence, it
can be said that political economy had its roots in ancient India.
2. Milan Vaishnav says good economics leads to good politics.
4. In modern times, origin can be traced to Adam Smith in “Wealth of Nations” and called for
LasseizFaire. He defines political economy as science of statesman.
1. Similarily, another early exponent was David Ricardo who called for free trade among
nations on basis of comparative advantage.
5. Marxist school of political economy developed in counter to the Classical school of Adam Smith.
1. It argued that free market will not lead to wealth of nations, but to impoverishment of
masses.
2. Instead, it prescribed socialist mode of production.
3. Lenin in his theory of imperialism which later became the basis for dependency theories,
critiqued global capitalism and held it as arrested state of development.
6. Different schools of Political Economy:
1. Classical-Utilitarian: Adam Smith, Ricardo, Bentham
2. Marxist: Marx, Engels, Lenin, Rosa Luxembourg
3. Neo-Marxist: Dependency school (AG Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein and Samir Amin)
and Structuralist school (Hamza Alavi)
4. Welfare: Keynes, Galbraith, Amartya Sen and John Dreze
5. Neo-liberal: Hayek, Nozick, Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagriya
7. One of the key insights of the political economy approach is that political and economic
systems are mutually reinforcing, and that they cannot be understood separately.
1. Furthermore, it keeps a check on blatant capitalism which produces inequality, as
pointed by Neo Marxists like Thomas Picketty.
2. Amartya Sen in his book “An Uncertain Glory” compares economic growth of India
and other South Asian nations, making use of this approach.
8. Advantages
1. It plays an important role in highlighting weakness of mainstream political theories.
2. Can help to explain difference in economic outcomes in different contexts.
3. It gives an insight into political behaviour by showcasing how economic interests shape
political power.
4. Salient in present age of globalization, with trade policies and increasing role of
institutions of global economic governance like IMF and World Bank.
5. Both quantitative and prescriptive in nature, andled to development of welfare model
of political economy and enriched studies on poverty and its causes like HDI, MDPI,
etc.
6. Finally, the approach is highly relevant to the real world.
9. Limitations
1. Single approach insufficient& needs to be used in combination of other approaches as
politics is too complex.
2. Deterministic in nature leading to economic reductionism as it assumes economic factors
as primary drivers of political outcomes.
3. Tends to focus on economic factors at the expense of other important factors such as
culture, political institutions, and historical context.
4. Further, the study can be highly technical as it requires specialized knowledge and
resources for data collection.
5. Lastly, it tends to focus on developed countries, neglecting perspectives and experiences
of developing countries.
STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE: CHARACTERISTICS AND

CHANGING NATURE OF THE STATE IN CAPITALIST AND SOCIALIST
ECONOMIES, AND ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES AND
DEVELOPING SOCIETIES
1. Rise of modern nation states can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia 1648. Irrespective
of the society we live in, capitalist, socialist, the state is the dominant political institution, which
has influence on all aspects.
2. State in ‘comparative perspective’ refers to the study of different political entities, such as
countries or regions, and how they compare to one another in terms of their political systems,
governance, and policies.
State in Capitalist Economies

1. Capitalist economies are economic systems in which private individuals and businesses own
and control the means of production, and operate for profit.
a. They are marked by private control over means of production and existence of private
property, corelated with liberalism.
b. Examples of capitalist economies include the United States, Canada, and most Western
European countries.
2. Characteristics of capitalist state
a. Highly democratic state with well-developed civic culture, hence developed as per political
development approach of Almond and Verba.
b. Parties are pragmatic and institutionalised. They have internal democracies as well.
c. Laissez-faire capitalism and free market economy.Government intervention in a capitalist
economy is generally limited to protecting property rights, enforcing contracts and providing
public goods.
d. The state also plays a role in providing for the welfare of its citizens and in redistributing
wealth through taxes and social welfare programs.
3. Theoretical perspectives
a. Neoliberals likeNozick called it night-watchman state or a minimal state with powers limited
to those necessary to protect citizens.
b. Marxist perspective arguesthat the states in advanced capitalist countries can be considered
as instrument of capitalist class.
c. From neo-Gramscian point of view like Immanuel Wallensteinthese are core countries of
the world system.
d. From elitist perspective, Pareto and Robert Michel show these are led by power elites.
e. Robert Dahl uses the pluralist perspective to suggest that the states can be called as
polyarchies/deformed polyarchies.
4. Changing trends
a. Nature of state in capitalist countries are shaped by changing requirements of capitalism
itself. There is increased role of government intervention and regulation in economy.
i. Started as laissez faire states based on ideas of Locke, Adam Smith and Malthus,
Ricardo. However, now it changed to welfare state to protect capitalism from socialist
revolution.
b. Focus on social welfare and redistribution of wealth has also become more prominent.
i. Welfare state based on ideas of Rawls, Dworkin, Keynes, Galbraith dominated till 1970s,
before it began rolling back of state in the form of Reaganism and Thatcherism under
neo-liberal paradigm.
c. Further, with economy becoming more complex overtime, governments have led
development of regulatory agencies and laws to govern various aspects of economy.
d. Capitalist economies swing between social liberalism and neo liberalism as can be seen
by the see saw between Democrat and Republican in USA; or the Labour and Conservatives
in the UK.
5. Advanced Industrial Economies is not a homogenous idea as east European economies
still continues to follow socialist legacy. While, Scandinavian countries follow welfare state
model.
a. With fall of Soviet Union, most of new economies adopted capitalism as the economic ideology.
b. Since 2008 financial crisis, these countries face economic and political crisis with rise of
neo-rightism, anti-refugee movement, and de-globalization.
c. Even in liberal world, there is rise of authoritarian leaders like Victor Orban, Putin, Erdogan
and Trump.
d. Liberalism is being rolled back and states are following the protectionist and nationalist policies.
e. Changing nature of the capitalist state is also influenced by the global economic trends,
like globalization, digitalization, and the current economic climate.
State in Socialist Economies

1. Socialist economies are economic systems in which the means of production, such as land,
factories, and other resources, are typically owned and controlled by the state or by collective
groups, rather than by private individuals or businesses.
2. Characteristics of socialist state
a. Socialist economies are based on the ideas of Marx, Lenin, Stalin and Mao. For Marx,
socialism is marked by dictatorship of the proletariat masses instead of the elitist few.
b. Work on the concept of cooperation, mutual aid and social justice, as per the dictum of
from each according to his ability to each according to his need.
c. In socialist economies, state goal is not profit maximization but to respond to the needs of
the community and promote social and economic development.
d. In a socialist economy, the state often sets production targets and prices, and distributes
resources and goods according to a central plan.
e. States prime focus was to provide perfect equality and freedom from basic needs and
exploitation. Ultimate aim of revolution is withering away of state as view state as an
instrument of bourgeoisie.
f. Rule of proletariat remained far-fetched idea as they became dictatorship of communist
parties, which gave way to totalitarian regimes.
g. Neo-Fascist authoritarianism like China where statism is the norm and civil liberties are restricted.
3. Changing trends
a. Communist states started collapsing and replaced by democratic states after the fall of
USSR which Huntington described as third wave of democracy
b. Collapse of economy as seen in Venezuela and Greece due to excessive welfare policies,
whereas other socialist parties like those in Bolivia face legitimation crisis due to corruption
and inability to deliver
i. Pink tide in Latin America in favour of left wing govt with Columbia, Chile, and others.
c. Economy of politically communist states like China is based on state led capitalism.
d. Incomplete or ineffective transition to demcoracy has led to semi-authoritarianism
governments worldwide in socialist economies, like Russia (Putin), Belarus (Lukashenko),
Hungary (Viktor Orban).
i. But they have embraced hybrid models like state led capitalism and controlled market
economy in China and state led welfare in Cuba.
State in Advanced Industrial Societies

1. Advanced Industrial Societies are those that are first to be affected by industrial revolution.
2. Characteristics of advanced industrial state:
a. Former colonial powers who used colonies as means for raw material and cheap labour to
establish industries at home.
b. They have increased division of labour and their urban areas are dominant centres of
world culture and politics.
c. Capacity of mass production leads to an ever-increasing level of technological advancement.
d. Have continued dominance in political, economic, cultural and ideological spheres.
e. Enjoy power over global institutions like UN, WB, IMF, WTO to further their economic
interest.
f. Can be called as Global North comprising of G7 and OECD nations.
3. Theoretical perspectives:
a. In Marxist perspective, the drain of wealth from developing nations to Advanced Industrial
Nations is still continuing, as is highlighted by Dependency school scholars.
b. Relative Autonomy theory by NicosPoulantzas argued that state though relatively
autonomous from capitalist class still continues to protect its interests.
c. Increasing economic inequality with the rise in GDP, is highlighted by Neo-Marxist scholars
like Thomas Picketty. Others highlight cultural hegemony of these states globally.
4. Changing trends
a. Till end of Cold War, these were divided into two blocks capitalist and socialist. After collapse
of USSR, countries adopted western model of politics and economy, however most
are developing countries despite industrial base like Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, etc.
b. Since 2001 there is declining hegemony of west marked by the rise of rest.2008 Subprime
crisis and following recession further reduced their hegemony.
c. There is evident a shift in centre of gravity of geostrategic from G7 to G20 and from Atlantic
to Pacific.
d. Rise of neo right, neo fascist movements in western Europe and USA (US Capitol Siege,
AfD, America First, Brexit)
i. Suffering from economic crisis, migrant crisis, refugee crisis, transnational terrorism
and so-called Islamophobia
ii. Social movements like Black Lives Matter, Abortion Rights
e. Un-regulated free market global capitalism is increasingly being pushed towards social
capitalism.
State in Developing Societies

1. Developing societies are post-colonial Asian, African and Latin American countries, which
traditionally represent the Global South.
a. They are the focus of modern Comparative Politics, and suffer from numerous problems
such as colonial legacy, mass poverty, ethnic strife, etc.
2. Characteristics of developing societies
a. There is wide variation from Middle East to Latin America in their socio-economic and
political systems.
i. They are transitionary states, while some western liberal, others are socialists in nature.
ii. Majority are unable to sustain transition to western liberalism due to lack of civic culture
giving rise to authoritarian (Myanmar’s fall to Tatmadaw) or semi-authoritarian fragile
democracy (Pakistan’s Deep State).
b. From liberal perspective, state in developing societies, play role of modernizing states.
i. Led by western educated, modern political elite who were entrusted with task to follow
trajectory of developed countries
ii. However, low capacity of state to execute policies, and enforce rules led Gunnar
Myrdal to call them as soft state
c. Economic under-development due to colonial exploitation and continued neoliberal
globalization. Historically, surplus was used by imperial powers for non-development
purposes.
i. Word Systems theory by Immanuel Wallerstein, AG Frank and Samir Amin, assumes
them as peripheral (Kenya, Tanzania), semi peripheral (India and Indonesia) which
are controlled by bourgeoise of core countries.
ii. Most are forced to adapt to new liberal economic model under programmes like
Structural Adjustment Program of IMF. Hence, some say these still remain under neo-
colonialism, data colonialism, etc.
d. Historically, these states have feeble state structures that were over centralized or
fragmented, and control of economic resources by non-productive groups.
i. From Marxist perspective, inherited over-developed colonial state apparatus, as
highlighted by Hamza Alavi.
ii. State instead remains in control of metropolitan bourgeoise based in imperialist states.
e. As per political developmental approach, these states suffer from developmental trap,
characterized by a disbalance between political participation and state capacity.
i. Prismatic society where simultaneous modern and traditional structures and functions
exist - a juxtaposition of old and new structures.
ii. As per Samuel Huntington they suffer from development decay.
f. Conflict b/w western liberal values accompanying neoliberal globalization and societal
values, like Asian Values.
3. Changing trends
a. Many developing states have experienced strong economic growth over past several decades
like the BRICS nations, and have challenged the traditional economic might of developed
nations.
b. Processes of globalization have led to qualitative changes in role and significance of state,
bringing them under influence of trans-national capital.
c. Rising number of non-state actors on the international stage. These are particularly affected
by terrorism and fundamentalism.
d. Growing assertion of identity by groups belying widespread assumption that process of
modernization and secularization will erode salience of ethnic identity.
e. Particularlyprone to climate related disasters & large-scale migration, hence, find tough to
balance development and ecological risks.
f. Decline of liberal world order, with backlash helmed by Global South through aligning with
China and rise of authoritarianism.
POLITICS OF REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION: POLITICAL

PARTIES, PRESSURE GROUPS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN
ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL AND DEVELOPING SOCIETIES
Political Parties
1. Political scientist, Robert Dahl defines a political party as an organization that seeks to attain
political power within a government, or to influence the policies of the government by nominating
candidates for public offices and supporting their campaigns through various means.
1. Political parties are essential components of representative democracy. They are the
umbilical cord that links citizens to their governments.
2. Harold Laski argued that democracy is unthinkable w/o political parties.
2. Study of political parties has been promoted as result of behavioural movement in political
science and led to development of stasiology.
3. Approaches to the study of political parties:
1. Normative approach: Edmund Burke argues that political parties are a set of people with
common ideology, coming together to promote national interest.
2. Behavioural approach:Weber defines political parties are power-houses which are formed
to come to power.
3. Alternative approach: Otto Von Kirchheimer argues thatideologies are increasingly
irrelevant with rise of catch all parties.
4. Theoretical perspective about the role and function of political parties:
1. Pluralism:argues that political parties are an expression of diversity of interests and opinions
in society, and that they play an important role in mediating between different groups and
in representing their views in government.
2. Elite Theory:argues that political parties are controlled by a small number of elites who
dominate the political process and use parties as a means of maintaining their power and
influence.
3. Class Theory: argues that political parties are rooted in class conflict and are a means for
representing the interests of different economic classes in society. For instance, Lenin
gave theory of Communist Party calling it the vanguard of revolution.
4. Rational Choice Theory: This theory argues that political parties and voters make rational
choices based on their self-interest, and that parties form and evolve in response to the
changing preferences and demands of voters.
5. Party System Theory: This theory argues that political parties and the party system as a
whole play a central role in shaping the political landscape and determining the distribution
of power and influence in society.
5. French political scientist, Maurice Duverger in work “Political Parties” focused on the
relationship between the electoral system and the number and types of political parties in any
given country, dubbed as Duverger’s Law.
1. Argued that proportional representation electoral systems tend to lead to the emergence
of a large number of political parties or multiparty system, while winner-takes-all systems
(such as first-past-the-post) tend to result in a two-party system.
6. Party System
1. A party system refers to the number, type, and pattern of political parties in a given country.
2. As per Sartori, party system is shaped not by number of parties, but by the number of
parties having systemic relevance, i.e., those capable of influencing political system.
a) Sartori argued that party systems are not static, but are instead dynamic and subject to
change over time.
b) He also argued that the type of party system in place can have important consequences
for the functioning of the political system as a whole, and for the distribution of power
and influence in society.
7. Types of party systems:
1. Two-party system: A two-party system is characterized by the dominance of two major parties
that compete for power and influence. These two parties typically represent different ideologies
or interest groups in society.
a) Ideological two party system such as in the United Kingdom with Conservative and Labour.
b) Pragmatic two party system such as in the USA with little to no difference of ideology
between the Democrat and Republicans.
2. Multi-party system: A multi-party system is characterized by the presence of more than two
major parties, each of which competes for power and influence. In some multi-party systems,
several parties may be roughly equal in terms of their strength and support, while in others,
one or a few parties may dominate.
a) Consociational such as in Western European states like Germany and Switzerland.
b) Adversarial such as the multi-party systems in India and Italy.
3. Dominant-party system: A dominant-party system is characterized by the dominance of a
single party, which controls the government and the political process. In some dominant-party
systems, other parties are allowed to exist, but they play a limited role in government and are
not seen as serious rivals to the dominant party.
a) Can be non-competitive like one party hegemony of China and Russia.
b) Can be competitive like Congress System in India, Kuomintang in Taiwan.
4. Fragmented multi-party system: A fragmented multi-party system is characterized by the
presence of many small and weak parties, each of which has a limited following and does not
play a significant role in government.
5. Polarized pluralist system: A polarized pluralist system is characterized by the presence of
two or more dominant parties that represent different and conflicting ideologies or interest
groups in society. In these systems, the competition between the parties is intense, and the
division between them is deep and clear.
8. Differences in party systems of developed and developing states:
1. Party systems is a very broad concept with heterogeneity and internal differentiation, hence,
there is no scope for microanalysis. Only general analysis through ideal types is possible.
2. Political parties are influenced by systemic factors (social, cultural, economic), and do not
exist in vacuum, hence there are key differences between parties of the Global South and
Global North.
Pressure Groups
1. Pressure groups, also known as interest groups or lobby groups, are organizations that seek
to influence public policy by representing the interests of their members or specific sectors of
society.
1. Finer called interest groups are invisible empires for they are not at the forefront of politics,
yet they exercise influence to shape policies.
2. Unlike political parties, pressure groups do not compete for public offices, but seek to
influence government decision making.
3. They perform the role of interest articulation in a political system.
2. Pressure groups are a key part of the democratic process, as they allow individuals and
organizations to voice their opinions and advocate for their interests.
1. They can also play an important role in shaping public opinion and influencing the debate
on key issues.
2. Some common examples of pressure groups include labour unions, environmental
organizations, business associations, and advocacy groups for specific social or political
causes.
3. These groups use a variety of tactics, including lobbying, advocacy, media campaigns,
and direct action, to achieve their goals.
3. Gabriel Almond and Powell in their influential book “Comparative Politics: A Developmental
Approach,” defined pressure groups as “associations that seek to influence public policy but
lack the formal machinery to make and enforce collective decisions.” They classified pressure/
interest groups as:
1. Institutional pressure groups: Wherein members are part of government machinery like
civil servants. They are the most powerful because they operate within the system and are
best placed to influence policy.
2. Anomic pressure groups: They are least institutionalised in nature. They are informal
and short term and arise in response to conditions of economic, social and political anomie.
3. Associational pressure groups: Interest based pressure groups. They are more common
in western democracies due to rationality and interest driven values. Ex: trade union, student
union, etc
4. Non associational pressure groups: These are communal or community based around
factors such as caste, religion, race, language, etc, and are exclusive in nature. Ex: Jat
Sabha
4. Jean Blondel’s classification gives a more dynamic model, as Almond’s being a static model
doesn’t tell how pressure groups evolve.
1. As society moves from developing to developed, community-based pressure groups give
way to associational.
2. Similarly, from protective pressure groups (narrow interest) they move towards promotional/
developmental pressure groups (broader interest) like from trade union to environmental.
5. Difference
6. Pressure groups help in making democracies deliberative and participative through
communicative action in public sphere.
Social Movements
1. Turner and Kilhan define social movements as a collectivity which acts with some continuity
to promote or resist a change in the society of which it is a part.
1. Social movements involve collective struggle aimed at bringing social
transformation questioning prevailing order, power relations, struggle for justice etc.
2. William A Gamson calls them ”politics by other means”, the other means made
necessary because of lack of resources and access to political system.
3. Feelings of dissatisfaction and relative deprivation are the prime drivers behind such
movements.
7. Features
1. Three most important features of social movements are that they are collective action,
involve social change, and are taken up for a common purpose.
2. They are a concern of Political Sociology approach of comparative politics.
3. Social movements are interchangeable with political parties and pressure groups at times
like the Indian National Congress or the Aam Admi Party in the early stages.
4. Social movements are the least institutionalized of all 3 (political parties, pressure groups
and social movements). The other two have their own ideology, leader and lifecycle.
5. Social movements are the primary feature of left-wing politics, as liberals use the term
“resource mobilization”.
8. In political science, social movements are often studied as a form of collective action aimed at
bringing about social, political or economic change.
1. Social movements can take many forms, including protests, marches, strikes,
demonstrations and other forms of direct action, as well as more gradual and incremental
forms of change such as advocacy and lobbying.
2. Political scientists’ study social movements in order to understand how they form, how
they mobilize and organize masses, and ultimately how they influence public opinion and
decision making.
9. Theoretical perspectives on the study of social movements:
1. Resource Mobilization theory: argues that social movements emerge and succeed to the
extent that they are able to mobilize resources.
2. Political Opportunity theory: argues that social movements are shaped by the political
context in which they operate such as the level of openness, level of state repression, etc.
3. New Social Movement theory: argues that social movements have changed overtime moving
away from traditional class based to more issue based and identity focused movements.
4. Social Movement Spillover theory: suggests that social movements often have a broader
impact beyond their original goals, influencing political discourse and public opinion.
10. Philosophical basis of social movements:
1. Rosseau’s concept of General Will emphasized the idea of collective will of the people as
a powerful force of change. He believed social movements could be a way to exert political
influence by the people.
2. Neo-Marxist, Herbert Marcuse is regarded as the father of New Left/Social Movements,
who in One Dimensional Man gave a critique of state in Advanced Industrial Societies.
3. Hannah Arendt too emphasized the importance of political action and participation including
through social movements. She saw social movements as a way for people to assert their
agency and to challenge existing power structures.
11. Classification of social movements:
Old Social Movements Old Social Movements

1. Belong to pre-World War 2 1. Belong to pre-World War 2
2. Aimed at capturing power. 2. Aimed at capturing power.
3. Based on bread-and-butter issues. 3. Based on bread-and-butter issues.
4. Participations from poor and working class. 4. Participations from poor and working class.
5. Belong to Left ideology. 5. Belong to Left ideology.
6. Use of direct methods. 6. Use of direct methods.
7. Example: Indian National Movement led by 7. Example: Indian National Movement led by
Indian National Congress; Communist Indian National Congress; Communist
Movement in China led by CPI Movement in China led by CPI
8. Have concrete goals such as improving working 8. Have concrete goals such as improving working
conditions, or securing equal rights. conditions, or securing equal rights.
9. Centralized, hierarchical organizational 9. Centralized, hierarchical organizational
structure. structure.
12. Differences between social movements:
Developed Countries Developing Countries

1. More focused on issues such as human rights, 1. Focused on basic needs such as access to food,
environmental protection and political shelter and healthcare.
representation.
2. Utilize more formal organizational structures and 2. Rely heavily on informal networks and direct
engage in lobbying and advocacy. action based on grassroots mobilization.
3. Level of state repression is low, and movements 3. Movements face significant state repression,
are able to operate with greater freedom and including arrests, imprisonments and violence.
safety.
4. Greater resources available including access to 4. Lack of access to resources, movements are
funding, technology and media. often taken up by marginalized groups.
5. Large role of mainstream media in shaping 5. Less press freedom makes it difficult for social
public opinion on the social movements. movements to gain exposure.
13. Social movements are therefore, seen as an important aspect of political life, as they give
a voice to the marginalized or underrepresented groups and can play a key role in shaping
policy, political discourse and social norms.
GLOBALISATION: RESPONSES FROM DEVELOPED AND

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
1. Globalization refers to increasing connectedness and interdependence of world’s nations,
cultures and economies, brought about by cross border trade, technology and flows of
investment, people and information.
1. Marshal McLuhan called it integration of world into one single unit or a global village.
2. Anthony Giddens define globalization as the compression of time and space.
2. Globalization is different from Internationalization which refers to growing interdependence
among states, with boundaries intact.
1. Here, though the state though not the only actor, remains the key actor in globalization, as
is demonstrated by UN and WTO.
3. In political science, globalization is often studied in relation to its effects on governance,
international relations and economic and cultural exchanges.
1. Different schools focus on different aspects of globalization.
2. While, the realists focus on state, liberals focus on economic and social interdependence.
On the other hand, Marxists are concerned about economic effects of globalization.
4. Dimensions of globalization:
1. Economic: integration of economies around the world through trade, investment, and the
movement of goods and services.
2. Political: increasing involvement of countries in international politics and the growing
number of international organizations that govern relations between nations.
3. Cultural: spread of ideas, customs, and values around the world, as well as the effects of
this spread on local cultures.
4. Technological: increasing interconnectedness of world through advances in technology,
such as the internet and communication systems, which have made it easier for people
and organizations to connect across borders.
5. Environmental: impact of globalization on the natural environment and the ways in which
countries and organizations are addressing global environmental challenges.
6. Social: impact of globalization on society, including issues such as inequality, migration,
and social change.
5. Implications
1. Political: sovereign state is heavily influenced by global tendencies which has eroded its
sovereignty
2. Economic: loss of national autonomy of economy and merger with global capitalism,
coinciding with rise of Bretton Woods
3. Social: homogenization and dissemination of western liberal values and notions
6. Theories
1. Liberal:
1. Based on the idea that increased economic and political integration between nations
can lead to greater prosperity and peace.
2. Globalization is driven by the liberalization of trade and investment, the spread of
democracy and human rights, and the establishment of international institutions that
promote cooperation and stability.
3. Francis Fukuyama reads globalization as end of history. According to him, global
forces of market economy has resulted in domination of liberal democracy world over.
2. Political scientist, Jonathan Patron has identified 3 schools of thought namely the
hyperglobalists, sceptics and transformationalists in the study of globalization:
1. Hyperglobalists argues that globalization is driven by a desire for greater human
unity and cooperation, which can help to overcome national and cultural boundaries.
1. Kenichi Ohmae gives concept of borderless world and end of nation state arguing
that globalization has surpassed control of nation states.
2. Sceptics argues that globalization is driven by the interests of powerful nations and
transnational corporations, and that it can lead to increased inequality, the erosion of
national sovereignty, and the loss of cultural identity.
1. David Held criticized hyperglobalists for concealing true nature of international
institutions which do not serve the interests of majority and where powerful
government still dominate.
3. Transformationalistsargues that globalization can lead to both positive and negative
effects.
1. Anthony Giddenssays that while in some sphere, globalization is winning, while in
others states have domination intact.
2. Cite glocalization, and say globalization is a two-way exchange.
3. Marxist:
1. Argue that globalization is driven by the pursuit of profit and the accumulation of capital
by transnational corporations and the capitalist class.
2. Hence, it explains globalization from standpoint of Lenin’s theory of imperialism wherein
it perpetuates dependency in third world.
3. Marxist theories AG Frank and Samir Amin have showed impact of globalization;
arguing that global institutions serve interests of TNCs and capitalist class.
4. Post-Colonial:
1. Argue that globalization has led to the continuation of economic and political inequality
between the Global North and South, as well as the cultural and ideological hegemony
of the West.
2. It conflates it with neo-colonialism or the continuation of imperialist rule through indirect
means over nominally independent state.
3. As per Kwame Nkrumah, globalization perpetuates colonial legacy with a market
societal ignorance of indigenous culture.
7. Debate on the nature of globalization:
1. Positive views:
1. Contributed to spread of demography and lead to lesser instances of war.
2. Aided management of global commons through frameworks like SDGs, and helped
tackled universal issues like climate change.
3. Rise of global polity and growing collective awareness of common social sphere, has
led to newer forms of global social movements like Me Too and Black Lives Matter,
NGOs, etc.
4. Thomas Friedman claimed theword is flat due to globalization, signifying how
globalization has created a level playing field globally.
5. Jagdish Bhagwati says globalization is the most powerful force for human upliftment.
2. Negative views:
1. Extra-territorial nature ensures, events in one region has spillover effects, like civil wars
in North Africa has created refugee crisis in European nations like Greece.
2. Power is shifting from governments elected by people to international institutions that
are manned by un-elected bureaucrats, giving rise to post-sovereign governance and
supra-territoriality.
3. In developing countries, due to identity factors, socially dominant groups reaped benefits
of globalization, which led to rising backlash in form of grassroots movements.
4. Not all global forces are good, anarchy of international affairs has allowed it misuse in
terrorist ops, drug cartels, etc. There is diffusion of responsibility with MNCs and NGOs
gaining weight in global affairs.
5. Joseph Stiglitz in ”Globalization and its Discontents” highlights the growing resentment
against globalization need for transparency in global institutions.
6. Noam Chomsky argues that globalization has carried with it the curse of inequality as
the decision-making power has shifted from nation states to MNCs and MDIs.
8. Reponses to Globalization
1. Reponses from developed countries:
1. Embraced globalization by liberalizing their economies and removing trade barriers to
take advantage of new markets and investment opportunities.
2. Active participation in international organizations such as the WTO, IMF and the World
Bank which manage global economic and political relations.
3. Employment protection policies to protect employment benefits of their citizens.
4. Introduction of environmental and labour standards to ensure imported goods meet
certain standards to protect their own industries and workers.
5. Stricter immigration politics in response to movement of people across borders.
6. Protectionist policies like tariffs and quotas to shield domestic industries from competition
of foreign goods and services.
2. Responses from developing countries:
1. Partial economic liberation in some countries like India, China, Brazil and South Africa
by removing trade barriers, attracting foreign investment in order to promote growth.
2. International organizations: Some developing countries have participated in international
organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary
Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, in order to gain access to global markets and receive
financial assistance.
3. Protectionist policies: Some developing countries have adopted protectionist policies,
such as tariffs and quotas, to shield domestic industries from competition from foreign
goods and services.
4. Labour and environmental standards: Some developing countries have been criticized
for not implementing adequate labour and environmental standards, leading to a race
to the bottom on these issues.
5. Migration policies: Some developing countries have experienced high levels of
emigration of their citizens in search of better opportunities, and have implemented
policies to manage this phenomenon.
6. Advocacy for fair trade: Some developing countries have advocated for fair trade
policies, which aim to ensure that developing countries receive a fair price for their
exports and that their economies are not exploited by developed countries.
2. Deglobalization
1. Reversal of the trend towards greater economic and cultural interconnectedness between
nations.
1. It can manifest in a variety of ways, such as increased trade barriers, decreased
immigration, and reduced cultural exchange.
2. Some argue that deglobalization is a natural reaction to the perceived negative effects
of globalization, such as job loss and cultural homogenization, while others see it as a
potential threat to economic growth and international cooperation.
2. In recent years, there has been a trend towards deglobalization in the West, particularly in
developed countries such as the United States and those in the European Union.
1. This trend has been driven by a number of factors, including increased public scepticism
of the benefits of globalization, the rise of populist and nationalist political movements,
and the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global trade and travel.
2. In the era of America First and Brexit, countries are increasingly more protectionist and
inward looking
3. There is strengthening of the state & reinforcement of nationalism, especially in the
wake of COVID.
4. States have been pushed to pursue self sufficiency due to rise of trade wars,
weaponization of supply chains, trade restrictions, etc.
5. Deglobalization in the West has also been accompanied by a renewed focus on national
sovereignty and a retrenchment of traditional cultural norms.
3. Shashi Tharoor in his “Two Backlashes Against Globalisation” says there is rise of anti-
economic & anti-cultural globalization in the west.
4. Globalization is giving way to regionalization, a relatively local phenomenon, referring to
interaction b/w states in close geographical proximity
1. EU and ASEAN illustrate forces of regionalization at play.
2. Shiv Shankar Menon warns that we are headed for a poorer, meaner and smaller
world. While Samir Saran argues that globalization based on global village will give
way to gated globalization based on economic and political familiarities.
5. In Fareed Zakaria’s 10 Lessons from Post Pandemic World Order, 8th says globalization
is not dead.Globalization is the problem, and it’s the solution.
1. Lastly, the pandemic presents an opportunity to find a middle ground between
unhindered globalization and total protectionism, or what Ashutosh Varshney
calls ”compassionate globalism”.
APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: IDEALIST, REALIST,
MARXIST, FUNCTIONALIST and SYSTEMS APPROACH
1. The discipline of international relations is said to have formal origins in the commencement of
Treaty of Westphalia 1648 which granted recognition of “nation states” as primary actors in
global politics.
2. Later in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the establishment of dedicated departments dedicated
to the study of international affairs at United States and Europe, it entered the formal academic
sphere. The earliest theoretical frameworks in international relations were realism and idealism,
which continue to be influential today.
Idealist School
1. Idealist or liberal theory in international relationsseeks to create a peaceful world through use
of norms, values, institutions and free trade.
1. It emerged after WW1 as an alternative to power politics. Dominant school in the intl
politics from 1991 to 2001.
2. US President Woodrow Wilson was an early advocate of idealism in international politics
and codifier of its meaning in his Fourteen Points speech.
2. As a school of thought, liberal international order revolves around the following inter-related
features like:
1. Rejection of power politics, as only possible outcome. It prefers cooperation over conflict
among states acting in enlightened self-interest.
2. Encouraging mutually beneficial cooperation, like free-trade and capitalismas high level of
trade and prosperity decreases chances of conflict.
3. Shared agreements, rules, norms, and institutions that bind and limit blatant exercise of
power. For instance, United Nations and World Trade Organization that work to resolve
dispute and promote cooperation.
4. Emphasizes the role of international organization and non-government bodies in shaping
state preferences such as globalization.
3. Liberalism is often contrasted with realism, which emphasizes the role of power and self-
interest in international relations. Shares some assumptions with realists, with minor
differences:
1. State-centric and anarchical interpretation of global order.
2. Inter-state relations are those of conflict of cooperation, but greater emphasis on
cooperation.
3. States are rational actors. But holds this as the reason they go for cooperation, rather than
conflict.
4. Its ideological influences can be traced back to Locke’s enlightened view of man stressing
on cooperation among men, and Immanuel Kant’s perpetual peace wherein he talked
about promoting democracy and freedom of trade to further peace.
5. Liberal school is called idealist because it seeks to advance certain ideals, and stresses
on norms and values.
1. However, critics of the school call it idealist due to impracticality of their ideas.
2. Reinhold Niebuhr believed that idealism, particularly in the form of pacifism was
unrealistic and could lead to moral complacency in the face of evil.
6. Sub schools of Liberalism/Idealism
1. Liberal Institutionalism
1. It is a perspective of liberal theory of international relations which posits that global
institutions and organizations can increase aid and cooperation between states.
2. Its strongest proponent was Woodrow Wilson who believed in the efficacy of world
level institutions to prevent conflict, such as the League of Nations.
1. He argued that institutions can convert the jungle of anarchy into a zoo.
3. It argues that:
1. Institutions such as the UN or WTO play a crucial role in managing and resolving
international conflicts.
2. Further, dialogue among nations resolves security dilemma and decreases
scope of escalation and wars.
4. To this end, it emphasizes on soft power and cooperation through forms and
procedures of international law to bring in stability.
5. Graham Allison argues that with global threats like terrorism, climate change and
pandemics, states can no longer be unilateral actors in global politics.
1. English school scholar, Hedley Bull argues that presence of global institutions
has converted anarchy of international politics into an anarchical society.
6. However, it is to be noted that power politics still remains the dominant force in
international relations as can be seen in the context of war in Ukraine.
1. Joseph Nye has criticized global bodies as toothless tigers with no substantial
power.
2. Sociological Liberalism
1. This perspective sees international relations from a society centric perspective,
stressing on the importance of relationships between people, groups and domestic
organizations.
2. Karl Deutsch holds nations as compulsions, arguing for shift in attention from
nations to societies.
1. He calls for increasing people to people contacts and interaction between
communities.
2. In a counter to security dilemma, he suggests a ‘security community’ among
nations marked by high level of trust where states no longer feel threatened by
each other.
3. John Burton through cobweb model has highlighted the growing complexity of
international politics, especially in context of rise of civil society which compels
states to work together.
1. States are no longer the only gateway through which people interact in the post
globalization world.
2. Numerous networks of systems and transactions cut across national boundaries
to tie nation states together such as trade and travel.
4. Therefore, this school supports policies of open borders, transborder migration
pacts, visa facilitation, etc.
5. A manifestation of sociological liberalism can be seen in the form of European
Union and ASEAN, which work on regional cooperation basis among like states.
6. As sociological liberalism rejects the state centric approach, it also deviates from
many central tenets of Realism, calling it a very narrow view of international politics.
3. Interdependence and Complex Interdependence
1. Interdependence perspective emphasizes interconnectedness and mutual
dependence of countries in the global system.
1. It suggests that actions of one actor can have significant consequences on the
other countries and vice versa.
2. It rests on the assumption that nation states have become more interconnected
through economic, political and social interactions.
1. Such interactions it holds have increased the importance of cooperation
and coordination among states.
2. Thomas Friedman in “Golden Arches” theory highlights how economic
relations among two states deter conflicts.
3. Richard Rosecrance gives the concept of “Trading States” to argue that states
prioritize economics over security, citing examples of modern developed states
like Japan and Germany.
4. Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye have described post-Cold War interstate
politics as one of Complex Interdependence.
1. The theory emphasizes the importance of cooperation among states, as
well as the need for multilateral approaches to address global issues such
as climate change.
2. They argue that due to ever growing interdependence, states and their
fortunes are tied together.
3. Such a dependence they argue significantly constrain the choices available
to nation states, especially in context of going to war.
5. Therefore, international system is not a collection of independent actors but a
web of interrelated actors.
6. However, the theory is criticized by many who argue that rising trade cannot
guarantee ever lasting cooperation among states, for instance in case of Ukraine
and Russia.
1. Moreover, the theory suffers from economic determinism.
4. Democratic Peace Theory
1. This theory in international relations argues that democratic countries are less likely
to go to war with each other than non-democratic countries.
1. It is similar to Kant’s vision of perpetual peace.
2. He argued that if all nations were republics, it would end war because there
would be no aggressors.
2. Michael Doyle, one of the proponents of the theory says democratic states are
less likely to be militaristic and aggressive, making them inherently peaceful.
1. People are treated as ends, and not means in democracies.
3. Due to freedom of opinion, importance of public debate and answerability of
government to the people at large, a pacificist culture prevails in democracies of
the world.
1. It therefore argues that democracies form zones of peace.
4. However, the perspective is criticized for double standards especially in context
Neo Conservative support for export of democracy worldwide.
1. For instance, the Bush Doctrine of USA is infamous for supporting regime
changes and promoting democracy at gunpoint.
7. Current state of Liberalism
1. As per scholars, liberalism is in crisis particularly after 9/11, War on Terror and 2008
Global Financial Crisis.
2. Rise of right-wing strongman governments throughout the world, and talks of self-
sufficiency strikes at the very core of dominant form of liberalism, which is
neoliberal.
3. Further, globalization and liberal notions of human rights, and democracy have taken a
hit in the pandemic.
4. Robert Kaganin “Twilight of Liberal Order” claims that liberal world order is crumbling
under pressure of populism and economic crisis.
5. EH Carrin “Twenty Year Crisis” called liberalist theories as utopians as they fail to
grasp how foreign policies of nation states inevitably operate on logic of national interest.
8. Despite limitations, liberal theory remains an important perspective in contemporary
international relations as it continues to shape policies and actions of many states and
international organizations.
Realist School
1. Realism is the dominant or hegemonic theoretical perspective in the field of international
relations.It is concerned with the world as it actually is rather than how it is ought to be.
1. In other words, it is an empirical rather than a normative paradigm of understanding the
nature of international politics.
2. Key assumptions of the realist school are
1. It subscribes to the Westphalian view of world order i.e., international politics state centric.
2. International system is inherently anarchic, and that of constant antagonism or conflict
among states.
3. National interest encapsulates the major objective of state in the arena of international
politics, and accumulation and exercise of power is the only way to fulfil it.
4. Self-interest is the primary motive of nation states and survival is their primary concern.
They must rely on their own military and economic capabilities to ensure their survival in
competitive environment.
3. The great debate during 1930s and 1940s between idealists and realists on dealing with Nazi
Germany, forms the origins of this school.
1. Ancient Greek historian,Thucydides has been regarded as intellectual forbearer of real
politik. Similar views were echoed by philosophers like Machiavelli and Sun Tzu.
2. EH Carrin “Twenty Years Crisis”has laid foundations of classical realism wherein he
observes that in a world torn apart by diverging interests, order is based on power and not
on morality.
4. While all realist theories, seek to explain international relations in terms of conflictual relations
b/w states, they are divided in terms of reasons for such a nature of relations.
1. Classical Realism
1. This theory explains international relations through assumptions about human nature.
2. Based on Hobbesian view of human nature, it emphasizes that individuals are primarily
motivated by self-interest and not ethical considerations.
3. Hans J Morgenthau, called father of realism,in “Politics Among Nations” used
behavioural approach to explain human nature as a power-seeking animal.
1. Behaviour of states is driven by pursuit of power, which is in line with the human
nature.
2. States are motivated by self interest such as preservation of their sovereignty and
pursuit of national states.
3. Only way to make peace is through balance of power, deterrence or diplomacy
4. Classical realism holds pragmatism as the ethics of international politics. Morgenthau
argued that states should act in their own self-interest, while taking into account
implications of their actions.
5. Criticised by Neorealists like Kenneth Waltz who call it reductionist as he reduced
complex phenomenon of intl politics to just one factor, human nature.
2. Structural/Neo Realism
1. Itgives a structural analysis of international politics, and explains it through major
characteristics of international political system, like anarchy.
2. Rooted in Kenneth Waltz’s work “Theory of International Politics” where in he
describes the international system as inherently anarchic and states as the main
actors in the system.
1. He argued that survival is the main goal of states to survive in this anarchic
system and that states acquire and maintain military and economic power for
the same.
3. Structural realists argue that the structure of system determines the outcomes of
states interactions.
1. They emphasize that distribution of capabilities among states matters most in
determining behaviour of states.
4. Defence Realism by Kenneth Waltz
1. Argues that states are motivated primarily by self-preservation and desire to
ensure their own security.
2. Anarchical structure of international system is the main driving force of state
behaviour.
3. It creates a constant fear of attack, which compels them to focus on self-help
and acquiring power and resources.
4. Reforming classical realism, he says power is the means, but security is the
end.
1. Rather than going for power maximization, states go for security
maximization, under anarchy.
2. Policy of unlimited power is counterproductive, as it causes arms race,
counter coalition, security dilemma.
5. States have muchless freedom to manoeuvre, and lower capability to affect the
realities of international system, as classical realists thought.
6. Social constructivist,Alexander Wendt while accepting existing anarchical
natural of global politics, says anarchy is what states make of it. He charges
Waltz for presupposing a state preference of struggle for power.
5. Offensive Realism byJohn Mearsheimer
1. It is based on the idea that anarchic system creates constant security competition
among states, leading them to seek to dominate the system.
2. Mearsheimercontends that best way for great powers to ensure survival is to
maximize power and their ultimate goal is to achieve hegemony or dominance.
1. Security dilemma defines theso-called tragedy of power of politics, wherein
security seeking states are forced to engage in conflict to ensure their safety.
2. States seek to maintain a balance of power to prevent any one state from
achieving more relative power, therefore they engage in power maximization.
3. Critics of offensive realism argue that it is overly pessimistic, assuming that
states are always in a state of conflict and that cooperation is unlikely.
6. Structural realism as a whole suffers from limitations as it is overly deterministic
and neglects the role of domestic politics, non-state actors and global issues.
3. Neo-Classical Realism
1. Neoclassical realism is a variant of realism that combines elements of both classical
realism and structural realism.
2. As the latest in the thread of realist traditions, it represents reformation of realism in
methodological sense, as it combines structural analysis and actor analysis to present
a synthesis.
1. Like structural realism, it also emphasizes the concept of balance of power to prevent
other states from dominating the system.
2. However, it also stresses importance of domestic level factors, arguing that domestic
politics, institutions, and culture of a state also shape its foreign policy choices.
3. Randall Schweller and Fareed Zakaria hold that foreign policy is the result of
international structure, domestic influence and complex relations between the
two.Structure impacts but does not dictate policy.
4. Key contribution of the school is the integration of domestic level and international
system in understanding the behaviour of states.
5. Critique of Realism
1. Post-modernistRichard Ashley in “Anarchy Problematique” criticizes realists for
purposefully ignoring the presence of international bodies in preventing security
dilemma.
1. He further emphasizes the role of soft power in the form of ideas and norms as
sources of power, in addition to hard power.
2. Critical school led by Robert Cox dubs realism as a problem-solving theory due to
its largely descriptive nature.
1. He argues for keeping people, not states at the heart of international politics
emphasizing normative perspective.
3. Feminist J Ann Tickner criticize the realist concept of state security for ignoring
human security and taking a very narrow view of international politics and national
interest.
4. Social constructivist, Nicholas Wendt contends that anarchy is what states make
of it. Self help and power politics are not essential conditions of anarchy.
1. He criticizes realists for interpreting anarchy in a way that perpetuates security
dilemma.
5. Hedley Bull of the English school says there is not just anarchy, but an anarchical
society of states at global level.
1. States abide by certain rule and norms, thus allowing for much more civility in
international politics than what the realists are willing to admit.
Marxist School
1. Marxist school of international relations is a theoretical perspective that draws on the ideas of
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to analyse and understand the global political and economic
system.
1. Marxism assumes international politics a part of superstructure resting on economic base.
2. According to this perspective, international relations should be understood as a reflection
of underlying dynamics of capitalist system.
2. Though Marx was not concerned with international politics per se, but his concepts on
expansionist nature of capitalism and proletariat internationalism transcended national
differences.
1. He asserted that the search for profits take bourgeoise to settle everywhere and nestle
everywhere.
2. His vision of a potential link between the bulk of humanity as a global proletariat is where,
and how, Marxism enters international relations.
3. Marxists see the international system as a reflection of the distribution of power and wealth
between different states, with some states dominating others in the pursuit of their own interests.
1. Scholars like Rosa Luxembourg have analysed the working of capitalism in international
context.
2. Hence, they reject liberal and neoliberal view of state conflict or cooperation, instead focusing
on economic and material concepts.
4. Dependency or Instrumentalist School
1. Perspective emphasizes the way in which global economic and political systems perpetuate
economic and political dependence of developing countries on developed countries.
2. It emerged in response to modernization theories failure in explaining persistent poverty
and underdevelopment of many developing countries.
3. It argues that global economic system is structured such that developing economies are
dependent on the economies of developed states.
1. It highlights unequal and exploitative exchanges between the developed core and
developing peripheral nations, as well as, due to the control of developed countries
over institutions that govern the global economy.
2. This in words of AG Frank leads to development of underdevelopment in peripheral
nations. To counter such a trend, he prescribes breaking away from dependency.
4. Immanuel Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
1. Presents an analysis of working of capitalism at global level, and gives a critique of
globalization from the Marxist perspective.
2. Describes the hierarchical structure of international politics as multicultural territorial
division of labour, where production and exchanges of various goods, raw material
and capital is taking place.
3. Categorizes countries based on their economic power into
1. Core countries are advanced industrial economies (like US, Japan, Germany) with
capital intensive and high-tech production
2. Peripheral counties (like most African countries) are dependent on core countries
for capital, provide raw materials to core and are themselves undeveloped
3. Semi-peripheral countries (India, South Africa, Mexico) are less developed than
core, but more developed than the periphery, hence, act as buffer states
4. He posits that the core regions, primarily Western Europe and later North America,
have been able to maintain their dominant position in the world system by exploiting
the resources and labour of the periphery regions, primarily in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America.
5. Along with empirical evidences theory also has normative features as he suggests a
shift towards socialism.
1. And to combat this exploitation, he argues for developing countries to go for
autonomous national development.
6. Theory can be utilised to understand current challenges faced by liberal world order
based on neoliberal world order, in the aftermath of 2008 GFC.
5. Criticism
1. Monocausal as it is economic reductionism like mainstream Marxism which holds
every development due to the economic factor.
2. Neo-Marxists like Robert Cox point towards role of ideological structures of global
capitalism.
3. From the perspective of post modernists, even world systems theory is a discourse
and aims to build a meta-narrative.
5. Neo Marxist or Gramscian School
1. Neo-Marxists school combines elements of Marxism and ideas of Gramsci, and apply
critical approach to study of international politics.
1. It emphasizes the role of cultural and ideological factors in shaping international
system and behaviour of states.
2. Influenced from Gramscian ideas of cultural hegemony, ithighlights how social forces
and dominant ideological narrative sustains world orders.
1. Dominant states and classes use their economic and military power to maintain
their dominance in the international system and to shape the culture, ideology, and
institutions of other states and classes.
3. Robert Coxanalysed mainstream liberal and realist theories to argue that they are
written with ideological motive to further hegemony of capitalism says theory is always
for someone and for some purpose.
1. Points to a tripartite fit of material power (military and economic), institutions (IMF,
World Bank and UN) and ideas (neo-liberal global capitalism) for securing a stable
hegemony.
2. Liberal economic order which the USA propagates is directly responsible for the
power it exercises.
4. Neo Marxist-Gramscian perspective also emphasizes role of agency and resistance
in the international system.
1. It calls for coalition of counter-social forces to tackle the prevailing common sense,
which preserves the status quo of present world order.
6. Marxist school of international relations has been influential in shaping critical approaches
to the study of international relations, and has been particularly influential in the fields of
development studies and critical security studies.
Feminist School
1. Feminist international relations theory forms a part of the reflectivist theories, and focuses of
the overlooked concept of gender in international politics.
2. It criticizes the traditional theories of international relations for their lack of attention to the role
of gender in shaping political interactions and outcomes.
3. Feminists dismiss all approaches as masculinist, devoid of women perspective.
1. Themselves, they employ gender conscious approach to international politics, and deny
the autonomy of the political realm.
2. As per feminists, boundaries around narrowly defined political realm has excluded concerns
and contributions of women.
4. Ann J Ticknerin points out the key role played by women in global politics,not just at the level
of nation state but also at the global level.
1. She questions the essential principles of realism and highlights how realist notions of
security have undermined human security, national interest is a multi-dimensional concept,
how power is not just coercion but empowerment.
2. She charges traditional theories for taking a narrow view of politics.
5. Cynthia Enloe in foundational feminist work “Bananas, Beaches and Bases” claims personal
is international and international is personal.
1. Using empirical and anecdotal evidence, she traces how the roles of womenhas had a
fundamental impact on global affairs.
2. She highlights the systematic subjugation of women in international affairs.
6. Feminist international relations scholars study issues such as the gendered nature of security,
the impact of globalization on women, and the ways in which women’s movements and
organizations shape international politics.
7. Internationally, gender security concerns have been heightened by presence of resolution
1325 of the UNSC which urges for the inclusion of gender perspectives in peace processes
and security decision making.
1. Similarly, Hillary Doctrine called for inclusion of women rights and violence against women
as issues of national security.
8. However, Robert Keohane has raised criticism at the lack of scientific approach in feminist
theory.Francis Fukuyama has questioned theview that women participation would lead to
more peace.
9. In face of such criticism, feminist scholars have been challenged to develop more nuanced
and sophisticated arguments.Though, only partially successful till now in achieving gender
sensitivity, feminist theory provides an important discourse that international politics is not
exclusively men’s business.
Social Constructivism
1. Gives an alternative approach to understanding of international relations. It emphasizes the
role of ideas, norms and culture in shaping international system and behaviour of actors.
1. Associated with end of Cold War as other traditional theories such as realism and liberalism
failed to satisfactorily explain the end.
2. It sees the global politics, and what we know about global politics, as socially constructed.
Hence, comes close to post-Modernism, in arguing that there is no objective social reality as
such.
3. For constructivists, all is in our mind, and reality as it is in itself is unknowable.
1. They argue that reality is formed by ourselves, determined by intersubjective awareness
and not material facts.
2. Influenced by Immanuel Kant, who pointing towards subjective consciousness said that
we never look at the world through naked eyes, but with glasses of our culture.
4. Social constructivists argue that the international system and the identities, interests, and
actions of states and other actors are not fixed, but are constantly being constructed and
reconstructed through social interaction.
1. Nicholas Onuf in “The World of Our Own Making” suggests that actors continually shape
nature of international relations through their actions and interactions.
5. Alexander Wendt criticizes realist notions of anarchy, holds that anarchy is what states make
of it.
1. While agreeing with absence of world govt, he says global anarchy does not necessarily
mean security dilemma, which compels state to go for power politics and self-help.
2. Criticises structural realists like Kenneth Waltz for interpreting anarchy in a way to encourage
security dilemma. Security dilemma might not be a material fact, but a construction of our
own.
6. Social constructivists argue for changing the way we think about international politics,
through interaction among states.
7. However, according to David Copeland, constructivist analysis overly downplays the fact
that states have difficulties in obtaining information about motive of other states. Thus,
problem of uncertainty, sufficiently emphasized by both realist and liberal paradigms, is
not sufficiently analysed by constructivists.
Functionalism
1. Functionalist approach to international relations emphasizes important of functional needs
and issues, in engendering need for deeper cooperation among states.
1. It reflects the most successful liberal alternative against Realism.
2. Inspired byFabian Socialists like GDH Cole and Richard Cobden, who believed that good
society could be built incrementally by bits and pieces.
1. States will cooperation and form international organizations to solve complex problems
such as security, trade and economic cooperations.
2. Cooperation in some areas can lead to gradual integration and unification of states,
ultimately resulting in a world government.
3. According to David Mitrany, cooperation among experts in a functional area will have spillover
effects for cooperation in other functional areas.
1. It conceptualizes a gradual and incremental way of deepening cooperation, characterized
by “peace by pieces”, rather than a sudden and complete integration.
2. It emphasizes building of trust & cooperation among states through small manageable
issues moving to more complex issues leading to functional linkages among states as
“form follows function”.
4. Neofunctionalism by Ernst Haas builds on the functionalist, arguing that process of integration
& cooperation in functional areas will lead to creation of supranational institutions.
1. This will create a multiplier effect in turn transfer of domestic allegiances to such regional
institutions. Thereby arguing that regional integration is an inevitable outcome functionalism.
2. This is represented in Jean Monnet’s approach to European integration.
3. Functionalism played a significant role in the early development of the EU, particularly in
the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in the 1950s and the
European Economic Community (EEC) in the 1960s.
5. However, the approach suffers from certain limitations as its very time taking and requires
political will.
1. In reality, it remains narrowly linked to European Union, hence suffers from Eurocentrism.
2. It is criticized for underestimating role of politics and the nation state in the integration
process, and for underplaying the conflicts and tensions that can arise from functional
cooperation.
3. Further, in the context of rising nationalism and populism, functionalist approach has taken
a backseat.
Systems Theory
1. Systems approach seeks to analyse international relations as a system of interactions of states
which are interdependent and interrelated.
1. Systems approach is a positivist approach, relying on empiricism.
2. It is a product of behavioural revolution, under David Easton in international relations.
2. According to systems theory, states are not the only actors in the international system, and
their actions and decisions are influenced by the actions and decisions of other actors.
1. This theory also posits that the international system is in a constant state of change and
that the actions of one actor can have ripple effects throughout the system.
3. Systems approach is often considered suitable for study of international politics because it
requires interdisciplinary approach.
1. It takes international politics as an overarching idea and not as a sum of foreign policies.
2. Also, it is non-normative, value neutral and free from biases.
4. Morton A Kaplan in ”Systems and Processes in the International Politics”
1. He presents a grand theory of international politics which can explain past, present and
future of international politics.
2. This he sought to achieve through 10 different models.
1. Balance of Power: from 17th century to end of WW, with multipolar states in security
dilemma
2. Bipolar: with 2 superpowers and other satellite states
3. Loose Bipolar: when 3rd actor emerges
4. Very Loose Bipolar: loss of attraction of bipolar powers, and jumping of orbits by satellite
states
5. Universal Actor Model: when all states are under a single world govt
6. Hierarchical: when all states come under a single state in a unipolar world order
7. Unit Veto System: all equally powerful states
8. Incomplete Nuclear Diffusion Model: where only some countries possess nuclear weapons
9. Detente Model: opposite of tight bipolar, market by relaxation of tension b/w two
superpowers
10. Unstable Black Model: opposite of detente, marked by high level of suspicion and
rivalry among superpowers
3. 5 variables like capability, actor, information, essential rules, and transformational rules
5. Kaplan’s systems theory is considered a structural approach to international relations and
highlights the importance of understanding the underlying structure of the international system
in order to understand the behavior of states.
1. It has been influential in the study of international relations, particularly in the study of
international security and the role of non-state actors in the international system.
2. Kenneth Boulding who suggests that the effort is certainly more than giving fancy names
even though it has pigeonholes. He says approach’s importance lies in the trail it breaks,
rather than the goal it achieves.
6. Critical evaluation:
1. Traditionalists like Robert J Lieber criticize it as a mere hypothetical framework, with no
real analysis of international politics, and no predictive and prescriptive value.
2. Hedley Bull of the English school dismissed it as a mere intellectual exercise.
3. Ernst Haas criticises the approach for not including sub national factors.
KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: NATIONAL

INTEREST, SECURITY AND POWER; BALANCE OF POWER AND
DETERRENCE; TRANSATIONAL ACTORS AND COLLECTIVE
SECURITY; WORLD CAPITALIST ECONOMY AND GLOBALISATION
National Interest
1. Concept of national interest is central to study of international relations. It refers to a country’s
goals and objectives in its interactions with other countries.
a. It forms the primary justification of state action. Machiavelli popularized doctrine as raison
d’état.
b. In words of Morgenthau,”as long as world is politically organized into nations, national
interest is indeed the last word in world politics.”
2. National interests serve as a guide for a country’s foreign policy and inform decision-making
on matters of peace, war, trade, and diplomacy.
a. National interests can evolve over time and are influenced by changing global dynamics,
making it an ongoing process of reassessment and adjustment.
b. Realists argue national interest is amoral, meaning it is not subject to calculations of morality,
and place it above ideology and ethics.
3. It encompasses a wide range of issues such as economic prosperity, security, territorial integrity,
and preservation of cultural identity.
a. Though there are different conceptions, but broadly fundamental interests of any country
are its national interests.
b. Realists describe national interestas preservation of power and security.
i. Morgenthau described it as survival, protection of identity or vital interests.
ii. For Waltz, its achievement of security and for Mearsheimer achievement of hegemony
and preponderance of power.
c. Critical theorists view national interest as achievement of human emancipation.
i. They argue that people, not states must be at centre of politics, global or otherwise.
ii. Political arrangements should be judged according to their capacity to advance
emancipation and broadening of moral boundaries.
d. Liberals argue that national interest is economic development through promotion of
international trade and world peace.
i. They believe that cooperation and institutions can enhance a country’s national interest.
ii. Challenge the realist notion as it creates mistrust, arms race and threatens peace.
e. Constructivists argue that national interest is shaped by norms, beliefs, and identity and
that it can change over time.
4. Major foreign policies of leading nations can be traced to their pursuit of national interests.
a. Russia’s annexation of Crimea and the subsequent invasion of Ukraine to take control of
the Black Sea and Caucus is driven by a desire to escape being cornered by the west.
b. US invasion in Afghanistan (against terrorism), Vietnam (against communism) and Iraq
(for oil) were all driven by national interest.
5. Despite its wide use in political circles as a legitimate tool, word itself its devoid of any
substantive meaning.
a. Joseph Nye observed that national interest is a slippery concept used to describe as well
as prescribe policy.
b. Raymond Aron calls it a pseudo theory due to vagueness and ambiguity.
c. In spite of the later criticisms of realism, national interest has never lost its dominant place
in analysis of IR.
6. In conclusion, the concept of national interest is complex and open to multiple interpretations,
and its pursuit may lead to a range of unintended consequences, both domestically and
internationally.
Security
1. Concept of security in international relations theory, refers to measures taken by states and
international organization to endure mutual survival and safety.
a. Typically, it is understood to mean protection of state’s territorial integrity and political
independence from external threats.
b. This includes defence against military threats, economic coercion, and other forms of
pressure.
2. Different schools of thought have different notions about the idea of security.
a. Realists hold the security of state as the most important. Security can be achieved by
acquiring power through either balance of power or deterrence.
b. Liberals argue that security of state as well as people is important.They advocate methods
like liberal institutionalism, democratization, trade and collective action that
promotesinterdependence and avoid war.
c. Marxistsschools interprets security to mean endof global capitalism, which it holds
responsible for conflict globally. For Wallerstein, whether it be war in Balkans or ethnic
conflict in Africa, the roots are in capitalism.
d. Constructivists say security dilemma occurs due to our prejudices and misconceptions
which are socially constructed. They argue for increasing dialogue between nations.
e. Feminists criticize the narrow conception of security in international relations theory. They
call for prioritization of human security, especially that of women in conflict zones.
3. Notions of security in international relations have changed over time as the international system
and the nature of threats have evolved.
a. In post-World War II era, the concept of security has broadened to include nonmilitary
threats such as economic insecurity, environmental degradation and transnational issue
such as terrorism and pandemics.
b. Newer threats have emerged such as nuclear proliferation, illegal migration, etc.
c. With the end of the Cold War, the focus on security has shifted from a state-centric to a
human-centric approach, which led to development of human security.
d. UNDP recognizes five components of human security: economic security, food security,
health security, environmental security, health security and political security.
4. Copenhagen School of Security Studies is a theoretical framework and approach to the
study of security that emerged in the 1990s.
a. It emphasizes the importance of social and cultural construction of security and the role of
language and discourse in shaping security policy.
b. School contends that the way security is defined and framed can impact on how policies
around it are developed and implemented.
c. Barry Buzan argues that security is a speech act, i.e., security is not just a matter of
military defence, but also a social and political construct that is shared by the way we talk
about it.
d. Concept of securitization wherein issue is transformed from a policy issue to being perceived
as an existential security threat. Issues are securitized when they are raised from normal
politics to “panic politics.”
Collective Security
1. Collective security is a concept in international relations that refers to the idea that states
should work together to prevent and respond to security threats.
a. As a liberal alternative to balancing and alliances which has been criticized for increasing
the likelihood of war.
b. In a way, collective security represents institutionalized balance of power.
2. This concept is often associated with the United Nations and its Charter, which calls for
member states to work together to maintain international peace and security.
3. It is based on the principle that the security of one state is dependent on the security of all
states, and that collective action is necessary to address security challenges that cannot be
handled by individual states alone.
a. It is based on the notion of all for one, and one for all.
b. Main idea behind collective security is that all states have a shared interest in maintaining
peace and security and that they should work together to address security threats
4. Countries come into formal alliances in the form of collective security so as to maintain the
balance of power. In this way, both the concepts are similar.
a. Balance of Power acts in a state of anarchy but Collective Security is operated through an
international organization like the League of Nations.
b. While one can be called assured state of peace (collective security), the other is more of a
nervous state of peace (balance of power).
5. Conditions for a successful Collective Security:
a. Participating states should be roughly equal.
b. States should be willing to bear the cost and responsibility of defending one another.
c. It should be backed by an international body with authority and legitimacy, along with
political capacity to take action.
6. Collective Security is highly relevant for small powers who can get escape from arms race and
conflict because of their dependence on other partners.
a. Hence, the concept is conducive for peace as it reduces arms race.
7. Evaluation of the working of Collective Security
a. Under League of Nations, it could not be operationalised because USA and USSR did not
participate. Furthermore, Britain and France had no faith in its efficacy.
i. The idea was flawed as all states would not commit their forces against any one state.
b. Under UN as well, the effectiveness of Collective Security remains questionable as can be
seen in the context of developments in Ukraine.
i. Firstly, the consent of P5 needed. Secondly, UNSC remains paralysed due to US-
USSR conflict.
ii. Finally, UN peacekeeping works in a very limited domain with only powers for self-defence.
8. Criticism
a. It is dismissed as utopian by realists, who argue that nation states in the international
arena are not concerned with peace, rather national interest.
b. Further it is argued that outsourcing security of a nation is not a practical approach.
9. Difference between Balance of Power and Collective Security:
Balance of Power BOP Collective Security CS

• Realist view • Liberal idealist view
• Competitive system (group system + absence • Cooperative system (global system + presence
of global org) of global org)
• Only major states are actors (general alliance • All states are actors (general agreement among
among some) all)
• BOP is aimed at a specific potential enemy • CS is aimed at any aggressor state
• Enemy can be either from within or outside the • Enemy is always from within the international
international community community
Power
1. Power in international relations theory refers to the ability of states or non-state actors to
influence the behavior of others in the international system.
a. Power is a central concept of political science: what money is to economics power is to
politics.
2. Power is both a means and an end in international politics. It is the ability of a state to secure
its national interest. Secondly, it is both dynamic and relative in nature.
3. Realism is one of the main theoretical perspectives in international relations that emphasizes
the role of power. According to it, states in the international system seek to maximise their
power in order to ensure their own security and survival.
a. Hans Morgenthau has defined international politics as nothing but a struggle for power.
b. Structural Realists likeWaltz believed that nations should search for the limited power
which is enough for the security; whereasMearsheimerargues that no amount of power is
enough, security requires hegemony.
4. There are various ways to define and measure power, but it is generally understood to include
a combination of military, economic, and political capabilities.Elements of power in international
relations typically include:
a. Geographical factors such as size, location resources and demography available with a state
b. Political factors: political stability, domestic support of policies, strength of leadership, etc
c. Social factors: homogeneity within the country, social cohesion, and peace among groups
d. Technology: prominent driver behind geopolitical leverage in post digital revolution era,
with both economic and political implications
e. Military and Intelligence: ultimate determinants of power are strong-armed force and superior
military apparatus (KGB, Mossad, CIA)
f. Ideational factors: affinity and soft power commanded by a state plays a significant role in
building hegemony (Ex: USA has Hollywood, McDonald, Silicon Valley)
5. On the basis of amount of power, the country possess we can categorise the countries into
following types:
a. Super Power:states which have extraordinary power and other nations cannot challenge
even in combination. Ex: USA
b. Great Power:state is capable of protecting their interests on their own. Ex: China, Russia
c. Middle Power – states which can protect their interest in combination with others. Ex:
India, Germany, Japan
d. Small Power – states which do not have much material or ideational power, and are unable
to protect their interests. Ex: Sri Lanka, Maldives
6. Types of Power
a. Hard Power
i. Traditional view of power; it refers to a state’s ability to use military and economic
means to influence the behavior of other actors in international relations.
ii. Hard power can be used to coerce or force other actors to comply with a state’s demands.
Ex: sanctions and nuclear threat
b. Soft Power
i. Concept given by Joseph Nye; itrefers to a state’s ability to shape the preferences of
others through cultural and ideological means.
ii. He argued that a country’s soft power comes primarily from three resources: its culture
(in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at
home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when they are seen as legitimate and
having moral authority).
iii. Soft power is seen as a more subtle and indirect means of persuasion. Ex: attraction
towards hegemon, incentives, etc.
c. Smart Power
i. Concept first elaborated by Joseph Nye; it is the ability to combine hard power and soft
power resources into effective power depending upon the context.
ii. The idea behind smart power is that a state should not rely solely on military force or
economic pressure to achieve its goals, but rather should use a combination of
diplomatic, economic, and military tools, as well as cultural and ideological means, to
achieve its objectives.
d. Fast Power
i. Concept given by John Chipman; it is a type of power that combines the ability to act
quickly with the ability to act intelligently.
ii. It is the ability to use a range of tools and techniques, including diplomacy, economic
incentives, and military force, in a flexible and adaptive way to achieve desired outcomes.
iii. Through it states can achieve their goals in a rapidly changing and uncertain world.
7. Polarity of Power Theory
a. Polarity of Power refers to the structure of international systems, whether they are dominated
by a single GreatPower (unipolar system), or two Great Powers (bipolar system) or multiple
Great Powers (multipolar system).
b. It further says that the system of polarity determines the actions of the state in terms of
external balancing by states by way of alliances, bandwagoning, buck passing, etc.
c. Polarity of Power thesis is given by Neorealists like Kenneth Waltz and Mearsheimer.
d. Firstly, they regard unipolarity, or presence of a single hegemon is an unstable system of
due to the lack of checks and balances on the hegemon in world politics.
i. They say that great powers are almost certain to abuse their power, often against their
own interests.For instance, the US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq.
ii. Moreover, hegemon often over stretches itself, where free rider states like China in
contemporary context take advantage.
e. Secondly, multipolarity is the most unstable system. It represents a dangerous conflict
prone international system wherein power is distributed among many actors.
i. More number of actors increases the confusion in the international setup.
ii. Thereby, the chances of miscalculation and conflict increases.
f. Finally, it identifies bipolarity as the most stable system as it tends towards a balance of
power among the two actors preventing any one from dominating the system.
i. Moreover, presence of just two actors makes it easy to keep a watch over the others’
actions.
ii. Additionally, separate zones of influence as were witness during the Cold War curbs
anarchy of the international arena.
Balance of Power
1. The balance of power is a concept in International Relations that refers to the distribution of
power among states in the international system.
a. The idea is that states will seek to maintain a balance of power so that no one state
becomes too dominant, which could lead to instability and conflict.
b. It is an attempt by each state in an international system to ensure itself against rivals or
adversaries through a combination of alliance formation (external balancing) and building
up its own capabilities (internal balancing).
2. Balance of Power is a concept of realist paradigm. Due to its universally relevant nature, it is
regarded as maxim in international policies.
3. Concept is based on 4 assumptions:
a. First, that international politics is in a state of anarchy.
b. Second, that all nations suffer from security dilemma.
c. Third, self-help is the only way of survival and power is the means and end.
d. Lastly, BOP works in regional setting with 5-6 major powers where there is no universal
actor or super power.
4. Theoretical perspectives:
a. Morgenthauargues that in absence of a world government, balances of power naturally
arise.
b. Kenneth Waltz argues regardless of the choice of states, in an anarchic system, quest for
survival would inevitably lead to balance of power.
5. Criticism
a. Liberals contest that the present world order is leaps and bounds ahead of theWestphalian
model.They highlight that in complex interdependence, countries are dissuaded from
pursuing power politics.
b. Due to increase in non-state actors’ countries go for asymmetrical balancing. For instance,
Iran sponsors a host of militia groups in the Middle East to balance its enemies Israel and
Saudi Arabia.
c. Concepts like Complex interdependence and Collective Security have emerged as
alternatives to balance of power.
d. According to Woodrow Wilson BOP is prone to war. BOP can convert any local war
between two countries into world wars because countries are linked in alliances. This was
manifest during the First World War.
6. Techniques of BOP vary from alliances with other countries to counter balance a dominant
power such as NATO; to nuclear deterrence and arms race as was evident during Cold War;
and containment to prevent expansion of a dominant power such as US policies against China.
a. Sanctions to limit and influence the power of dominant actors are also increasing common.,
such as USA’s sanctions on Russia in the wake of Ukraine invasion.
7. In present times states go for asymmetrical balancing due to rise of non-state actors as bop
only considers states as actors
a. BOP now remains suited more in the context of conventional warfare, which is unusual in
the 21st century.
b. In western Europe, BOP has become redundant because of emergence of security
community
8. David Hume considers that BOP is common sense and the same will remain relevant till the
time common sense will remain relevant.
Deterrence
1. Deterrence is a concept in International Relations that refers to the use of threats or actions to
prevent an adversary from taking an undesirable action.
2. Comes from Latin word “deterre” which means to frighten. Basic idea of deterrence is to
frighten the potential adversary from attacking.
1. It is a part of game theory and was popularised most during the cold war. It is sometimes
dubbed as the realist approach to peace.
2. During deterrence, countries maintain peace and dissuade aggression from potential
adversary with threat of significant punishment or retaliation.
3. Thomas Schelling points out that the use of ”power to hurt” as bargaining power is the
foundation of nuclear deterrence.
1. Firstly, deterrence is a psychological concept.
2. Secondly, it assumes that actors are rational.
4. There are two main types of deterrence:
1. Nuclear Deterrence: The threat of using nuclear weapons to prevent another country
from using nuclear weapons against a state.
2. Conventional Deterrence: The use of military or other types of threats to prevent an
adversary from taking a particular action.
5. For deterrence to work two conditions should be present: severity of response (retaliation
would outweigh benefits) and credibility of threat (on willingness to use force in retaliation)
1. Kissinger has pointed out deterrence requires a combination of power, the will to use
it, and assessment of these by potential aggressor.
2. Adversity needs to be communicated that if it prefers to attack or start a war the victory
will come at a cost which is not worth paying.
6. The goal of deterrence is to prevent conflict by making an adversary believe that the cost
of their actions will outweigh the benefits.
1. MAD or the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destructionis based on deterrence, was
meant to deter the use of nuclear weapons, as both sides had enough weapons to
annihilate one another.
2. USA and USSR avoided direct confrontation during the Cold War due to deterrent
effect of nuclear weapons.
3. Limitations
1. Requires a nuclear triad.
2. Starts arms race as there is no upper limit that will guarantee absolute deterrence.
7. Relevance in 21st century
1. Complex Interdependence reduces scope for hard power use, even in times of crises.
1. Asymmetrical and low-level warfare is not prevented by nuclear weapons established
deterrence.
2. Henry Kissinger and George Shultz argue that classical notion of deterrence
doesn’t work for non-state actors.
2. Can backfire is defence measures are interpreted as offensive first strike, in a hostile
environment.
1. Proliferation of nuclear weapons can lead to miscalculations and
miscommunications.
2. Some argue that nuclear deterrence is overrated as it cannot be used against non-
nuclear states due to political taboo and against nuclear states due to security
reasons.
3. However, neo-realists like Kenneth Waltz voice their support for horizontal nuclear
proliferation, dubbing them as weapons of peace.
4. Scott D Sagan argues that newer states lack organization control, which risks deliberate
or accidental nuclear war.
1. Non-states actors can perpetrate nuclear terrorism.
2. Not a guarantee of peace, due to assumption of rational actors.
5. Nina Tannenwald gives a compelling account of moral restraint on use of nuclear
weapons.
1. Explains of habit of non-use has become status quo due to stigma and disgust
associated with such use of weapons.
Transnational Actors
1. Transnational actors refer to individuals, organizations, and corporations that operate across
national borders and have a significant impact on international politics, economics, and culture.
1. They play a critical role in shaping global policies and practices in areas such as trade,
finance, environmental protection, human rights, and peacebuilding. Some
2. Transnational actors are nonstate actors having operations beyond borders.
3. Examples of TNCs include NGOs, MNCs, international civil society and even terrorist groups.
2. TNAs play an increasingly important role in IR, as they challenge the traditional state-centric
view of international politics.
1. They have the ability to shape global politics, economics, and society through their actions
and influence.
2. Growing prominence of transnational actors especially in the current times has led to
emergence of ”post sovereign governance”reflecting declining importance of state actors.
3. Growth of TNAs is due to a combination of factors including technological advancements,
globalization, and changes in the international system such as decline of nation state’s monopoly
on power and rise of multilateralism.
4. Multinational Corporations MNCsare multinational corporations that operate in multiple
countries and have a global reach.
1. They have significant economic power and can influence trade, investment and financial flows.
2. They also impact the social and environmental conditions, such as climate change and
labour standards of the countries where they operate.
3. Marxist school is critical of the role of MNCs in international relations. They regard them
as manifestation of drain of wealth from developing to developed countries.
4. Furthermore, sceptics criticize the MNCs for promoting interests of their home state at the
cost of sovereignty of the host nation, often acting as pressure groups which act on funding.
5. Increasingly, MNCs have been found in the midst of political debates.
1. For instance, Facebook allegedly had a role in election manipulation.
2. Whereas, Twitter challenged the political sovereignty directly by banning the then
President of USA, Donald Trump.
6. In the digital era, the MNCs have become increasingly powerful.
1. The market valuation of tech giants often overshadows the GDP of many nation states.
2. Moreover, market dominance of MNCs of the western world such as Google, Apple,
Facebook and its associated concerns, has led to allegations of a new form of digital
imperialism.
5. Non-Governmental Organizations NGOs
1. NGOs play an important role in international relations as they work towards promoting
specific causes and issues at the international level.
2. NGOs can also act as watchdogs, monitoring the actions of governments and
intergovernmental organizations to ensure that they are held accountable for their policies
and decisions.
3. Traditionally, their role and influence has been be limited, as they are not officially
recognized as actors in the international system and lack the power and resources of
governments and intergovernmental organizations.
4. However, due to globalization, growth of media and technology, decreased state sovereignty
and increased awareness of people about issues such as human rights and environment,
NGOs are seen as important actors.
1. Some NGOs have been accused of attempting regime change. Recently Russia has
ousted USAID from its territory
2. NGOs like Greenpeace and Amnesty Internationalhave been red flagged as working
to undermine national sovereignty.
CHANGING INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ORDER:
(a) RISE OF SUPERPOWERS; STRATEGIC AND IDEOLOGICAL BIPOLARITY, ARMS RACE
AND NUCLEAR THREAT
(b) COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION; UNIPOLARITY AND AMERICAN HEGEMONY
Rise of Superpowers; Strategic and Ideological Bipolarity

1. The rise of superpowers refers to the emergence of a few dominant and influential countries
or powers in the international system after World War II.
2. It is used to describe the emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as global
superpowers following the war. The two countries have since exercised significant economic,
military, and political power on the world stage.
3. With the US and Soviet Union as dominant global powers, the international system became
polarized along ideological lines, with the two countries promoting conflicting political
ideologies and economic systems.
Cold War
1. The term Cold War is used to describe a post-World War II phase which was characterized by
very high level of distrust and antagonism (mainly ideological and political) between the two
powers blocs of USA dominated West and USSR dominated East.
a. Bernard Baruch coined the term, and Walter Lippmann popularized it through a series of
articles.
b. Cold War lasted from the 1940s until the dissolution of USSR in 1991.
2. While, Social Constructivists say cold war was a story of misunderstanding, miscalculations,
and missed opportunities. Determinists argue it was inevitable because of opposing world
view.
3. Cold War had strong ideological dimensions.
a. It was described as war between two ways of life - ending in the victory of liberal way of life
over communist way of life.
b. George Kennan famously said USA will win the war by demonstrating that its society is
superior than the Soviet Union.
4. Background
a. After the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin’s foreign policy assumed that Communism in Russia
is not secure and until and unless it is surrounded by Communist states. Hence, formed
Communist International for expansion of Communism.
b. Stalin formed Cominform, a supra national alliance of Marxist Leninist govts to support
communist guerrilla movements in Europe in installing pro Soviet regimes.
i. He entered into a nonaggression pact with Germany in 1939 and a neutrality pact with
Japan in 1941.
ii. Such actions were seen as an attempt by western powers to come together to end the
liberal hegemony.
c. Delay on part of Allied powers in opening second front in World War 2 convinced Stalin
that West wanted Russia and Germany to destroy each other.
i. Therefore, in East Europe, Stalin wanted puppet regime led by, while USA wanted
democratic puppet regimes.
d. Under ManhattanProject, USA kept the nuclear project secret from Russia but informed
its allies like Britain and Canada.
i. USA ended World War II by using nuclear weapons and claimed all the credit.
ii. Further, use of nuclear weapons was to display that it is a super power and to frighten
Russia not to bargain with form of govt in East Europe.
e. After the World War II in 1946 – long telegram sent by George Kennan under pseudonym X.
i.He was US ambassador to Moscow, and a realist scholar who gave the formal policy
of containment, to guide USA to contain Soviet Union.
ii. It mentioned that Russia looks at itself in a permanent state of war with USA, and is
committed to root out capitalism.
5. Key events in the chronology of Cold War
a. 1947: Truman Doctrineis announcedfor application of containment, rolling out economic
and military assistance to countries threatened by communism.
b. 1948: Marshall Plan to provide economic aid to rebuild Western European countries and
to prevent the spread of Communism.
i. USSR responds with Molotov Plan to give aid to East Europe countries in fear of
weakening of links with satellite states.
ii. End of Monroe Doctrine of non-interference and beginning of active involvement of
USA in world affairs.
c. 1948: Berlin Blockade was the first major crises in Europe exposing deep ideological
differences between Soviet Union and USA.
i. Soviet Union cuts off all land and water routes to western controlled city of Berlin.
ii. US airlifts supplies to city which came to be known as Berlin Airlift.
d. 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO is formed, providing for a military alliance
between USA and countries of Western Europe.
i. Later in 1955, Warsaw Pact formed, creating military alliance between Eastern
European countries and Soviet Union.
ii. Western Germany included in NATO as a response. Thus, a strategic bipolarity got
established in Europe.
e. 1949: Soviet Union develops its first nuclear weapon, leading to a nuclear arms race between
the US and the USSR.
f. 1956: Suez Crisis occurs, as Israel, Britain, and France invade Egypt. US and USSR
become more deeply divided over the conflict.
g. 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis occurs when the Soviet Union installs nuclear missiles in
Cuba. US imposes a naval quarantine of the island, and the crisis is resolved after the
USSR agrees to remove missiles.
h. 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Union, and introduces
reforms aimed at modernizing the Soviet economy and political system.
i. 1989: Berlin Wall falls, marking the beginning of the end of the Cold War.
j. 1991: Soviet Union collapses, and the Cold War officially comes to an end.
Arms Race 1960-72

1. Arms race is the most defining feature of Cold War - its a pattern of competitive acquisition of
nuclear and military capability
2. Signals adversarial relationship, in pursuance of military superiority
3. Logic of deterrence and security during cold war was based on MAD Mutually Assured
Destruction or nuclear balance.
4. Led Realists to term WMDs as weapons of peace.
5. Throughout Cold War there has been qualitative and quantitative arms race.
6. There have been development in launching techniques, ICBM, satellite-based weapons, etc.
7. In 1952, USA tested Hydrogen Bomb Caste Bravo. And 1961, USSR tested Tsar Bomba, the
largest nuclear weapon set off so far.
8. Towards end of Cold War, we see global disarmament efforts like 1986 Intermediate Range
Nuclear Forces INF treaty, CTBT 1996, treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe CFE, followed
by Strategic Armed Reduction Treaties like START-1 and START- 2 and SALT treaties.
9. Arms control is dying, and arms races are roaring back to life.
10. Key pillars of superpowers arms control regime erected during CW have been collapsed one
by one - Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treat, Intermediate
Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, and Open Skies Treaty
11. New START treaty extended from 2021-2026, covers only strategic nuclear weapons. US and
Russia have been indulging in arms race to develop tactical nukes.
12. While US and Russia have been bound by Cold War era treaties, China is rapidly increasing
its warheads, as part of push for dominance in Pacific and beyond. This has prompted US and
Russia to not renew various arms control treaties.
13. Besides USA and Russia, new arms face has started between India-China, India-Pakistan,
Iran-Israel-Saudi Arabia
14. Fear of Arms Race
15. Nuclear posture review of USA mentions modernisation of nuclear triad
16. India is one of the largest arms importer
17. Pakistan has developed tactical nuclear weapons like Hatf and Ghauri missiles
18. India sold BrahMos to Philippines, its first ever export order after it has become member of
MTCR
19. India buying S400 from Russia
20. Traditional nuclear arms control agreements are not based on bipolar world. New agreements
have to take into consideration the new reality of multipolar world and the fact that technology
is ending a distinction between conventional and nuclear weapons.
21. China has tested hypersonic missiles to evade missile defence systems of hostile countries.
This raises security dilemma for US, Japan and India. It calls for India to develop hypersonic
missiles which would lead Pakistan to pursue the same path, thus leading to arms race in
Indo-Pacific
Collapse of the Soviet Union

1. Collapse of the Soviet Union was a complex and gradual process that took place in the late
1980s and early 1990s.
a. It was the result of a combination of internal and external factors.
2. Several theories about the collapse of Soviet Union:
a. Economic problems and stagnation of the Soviet economy created conditions for collapse
of the Soviet Union.
b. Political corruption and lack of effective leadership is another prominent reason.
c. Reform movements under Gorbachev such as perestroika and glasnost, introduced with
the intention of modernizing Soviet Union ultimately weakened the Union.
d. National movements led by various ethnic and national groups within the Soviet Union
such as the Baltic states and Ukraine led to ultimate breakup of the Union.
e. External factors, such as the arms race and the cost of maintaining military presence in
Eastern Europe, also contributed to the downfall.
f. US policies of beggar they neighbour under Ronald Reagan; and the proxy war in
Afghanistan also impacted the Soviet Union.
3. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into 15 separate countries, including Russia, Ukraine,
and Belarus.
4. As per Francis Fukuyama’s: End of History and the Last Man, the Cold war marked the
global triumph of liberalism over all other ideologies.
a. He argued that the end of war marked the end of humanity’s ideological evolution, and the
universalization of western liberal democracy as the final form of government.
b. It represent ‘end of history’ in sense that the global struggle between ideologies such as
capitalism and communism had now come to an end.
5. Collapse of the Soviet Union had a profound impact on world events, including the end of the
Cold War.
a. It led rise of the United States as the sole superpower; and caused a significant shift in the
global balance of power.
i. Resulted in American strategic and ideological hegemony.
ii. Russia found it problematic and difficult to challenge the US power in the world.
b. Satellite states declared independence one after another and formed a loose coalition by
the name of Commonwealth of Independent States CIS.
i. Entire socialist bloc dismantled and became a liberalised bloc.
ii. Division between Eastern Europe and Western Europe got diluted. All European states
began living in an era of peaceful co-existence and mutual cooperation for development.
c. Ideological unipolarism came to characterize the post-USSR era of international relations.
i. Golden phase of liberalism due to enhanced role of economics in international politics,
through Washington Consensus.
ii. Prospects of arms control through signing START and SALT treaties between Russia
and USA.
Unipolarity and American Hegemony
1. American hegemony refers to the dominance of the United States as the world’s only
superpower in the post-Cold War era.
2. Hegemony is characterized by a country’s military, economic, and political power, which
allows it to exert significant influence over global events and shape the international system
in its image.
a. End marked win for liberalism and rise of new global order rooted in neoliberal
globalization and interventions on humanitarian grounds.
a. It led to the establishment of Pax Americana or peace and stability under the
overarching umbrella of American dominance.
6. Hegemony remains rooted in American Exceptionalism, often expressed as categorical
superiority and justification for its role in the world.
a. It has led to interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan, promotion of democracy and free market
economics under Neoconservatism; and use of international institutions such as the World
Trade Organization to further its goals.
7. American hegemony has arguably brought many benefits to the world, such as stability and
spread of democracy.
a. Realist scholar, Robert Gilpin put forth a hegemonic stability theory as a justification for
hegemon, capable of providing leadership and maintaining order.
8. However, it has also been criticized for promoting American interests over those of the other
countries. Some of the key criticisms include
a. Excessive use of military power particularly in the post 9/11 era, often intervening in affairs
of other countries, with unintended consequences.
b. Undermining of global institutions such as the UN by disregarding the rules and norms of
international system.
c. Alienation of other countries, as its dominance has led to resentment and mistrust among
others. For instance, Iran.
9. Strongest challenge to American supremacy comes from China, a rising economic and military
power in recent years.
a. China’s assertion on the world stage is increasingly seen as threat to dominant position of
USA.
b. Its rapid economic growth has put it in direct competition with the USA, particularly in key
industries such as technology and manufacturing.
c. Its continued military and territorial claims in South China Sea and elsewhere raised
concerns about its ambitions.
d. China has been increasing its influence in the international bodies such as the UN, World
Bank and IMF.
e. China has promoted various alternative global governance models such as the Belt and
Road Initiative, that challenge US led global order.
f. China’s political and economic system is based on different ideologies than those promoted
by United States, further adding fuel to the fire.
10. However, US still continues to hold reigns of global institutions, and remains the strongest
military and economic power –with unrivalled structural power.
a. Former SOS,Madeline Albright argued once that USA is an indispensable nation.
b. Recurrent G7 and NATO summits paint a picture of US’s growing conviction that China is
a threat to its global supremacy and must be contained.
EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM: FROM

BRETTONWOODS to WTO; CMEA; DEMAND FOR NIEO
1. Rise of global economic governance system refers to variety of cooperative and problem-
solving arrangements.
2. It had its basis in the liberal institutionalism propounded by Woodrow Wilson at end of World
War I and the Fourteen Points speech, aimed at bringing nations from the theatre of war to the
table of diplomacy.
Bretton Woods Institutions

1. Institutions of economic global governance began with Bretton Woods system after WW2 in
1944 Bretton Woods Conference in San Francisco.
a. It comprised of 3 institutions: World Bank, IMF, GATT.
b. System of fixed exchange rates pegged to the US dollar were devised.
c. US dollar became the dominant reserve currency of the world.
2. Such a new system, it was hoped, would prevent another worldwide economic cataclysm like
Great Depression that destabilized Europe and US in 1930s and had contributed to the rise of
fascism and the war.
3. Bretton Woods strategy addressed what were considered to be 2 main causes of pre-war
economic downturn and obstacles to future global prosperity: first, lack of stable financial
markets around world that had led to war and second, the destruction caused by the war itself.
4. End of Cold War brought about a paradox – relevance of these institutions increased due to
complex interdependence and globalization; however, they became controversial being
inextricably linked to forces of neo-liberal globalisation.
5. There exist several problems with the Bretton Woods System:
a. Firstly, Bretton Woods institutions have been dominated by the developed countries of the
Global North with under representation of the Global South.
b. Secondly, imposition of conditionality by institutions such as the IMF or the World Bank
undermine host country’s sovereignty due to restricted policy space.
c. Thirdly, the institutions are criticized, particularly by Feminist and Marxist groups for their
neoliberal bias.
d. Fourthly, the institutions themselves have been criticized for lack of transparency and
accountability, as they are driven mostly by self-regulatory frameworks and no external
oversight.
e. Finally, they are criticized for behaving as international bureaucracies focused on movement
of capital instead of delivering results.
6. Way forward:
a. International economic governance institutions must be made more inclusive, representative
and developmental.
b. They will continue to be a critical source of financing and capacity support for developing
countries to overcome financial distress. For instance, recent Sri Lankan bailout by the
IMF.
c. Phasing out of direct and indirect conditionality with no one size fit all approach by World
Bank and IMF to overcome the concerns of developing nations.
d. Introduce changes in internal administrative rules and subject the bodies to external
oversight for better transparency and accountability.
e. Governance reforms to increase representation developing nations for an inclusive and
representative composition.
f. Strengthening of new international governance bodies from the 3rd world such as Asian
Development Bank ADB, AIIB, etc and promote South-South cooperation.
World Bank
1. World Bank is an international financial institution established in 1944 to promote economic
growth and development in its member countries.
2. It provides loans, policy advice, technical assistance, and financial guarantees to support
investment in infrastructure, education, health, and other development initiatives to its member
countries.
3. World Bank Group comprises of:
a. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
b. International Development Association (IDA)
c. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
d. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
e. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
4. Its two main lending arms: the IBRD and the IDA focus mainly on public sector monetary
policy and provide low-interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries
as well as grants to the poorest countries.
5. Structure of the World Bank
a. Executive Directors – 24 executive directors oversee daily operations, including 5 permanent
spots given to US, Japan, Britain, Germany, and France. Remaining 19 directors are elected
by all member nations.
b. President with five-year term. Vice presidents manage World Bank affairs in 6 regions and
in other functional units such as Finance, Poverty Reduction, Infrastructure, Private Sector
Development.
6. Functions
a. First, it grants funding by providing loans and financial support for infrastructure and
developmental projects that will produce goods or services or public works to help economic
and social development.
b. Second, it provides emergency assistance in the form of adjustment loans for programs to
support reforms to government policies.
c. Thirdly, it provides technical assistance and expertise to help countries develop and
implement economic assistance.
d. Fourthly, it offers policy advice and support to help countries improve their economic and
social policies.
e. Fifthly, it aids knowledge sharing and provides research support to developmental efforts
aimed at promoting best practices globally.
f. Lastly, it aids countries in monitoring and evaluation of ongoing programs to ensure they
are achieving their intended goals.
7. Impact of World Bank
a. 1960s - focus was to help 3rd world in development of physical infra like dams, roads,
ports and industrial projects. Very little focus was given on social projects.
b. 1970s – promoted rapid industrialization for faster economic growth and poverty alleviation
under unilinear growth model ignored social costs involved like displacement, etc.
c. 1980s - rise of neoliberalism which believed in role of market in bringing economic growth.
Reagan and Thatcher implemented neo liberal policies - adopted by both IMF and World
Bank in late 1980s as Washington Consensus.
i. Criticized for promoting it through its close participation with the IMF, lending only to
programs that were heavily conditioned.
ii. Accused of ignoring environmental and social impact of projects it supports: dam-
building project resulted in forced resettlement of Narmada River Valley between 1978-
1993.
d. 1990s - adopted Comprehensive Development Programme that expanded role to deal
with issues like corruption, institution building, environment and human rights, then
Millennium Development Goals and now SDGs
International Monetary Fund

1. IMF was originally formed to maintain qualified gold standard system of exchange rates between
western countries and United States, and to prevent rise of economic nationalism.
a. Today, it has transformed into an organization to facilitate global monetary cooperation &
secure financial stability.
2. Structure –
a. Board of Governors composed of finance ministers or head of central bank of member
states. It meets once a year and the members try to achieve consensus on major policies
of the fund.
b. Executive Board looks after day-to-day operations of fund and is managed by group of 24.
United States (largest shareholder), Britain, Japan, Germany, France, China, Russia, and
Saudi Arabia – have permanent seats, while 16 other directors are elected for 2-year
terms region wise.
c. Managing Director –has a renewable term of five years. Traditionally, always been a
European.
3. Functions
a. Facilitate cooperation on monetary policies.
b. Liberalization of international trade.
c. Help stabilize exchange rates between countries.
d. Maintain a multilateral system of payments that eliminates foreign exchange restrictions.
e. Provide a safeguard to members against balance of payments crises.
f. Oversees the international monetary and exchange rate policies.
4. Impact of IMF
a. Operating budget comes from quota that members contribute on joining. G7 countries
have largest quota in the IMF and hence more voting power to decide the policies.
b. While its initial role was short term stabilization of countries facing BOP crisis, it increased
after 1970s due to debt crisis that started in 3rd world.
c. In 1970s economic turbulence like oil crisis, fall in export prices of commodities, rise in
interest rate on debts owed 3rd world. All these led to indebtedness of and they turned to
IMF for rescue.
d. IMF prescribed policies known as structural adjustment which included reduced domestic
consumption, tax increase, reduced government spending and trade liberalization.
e. Market fundamentalism imposed led to huge unrest such as increased poverty, scaling
down of social programmes by govt, high inflation, unemployment etc. In 1990s IMF policies
caused crisis in Mexico, Argentina, Russia, Thailand, and Malaysia.
5. Joseph Stiglitz cites flawed program of privatization in post-communist Russia which helped
enrich a corrupt oligarchy and the elimination of food subsidies for the poor in Indonesia.
World Trade Organization

1. WTO is an international organization with 164 members states that deals with the rules of
trade between nations.
a. Headquartered in Geneva, it was established in 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, as
a successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in
1948.
b. Its main function is to promote economic growth and development by facilitating trade and
reducing barriers to trade between nations.
2. Functions of the body:
a. Monitoring and enforcing the implementation of trade agreements to ensure member
countries adhere to rules of trade.
b. Providing a global platform for negotiating of trade agreements.
c. Helps resolve trade disputes between member countries through a formal dispute settlement
process.
d. Provides technical assistance and training to developing countries to help them participate
in the global trading system.
e. Publishes data on trade flows and tariffs to help inform its member countries and public
about developments in international trade.
3. Key agreements under the WTO
a. Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM)
b. General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) aimed at creating a system of
international trade rules and ensuring fair and equitable treatment of all participants.
c. Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) which
sets down minimum standards for the many forms of intellectual property regulation.
d. Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) to remove trade barriers, promote transparent market
access and integration of global markets.
4. Issues in the WTO
a. All decisions are taken by consensus and any member can exercise a veto. This provisions
greatly impacts its ability to reach agreements.
b. Lack of progress in new trade negotiations, particularly the Doha Development Agenda
and is areas concerning agriculture and services.
c. Rules and decisions of WTO often favour developed nations leading to allegations of unequal
treatment of developing countries and hindering their ability to participate in global trading system.
d. It has faced criticism for promoting controversial trade policies that are seen as harmful to
the environment, labour rights, and public health.
e. Dispute settlement process has faced criticism for being slow, ineffective, and biased
towards developed countries.
f. Resistance to reforms in the WTO by some member countries, who are wary of changes
to the global trading system.
g. WTO rules include many non-trade subjects such as labour standards, fossil fuel subsidies,
plastic pollution and government procurement which raise compliance costs for developing
countries, and thereby impacts the competitiveness of their products.
h. Finally, the developed countries have succeeded in putting old obligations overlapping
with the concerns of the Global South on the back burner. Moreover, their trying to push in
new issues surrounding ecommerce and cross border data flows.
5. Despite these challenges, India remains an active participant in the WTO and continues to
engage in negotiations and discussions to address its concerns and promote its interests in
the global trading system.
6. India’s perspective in the WTO:
a. India has expressed concerns over unequal treatment of developing countries in the area
of agriculture.
i. It calls for finding a permanent solution to the PSH public stockholding and the Peace
Clause devised in the Bali Summit.
ii. It calls for greater protection of livelihoods of small farmers and more equitable
distribution of benefits from international trade.
b. India has been critical of WTO rules on intellectual property rights, particularly with regards
to access to essential medicines.
i. It argues that these rules can limit access to affordable medicines for developing
countries.
c. Special and Differential Treatment: India has called for more flexibility for developing
countries in WTO rules and a greater recognition of their development needs.
i. It argues that the current rules do not adequately address the specific challenges faced
by developing countries.
d. India has also raised concerns about the limited access to developed countries’ markets
for its services sector, particularly in areas such as finance, information technology, and e-
commerce.
7. Key takeaways from the 12th Ministerial Conference in 2022
a. Multilateral agreement on the curtailment of harmful subsidies on IUU illegal, unreported
and unregulated fishing for the next four years.
b. Binding decision on exemption for food security purchased by the UN World Food Program
from any export restrictions.
c. Decisions to continue the long-standing moratorium on e commerce transactions.
d. Temporary waiver on intellectual property patents of COVID19 vaccines for five years.
e. Key objections raised
i. Developed countries face the brunt of moratorium on custom duties concerning e
commerce transactions.
ii. Fisheries agreement has been opposed by developing countries with a vast population
of rural and small fisherfolk.
iii. Temporary waiver granted on vaccines is a watered-down version of the original proposal
made by India and South Africa in 2020.
8. Way forward
a. WTO is still the most fundamental organization to protect the trade interest of small and
developing countries against the diktat of the developed world.
b. However, the deadlock on contentious issues like agriculture subsidies must be resolved
urgently, for WTO to stay relevant.
c. Else, the regional trade agreements under “gated globalization” will continue to take
WTO’s place and this will prove detrimental to the interests of the developing countries.
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance CMEA
1. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), also known as the Comecon, was an
socialist economic alliance established in 1949 under the Warsaw Pact.
a. It was formed to facilitate the economic cooperation and coordination among to help
develop the economies of the communist bloc.
b. Its membership consisted of communist states in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
2. CMEA provided a framework for the exchange of goods and technology between its
members and aimed to reduce dependence on Western countries.
a. In the realm of international relations, the CMEA was seen as an important component
of the Soviet-led bloc.
b. It served as a tool for Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and for maintaining economic
ties between the Soviet Union and its allies.
3. Achievements
a. Improved economic cooperation led to an increase of trade among the member states
and aided economic development.
b. Facilitated technology transfer and know how among members which helped to improve
industrial productivity and increased competitiveness.
c. Supported the infrastructure development which helped increase the interconnectivity
between its member countries.
d. It succeeded in reducing dependence upon the western countries, particularly in terms
of trade.
4. Despite its initial success, CMEA eventually failed due to several factors:
a. It was unable to bridge economic disparities between its member states, with some
performing much better than the others.
b. Its decentralized decision-making structure was slow and inefficient.
c. Command economy system based on central planning and state ownership lacked
market incentives to drive economic growth.
5. The organization was dissolved in 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
a. After the dissolution of the CMEA, several of its former members from Europe joined
the European Union (EU) or the eurozone.
b. Others became members of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), an
organization formed to facilitate cooperation among former Soviet republics.
New International Economic Order NIEO

1. New International Economic Order (NIEO) was a proposal for a comprehensive reform of the
international economic system that was advanced by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and
other developing countries in the 1970s.
a. It emerged as an alternative to the prevailing global economic order which with all its
features and interests of developed countries to was detrimental to the 3rd world.
b. Aimed to address the perceived imbalances and inequalities in the international economic
system that arose in the aftermath of decolonization and the spread of globalization.
2. Aims of the NIEO
a. To address developmental concerns of South.
b. To challenge neo-imperialism and neo-colonialism.
c. Highlight the destructive role of MNCs, not only on environment, but also in society &
politics.
d. To gain voice for the Global South in economic institutions.
3. Evolution of NIEO
a. Emergence in the backdrop of the 1970s protectionism.
b. Decolonized nations, after achieving political freedom wanted to reduce economic
dependence on industrialized nations.
c. Demand for NIEO presented by NAM in 1970s through the UNCTAD and UNGA, wherein
it acted as an economic pressure group.
d. By late 1980s, NIEO initiative had faded due to stiff competition from developed countries
who acted as a united group, while NAM countries struggled to maintain this unity in the
face of opposition.
4. Demands
a. Restricting of unrestricted global trade and control over natural resources to the host
countries.
b. Regulating MNCs from working in their territories.
c. Freedom to form associations of primary goods similar to OPEC without any resistance.
d. Reduction in the cost of transfer of tech and capital from west.
e. Special treatment to the developing countries on the basis equitable and fair-trade deals
with non-reciprocal preferences.
f. Representatives of 3rd world on boards of IMF and WB
g. End of protectionism which arose after breakdown of Bretton Woods system.
5. NIEO exhibited the idea of South-South cooperation. In its backdrop, the UNCTAD came up
with reforms – andCharter of Economic Rights and Duties of a state was adopted.
6. Challenges to the NIEO
a. Stiff opposition from industrialized nations – which asserted that the existing system sufficient
to meet demands,
b. Lack of economic and military power with the Global South.
c. Presence of insecurity dilemma among post-colonial world.
d. Declining significance of NAM and lack of unity.
e. Rise of regional trading blocs like TPP, NAFTA, APEC, etc.
7. Way forward
a. Expand and strengthen S-S cooperation.
b. Use platform of NAM to adopt coordinate policies and approaches.
8. Though NIEO ultimately failed to bring about significant reforms to the international economic
system and has largely been forgotten, its demands remain relevant even today.
Globalization of World Economy

1. End of Cold War ushered era of globalization which in simple words can be defined as
integration of world economy.
a. Marked by an increasing inter connectedness and interdependence of world’s economies,
societies and cultures, brought about by advances in communication, transport and
technology.
b. Globalization of world economy is chiefly characterized by increased trade, flows of capital
across borders, and movement of people, among other things.
2. Neo-liberal globalisation is the current dominant ideology of globalization.
a. Counter-revolution against state led welfarism.
b. Inspired by Milton Friedman’s Chicago school of economics, which blamed Keynesian
policies for stagflation of the 1970s.
c. Led to Washington Consensus which outlines key neoliberal principles, market-oriented
economies, reduced fiscal spending and privatization.
3. Perspectives
a. Realist view – mercantile capitalism led by hegemonic states
b. Liberal view – human desire for economic betterment, ICT advancements; hyper globalist
view
c. Marxist view – search for profit will lead bourgeoise to settle everywhere and nestle
everywhere (Marx)
d. Critical view – culture of consumerism and materialism
4. Advantagesof globalization:
a. Three decades of increased growth, driven by trade and investment.
b. Greater political and economic integration, which contributed to the financialization of global
economies.
c. Aided the spread of democratic ideas and practices world over.
d. Access to technology and information was sped up which helped spur development and
improve quality of life throughout the world.
e. As per Jagdish Bhagwati, globalization is the “most powerful source of social good today”.
5. Criticism
a. Thomas Piketty highlights how globalization has not been uniformity beneficial thereby it
has exacerbated the inequality in the world.
b. Joseph Stiglitzcriticizes the role of international organizations citing the huge democratic
deficit in global governance institutions such as the IMF and World Bank.
c. Noam Chomskyalleges that globalization has been appropriated by the powerful, and is
increasingly about protection of rights of investors at cost of people.
d. Susan Strangepoints out to the weaknesses of neoliberal globalization. She dubs the
weakness and risks of financial markets as casino capitalism and market outgrowing the
state as a symptom of mad money.
UNITED NATIONS: ENVISAGED ROLE AND ACTUAL RECORD;

SPECIALIZED UN AGENCIES—AIMS AND FUNCTIONING; THE NEED
FOR UN REFORMS
• The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1945 with the aim of
promoting international peace and security, as well as promoting cooperation among countries
on issues such as economic and social development.
• According to ProfessorJeffrey Sachs UN is the most important political innovation of 20th
century and the best bargain on this planet.
• From a political science perspective, the UN is viewed as a key institution for international
governance, representing a forum for member states to engage in diplomacy, negotiate
international agreements, and coordinate their efforts on global issues.
• Though the UN does have some accomplishments to its credit, on the whole, it has left much
to be desired in dealing with the important issues and problems plaguing the global community
today. This is primarily because the structure of UN still begets of 20th century reality.
• India was one of the few members of UN that signed UN Declaration in 1942 in Washington
and took part in historic UN conference in San Francisco in 1945.
Envisaged role and actual accord of the UN

• Enshrined in the United Nations (UN) Charter is the vision for the organization to be “a guardian
of international peace and security, as a promoter of human rights, as a protector of international
law, and as an engineer of socioeconomic advancement”.
• UN was envisioned to play several key roles in the international community, including:
1. Maintenance of international peace and security through conflict prevention and resolution.
2. Promoting and protecting human rights and the rule of law.
3. Encouraging economic and social development, especially in developing countries.
4. Providing a platform for international cooperation on global issues such as climate change,
poverty, and health.
5. Acting as a global forum for member states to engage in diplomatic dialogue and negotiate
international agreements.
6. Promoting international law and the peaceful resolution of disputes between states.
7. Facilitating humanitarian assistance in response to natural disasters and armed conflicts.
8. Advancing sustainable development through partnerships and cooperation among member
states and relevant stakeholders.
• The actual role of the UN has been a subject of debate among political scientists and
policymakers. However, it can be argued that the UN has achieved varying degrees of success
in fulfilling its intended roles, including:
1. Peace and security: UN has been involved in numerous peacekeeping missions and has
helped resolve conflicts in different parts of the world.
a. UN Peace Keeping has been involved in over 60 missions worldwide with over 170
settlements.
b. However, the UN has also faced criticism for its inability to prevent some major wars
and for being unable to enforce its decisions.
2. Human rights: The UN has established a strong human rights system and has played a
role in promoting and protecting human rights around the world. However, the UN’s ability
to enforce human rights standards has been limited by the resistance of some member
states.
a. UNGA adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and created various
institutional mechanisms like the HRC, treaties, to protect human rights.
b. Gap between aspirations and achievements can be seen from instances in Yugoslavia,
Rwanda, Myanmar and Syria.
3. Economic and social development: The UN and its specialized agencies have made
significant contributions to promoting sustainable development and reducing poverty,
especially in developing countries.
a. Through World Food Programme and World Health Organization which worked on
vaccines such as small pox and polio, much has been done in this regard.
b. However, progress in this area has been uneven, and many countries continue to face
significant development challenges.
4. International cooperation: The UN has played an important role in bringing countries
together to address global challenges, such as climate change, and in negotiating
international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change.
5. Global governance: The UN provides a forum for member states to engage in diplomacy
and coordinate their efforts on global issues.
a. It has established a functional global regulatory framework such as through UNCLOS
and ICJ.
b. However, its effectiveness in this area is limited by the dominance of major powers and
the challenges posed by increasing global interdependence.
6. Security forces: While the UN Charter provided for a standing army of the UN, it could not be
raised due to the East-West Cold War, so the UNSC could not function in the way UN founders
had expected.
a. Given the lack of a dedicated army, UN has been criticized time and again for its lack of
muscle power.
• As per Suhasini Haider, year of 2021 was the year of UN failures with COVID, Myanmar and
Afghanistan all acting up.
1. Firstly, in its fight against COVID, the WHO failed to assess the magnitude of the viral
infection. It also was not able to ascertain the origin of the virus. The UN too failed to hold
China accountable, and was unable to ensure an equitable access to vaccines.
2. Secondly, it failed to effectively address the situation in Myanmar, particularly of the Rohingya
Muslims and the its inability to deal with political obstacles in wake of the military takeover
of the country following the coup.
3. Thirdly, the UN faced criticism for its failure to effectively address the situation in Afghanistan,
particularly with regards to ongoing conflict and human rights abuses with the takeover of
the Taliban.
• However, the UN as per former UN Secretary General, Dag Hammarskjoldwas not created
to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanityfrom hell.
• While the UN has had some successes in fulfilling its intended roles, it has also faced significant
challenges in achieving its goals. It continues to play an important role in the international
community, but its actual role and effectiveness remain subjects of ongoing debate and
evaluation.
Need for UN Reforms
• In order to respond effectively to vast array of conventional (peace and conflict,
• Nuclear proliferation, terrorism) and non-conventional challenges (climate
• change, refugee crisis, population explosion and ageing, pandemics), UN
• Reforms are sine qua non.
• Former Secretary General, Kofi Annan: “If we don’t change the council, we risk a situation
where the primacy of the council may be challenged by some of the new emerging countries.
Areas for reforms:
1. Changes in the UN Charter:
a. Article 2 of the UN Charter permits no UN intervention in the domestic affairs of sovereign
states. Yet, UN intervenes on the basis of UNGA resolution based on responsibility to
protect.
b. UN Charter’s anachronistic clause of ‘enemy states.’
c. Need for a greater role of the UNGA, as UNSC remains paralyzed due to the veto powers
of the P5, and UNGA can override UNSC only by a veto through special majority.
d. Veto Powers of the UNSC permanent members.
e. Expansion of the UNSC membership.
2. Membership reforms:
a. Current membership of UNSC reflects a post WW II structure. It doesn’t actually reflect
changes that have occurred in the international system after the end of Cold War.
b. The existing membership reflects a regional imbalance, with no representation from Africa
or Latin America, whilst Europe stands over represented in the Council.
c. Further, emerging nations like India, Brazil, South Africa and other industrialized nations
such as Japan and Germany, need due representation in the UNSC as permanent members.
d. Lastly, there is a need to strengthen the financial resources of the UN. It has a meagre
budget of just $2.85 billion.
3. Without major reforms the UN as an institution is facing a “crisis of confidence” and “crisis of
legitimacy.”
GLOBAL CONCERNS
Democracy
1. Image of world of democracies is rooted in Republican Liberalism, which argues that
democratic govts are of vital importance to induce peace and cooperation among states.
1. End of History theorists like Francis Fukuyama, point to irresistible trend of the world in
favour of liberal democracies, and claim it to represent end point of human history in
Hegelian sense.
2. Huntington, drew attention to three waves of democratization to show trend in favour of
democracy
1. 1st occurred b/w 1828-1926 and involved foremost democracies like USA, France, UK
2. 2nd occurred b/w 1943-1962 with West Germany, Italy, Japan and India
3. 3rd began in 1974 with overthrow of right-wing dictatorships in Greece, Portugal, Sprain,
and Latin America, along with collapse of USSR
4. Though majority countries now exhibit some feature of democratic governance, it’s important
to note both waves of democracy were followed by reverse waves.
3. Amartya Sen has highlighted democracy as a universal value, as it fosters human development.
Intrinsic values in democracy make it more than just an end in itself (educative value like
cooperation and institutional values like accountability).
1. In a rebuttal to developmental discourses which challenge universality of democracy of
eco and cultural grounds, Sen changes the discourse from fir for democracy to fit through
democracy.
4. Allows for broader range of personal freedoms, maximum opportunity to live under laws of
their own choosing, and to take moral responsibility for their choices.
5. Democratic Peace Theory rooted in ideas of Kant and Thomas Paine posits that democracies
are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies.
1. Fukuyama cites general trend of peace as outcome of homogenization of values like
toleration, cooperation, respect for rights, and preserving economic prosperity - that occurs
when states converge towards liberal democratic norms.
2. Constructivist analysis, however, highlights how democracy cannot be equated with
long term trend towards peace.
3. Realists like J Mearsheimer point to how end of Cold War marked transition from stable
bipolar world order to one characterized by inherently unstable multipolarity.
4. Rosato, in critique Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace highlighted its shortcomings.
6. Threats
1. Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations highlights the cultural relativist view of democracy,
where relations b/w states are often characterized by cultural conflict. Highlights redundancy
of democracy as only remaining ideological narrative.
2. With rise of China and Russia, there is growing significance of non-democratic states at
world stage, showcasing success of collectivism, state capitalism and governmental
discipline.
1. Robert Kagan in Return of History and End of Dreams, highlights new great power
competition b/w Western liberalism and Eastern autocracies.
3. Backlash against USA’s democratic interventions, especially during the Colour
Revolutions in post-Communist states like Georgia and Ukraine, hinged on its national
interests (strategic expansion, energy security and war on terrorism).
1. Failure to consider cultural complexities and infringement on state sovereignty. States
like China have dubbed it as mechanism of furthering hegemony.
2. Radical theorists, like Noam Chomsky in Deterring Democracy explores the
humanitarian rhetoric and imperialistic reality of US foreign policy.
4. Deliberative democratic theorists like Joseph Stiglitz criticizes IMF and World Bank due
to their lack of accountability. David Held pointed out how institutions of global governance
suffer from democratic deficit, and argues for creation of cosmopolitan model of
democracy at global level.
5. Dominant form of global democracy, is neo-liberal, and it paradoxically undermines very
aspects of democracy like equality and dignity. Rule of market, cutting of public expenditure,
reducing safety nets, deregulation and privatization, as highlighted by Thomas Picketty
(Capital) and Naomi Klein (Shock Doctrine), have led to widespread misery.
7. Reverse waves of democracy, after surges were noted by Samuel P Huntington in The Third
Wave.
1. Revival of authoritarianism in many nascent democracies. Only a few have succeeded in
establishing functioning democratic regimes.
2. Fareed Zakaria has highlighted rise of illiberal democracies - where democratically elected
regimes ignore their constitutional limits power and limiting civil liberties.
3. Hungary’s Victor Orban, Poland’s Law and Justice Party, and Belarus under Lukashenko
are undoing democratic revolutions. Democracy is being eroded within its very institutions
as can be seen in uprisings in America ranging from Jan 6th, Roe vs Wade to BLM.
4. V-Dem report highlights rising trend of electoral autocracies, with rising polarization,
misinformation, and gradual concentration of power in G20 countries.
5. Decline in quality of democracies worldwide has been dubbed as democratic backsliding,
which is often subtle and gradual.
1. Professor Larry Diamond says the 3 waves of democracy would be followed by a
democratic slump.
2. Jeremy Bartlett is book People vs Tech says that rise of social media and big tech is
influencing social behaviours in democracies.
8. Mary Kaldor says globalization is both cause and consequence of democracy.
1. Globalization, due to infusion of values and human rights greatly impacted promoting of
democracies through integration. EU advances democracy through its foreign policy.
2. However, quantitative expansion is matched by a qualitative decline. As democracy in
substantive sense is undermined since decisions are outsourced to global institutions.
Decline of nation states is resulting in hollowing of democracies worldwide.
3. Asian Economic Crisis of 1997, followed by 2008 Subprime Crisis has severely dented
democratic credentials.
4. Rise of civil society and collective citizen action due to increased awareness is increasingly
pushing for more democratization.
5. John Aart Scholte argues for Postmodern Global Democracy with plural worlds, as
opposed to current binary singular narrative based on Statism (identities no longer territorially
based) on Cosmopolitanism (cultures look at it unfavourably).
9. To reinvigorate democratic values across the world, US President Biden convened the first
Summit of Democracies, in the backdrop of Afghan and Myanmar reverting to autocratic
regimes.
1. PM observed that democratic spirit was integral to Indian civilizational ethos (inclusion,
dignity, decentralization), and that nations now follow different paths of democratic
development.
2. China claims to have contributed a New Model of Democracy which has fuelled
development and revitalization of the nation. It highlights failing allure of western liberal
democracies, and criticises democratic transformations in Iraq, Libya and Afghanistan.
3. States increasingly list digital authoritarianism, climate change and pandemic as major
stumbling blocks. However, shortcomings like rise in hyper nationalism, xenophobia,
majoritarianism that holds back truly representation, pluralistic and inclusive governance
founds no attention.
4. Democracy like charity begins at home, rather than making international pledges, elected
leaders must keep their promises.
5. Building a coalition of like-minded countries is a delicate, serious and laborious task that
requires consistency and a long-term commitment. Even the QUAD comprising just four
countries is struggling to finalize its agenda.
10. Every democracy is a work in progress and responding to democratic aspirations in a society
riven with multiple socio-economic fault-lines is a huge challenge, but India has repeatedly
proven naysayers wrong on the country’s democratic consolidation. And India’s economic rise
within a democratic set-up is itself a challenge to Chinese propaganda on an authoritarian
model’s efficacy.
11. PM: India story has one clear message to the world, that democracy can deliver, it has delivered
and it will continue to deliver.
Human Rights
1. UNDHR, 1948 – All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
1. Brought in legal domain from a mere philosophical and moral domain.
2. Human right is one of the most energizing ideas of our time.
3. Dworkin – Human rights are inalienable, permanent, universal and equal.
2. Human Rights today, looks like an insular world unto itself – system with its own standards,
institutions and mechanisms, a world of experts still far from being intrinsically connected to
people’s daily life worlds.
1. Not paid attention to as ends to be achieved but in context of primarily foreign policy and
international relations.
2. Andrew Heywood has argued that today, they serve as instrument to uplift state’s credibility
while undermining that of other states.
3. In this way, respect two distinctive ways of twisting human rights
1. Offensive – implies focus on violations by others, illustrated in the relations b/w US
and China or Russia
2. Defensive – signing and ratifying whatever treaty possible, as well as incorporating
standards as a point of positive reference whenever questions are asked as to the
country’s record.
3. Globalization – 2 schools of thought emerge:
1. Globalization as good
1. Democracies increased
2. Proliferation of instruments, conventions, institutions
3. Growth of HR consciousness
4. R2P Responsibility to Protect to Responsibility While Protecting
2. Globalization has undermined rights
1. Neo-liberal capitalism
1. Increased socio-eco inequalities - anti-poor
2. Weakened social and economic rights
2. Washington Consensus: rolling back of the state
1. Non state agencies more relevant in endeavour.
3. Human Rights affecting actions of MNCs, but WTO and international regulations silent
on them under Free Trade Regime.
4. Human Rights Regime
1. UNDHR is customary and not legally binding.
1. UNHRC (2006) replaced OHCR and shifted focus on implementation of principles put
forth in Vienna Conference 1993 – but, proved more effective highlighting violations
and not enforcing law.
2. Ensuing state obligations internationally enforceable only if systematic non-compliance
first reported to UNSC and next resulted in action in the form of sanctions - happens rarely
as international governance is weak in practice.
1. Consequently, state sovereignty – also a UN foundational principle (Charter Article
2) has remained a crucial obstacle to enforcement of international HR law.
2. States can refrain from submitting country reports as well as ignoring conclusive
observations that require follow up, and even deny access to UN mandated special
rapporteur seeking entry into country under scrutiny.
3. International bodies themselves, remain shrouded in scepticism, as countries with poor
systemic records of rights like Pakistan, China and Saudi Arabia have found their way to
being chair.
1. While international standards and mechanism have been created as a legal venture,
implementation has always been dominated by international politics.
2. Membership of charter-based bodies is through state representation implying that
states are involved in judging their own cases.
4. In the context of globalization and end of Cold Warm one would expect a revival of HR as
a genuine global venture capable of engaging and mobilizing mass constituencies. Such
support has not been forthcoming.
1. International Criminal Court established by Rome Statute has dealt with Yugoslav Wars,
Rwanda Genocide, but not a UN organ.
5. In the aftermath of 9/11, world has seen strong revival of exceptionalism, in respect to
international law. Exceptionalism is a term generally used to describe ways & means by
which states exempt themselves from an international legal and political order – US is
the most obvious example of state-based exceptionalism.
1. In wake of Global War on Terror or US response to 9/11, even rights very close to
core human dignity such as due process and prohibition of torture have been
systematically violated.
2. Highly problematic from an rights perspective is exceptionalism spill over to rest
world including countries like Iran, Israel an Saudi Arabia too.
5. Structural reasons behind failure
1. UN project as envisaged in the Charter was never meant to be enforceable by
international means. Core expression of protection and promotion of human rights
as testimony to its soft law character.
2. No clarity on what rights to be constituted as human rights and who to be considered
as human (what about terrorists?).
3. Subdue sovereignty as human rights transcends national boundaries and thus
promotes cosmopolitan solidarity.
4. Paradoxical nature of regime since no authority above nation states as per the realist
perspective, they are primarily responsible for implementation. However, human rights
are entitlements against the state.
5. CFR Report
1. Heightened attention but uneven regional efforts and weak global compliance.
China and Russia veto human rights interventions in UNSC due to own poor track
record.
1. Norm and treaties creation – prodigious but overemphasized
2. Rights monitoring – proliferating experts, increased peer-based scrutiny
3. Capacity building – vital but underemphasized
2. Remarkably little attention to follow up cases in which evident violations were
established.
3. National non-implementation is often of a structural nature, requiring primarily
international political action. Insofar as such action has been forthcoming, it has
suffered from almost inherent double standards.
1. Effective action requires UNSC consent of permanent members including China,
Russia and US. Thus, gross systemic violations cannot be effectively
addressed in territories such as Chechnya and Tibet.
2. Response to atrocities is marked by significant institutionalization but
selective attention (Xinjiang).
4. Not been much interest in global human rights as a common mission of UN as
envisaged in Article 1 of UNDHR. Instead, member states appear to believe in
setting up their own mechanisms – not as complementary but as alternative –
rather than committing themselves to truly supranational supervision and
enforcement.
6. Rights
1. Political and civil rights – disproportionately institutionalized, backlash on free expression
2. Economic rights and business responsibilities – increased corporate focus
3. Women and children rights – institutional progress but holdouts on implementation
1. UNSCR 1325 – women incorporated into peace process
4. Other groups – increased attention, selective bias
5. Anti-immigration sentiments and ultra-nationalism
6. Perspectives
1. Realist critique – infringe on sovereignty of state
2. Communitarian and post-colonial critique – based on western ideology
3. Postmodern and radical critique – excuse for interventionism and promoting geo-
political aims
7. Way forward:
1. Principles must be based on dialogue b/w civilizations, and west should
depoliticize the issue.
1. Making democracy touchstone of human rights policy, might not yield results,
so a flexible approach should be adopted.
2. Cultural relativist approach merits a consideration, if that means enabling
wider recognition of rights.
2. Capacity building in south so they can counter negative effects of globalization,
and shifting resources towards supporting political transformation, not just conflict
resolution.
1. Empower regional organizations and NGO to act and encourage technical
assistance by organizations to states.
3. Steps to tackle opacity and democratic deficit in intl institutions. Close coop b/w
peace and security and judicial branches of UN.
1. Renovate Human Rights Council with universal membership, and rethink
economic and social rights.
Environment
1. Environment as the archetypal example of a global issue, because environmental processes
have an intrinsically transnational character, and require a global response– complex
interdependence.
2. Phenomenon of climate change represents classic case of Garrett Hardin’stragedy of
commons.
a. Free riders seek to benefit without having to pay the price.
b. Highlights Prisoner’s Dilemma, where benefits of defection outweigh benefits of
cooperation.
3. Environment issues first emerged on international agenda in late 20th century with Rachel
Carson’s book The Silent Spring.
a. Limits to Growth report by Club of Rome in 1972 pointed towards finiteness of resources,
and marked a demise of Kenneth Boulding’s cowboy economy - economy with unlimited
opportunities.
b. 1960s and 1970s also saw birth of a new generation of activist NGOs – ranging from
Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.
4. Environmental climate movements address three general problems > resource problems
(conserve natural material by switching to renewable resources), sink problems (damage done
by waste products) and ethical problems (wildlife and wilderness conservation)
5. Major landmark in climate change negotiations
a. 1972 Stockholm Conference established UNEP, various principles, programs which
provided framework for further development of responses to environmental problems.
b. 1983 UNCED or Brundtland Commission in report Our Common Future gave concept
of sustainable development.
c. UNCED – Earth Summit in Rio, 1992
i. Rio Principles – took into account equity, and historical responsibility for climate change
was recognized.
1. Common But Differentiated Responsibilities
ii. UNFCCC, CBD, and Agenda 21 on Sustainable Development
d. Kyoto Protocol 1997
i. Legally binding on the Annex 1 and Annex 2 countries.
ii. Mechanisms like Clean Development Mechanism, Carbon Trading were established.
However, USA did not participate.
iii. Doha Amendment to protocol extended time period from 2012 to 2020.
e. Copenhagen Summit 2009
i. EU and USA worked together to put blame on developing countries.
ii. Voluntary commitments by USA and BASIC countries.
iii. Developed countries committed to jointly mobilize 100bn a year for climate action to
enable developing countries.
f. Cancun Summit 2010
i. New mechanisms like technology transfer.
ii. Adaptation Fund, Green Climate Fund set up to finance.
g. Paris Summit 2016
i. Historic achievement with clear aim to reduce rise in temperature below 2 degree
Celsius. Legally binding instrument.
ii. INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions to be submitted, but no
compulsory quotas, which were to be revised every 5 years to make it more stringent.
iii. US exited Paris Deal – dark hour for climate justice as biggest polluter refuses to
comply and reduce emissions.
h. Glasgow Accord 2021
i. Rule of Paris Accord finalized.
ii. Development of Emission Trading Market.
iii. Allowed carry forward of carbon credits earned after 2012 under Kyoto Protocol for
developing countries like India and Brazil.
1. Countries can even link domestic trading markets with international trading markets.
iv. Developed world has already defaulted on the $100bn promise annually by 2020. Accord
only asks developed countries to urgently and significantly scale up their climate finance.
v. Word phasing out with respect to coal has been replaced with phased down on the
behest of India.
vi. Glasgow Climate Pact has rightly targeted global warming not to exceed +1.5°C and
got about 140 countries to announce target dates for bringing emissions down to net
zero.
vii. Shyam Saran says it is a mixed bag of modest achievements and disappointed
expectations.
6. Issues
a. IPCC 1.5-degree report highlights how disastrous it would be if temperatures cross 1.5
degree. Same report says countries INDC are not enough to prevent rise in temperatures
above 1.5 degrees.
i. From bushfire in Australia, intense heatwaves across Europe taking over a thousand
lives, drought in Mozambique, to flash floods in Iran climate is striking wrath.
ii. Aside from the human cost of such developments, they will have profound political
ramifications, for example, massive flow of climate refugees, and intensifying
competition over resources.
1. Nigerian President, Mahamadou Issoufou described how shrinking of Lake Chad,
a direct consequence of climate change had destroyed local livelihood communities
and led to rise of Boko Haram.
iii. Ecological security as 5th pillar of Barry Buzan’s security view.
b. Further many pledges are not backed by concrete policies. With resistance from blue
collar job workers at home, and geostrategic compulsions are pushing USA and EU to
backslide on their commitments.
c. Sheer scope and scale of the task in hand, and political, economic and social costs that
substantial worldwide cuts in emissions would involve.
i. Require entire restructuring of economies founded on carbon-based production.
ii. Democracy and welfare state have created further problem due to state’s obligation
to ensure growth.
d. Globalization and neo-liberal capitalism have been the main culprit in environmental
degradation according to radical ecologists.
i. Further, radical environmentalists argue that reduced emissions can only be achieved
by consuming less, and thus accepting more meagre living standards.
e. Feminists have pointed out to disproportionate impact of climate change on women.
7. Disagreements have emerged about both seriousness and nature of environmental problems
and about how they can best be tackled, because environmental priorities tend to conflict
with economic ones.
a. Intrinsic trend where national interest trumps global interest.
b. Since environment is a global common, no country willing to take its responsibility.
c. Deep tensions b/w developed and developing countries over the issue.
8. Garrett Hardin used idea of Tragedy of Commons to draw parallels b/w global environmental
degradation and fate of common land before introduction of enclosures.
a. Environmental activists have long argued that the world is effectively sleepwalking into
ecological disaster.
9. Global environmental debates
a. Indira Gandhi at UNEP in 1972 – Are poverty and need not the biggest polluter?
i. 33 percent of land is degraded and 75 percent of surface water is contaminated. World
Bank says environmental sustainability could represent the biggest obstacle to
development.
ii. But politics and morality of environmentalism in a developing country is complicated.
India cannot accept binding emission neutrality targets because doing so would stunt
economic growth.
iii. Western attempts to deny fruits of industrialization enjoyed by developed world has
given rise to demands of Climate Justice.
b. Global South (LMDC a group of 25 developing countries) stresses on historical
responsibility and consumption of global carbon budget (80 percent used) to make a
case for stronger global commitments from developing countries.
i. Developing countries have right to fair share of global carbon budget and right to
responsible use of fossil fuels.
ii. Pushing developing countries to commit to net zero targets has been termed as Carbon
Imperialism. North has shifted production to peripheries, shifting the burden of ecology.
And now, it focuses on current cumulative net emissions, and adaptation over mitigation
on account that its cheaper and easier to implement.
c. Demand of developing countries
i. Compensated to the tune of $100bn annually, the carbon- credit markets be
reinvigorated
ii. Coun-tries historically aûected by climate crisis be com-pensated by way of Loss and Damages
iii. Clean development technologies be made available in ways that its industries can
painlessly adapt to
d. Market based approaches have made reductions cost affective and practical. Critics
argue market-based approaches like emission tradition, joint implementation and clean
development mechanisms - essentially promote right to pollute and commodifying the
climate.
i. Developing nations focus on rights-based approaches, and need for climate justice,
taking into account the scale of climate change impact on rights and livelihoods.
e. Liberals argue for private ownership and discipline of market to manage resources. Garret
Hardins – Freedom in a common brings ruin to all. However, eco-socialists have argued
that it is precisely the private ownership that has brought ruins to the environment
community ownership would engender respect.
f. Radical ecology is the ideology of eco-centrism, which supports very strong notions of
sustainability. Reformist ecology or shallow ecology is influenced by liberalism and
conservatism, and it supports environmentalism and enlightened anthropocentrism.
10. India and Climate Change
a. Per capita emissions are less than 1/2 of world avg, and a seventh of US emissions.
Further it is on track to accomplish all its INDCs well before time.
i. According to Climate Action Tracker, India is the only G20 country with 2°C compatible
targets. Climate Change Performance Index 2021, that tracks climate protection
performance, ranks India as a high performing country.
b. As a flag bearer of global south, India has highlighted need for climate equity.
i. Further as a responsible global power, it has launched ISA, CDRI and IRIS to help
SIDS fight vagaries of climate.
ii. At COP26, India took a stand on climate finance to demand 1tn to meet goals of
addressing climate change, mitigation, and adaptation.
iii. PM presentedPanchamrit, a five-point agenda including - non fossil fuel energy capacity
of 500GW by 2030, 50 percent renewable energy by 2030, 1bn tonne reduction of
emission by 2030, reduce carbon intensity by 45 percent and net zero by 2070
11. Emphasizing urgency of climate mitigation, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz says it requires
war time mobilization. UN Chief says the world must choose hope over surrender in the fight
against climate justice.
Gender Justice
1. In international relations, gender justice and women rights are often considered as lowsalience
issues with limited relevance for the analysis of high politics. Yet if the aim is to secure a just
global order, it is not possible to ignore the interests of half of the world’s population.
2. Women are overrepresented among poorest, and underrepresented in positions of power
and influence.
1. Many states deny them basic civil and political rights.
2. Women make up 24% of parliaments. On average paid 24% less. 2/3 of worlds illiterate
adults. 1 in 3 experience sexual violence once in lifetime.
3. Gender Gap Report by WEF points to 100-year gap. Most of us will not see gender parity
in our lifetimes; sobering reality found by report.
3. Gender justice is based on notion of full equality of women and man in all spheres of life,
resulting in women on equal basis with men defining and shaping policies, structures and
decisions that affect their lives and society as a whole.
1. Transforming gender power relations
2. Raising women voices
3. Women taking control and taking collective action
4. Supporting women access to resources
5. Ending violence against women
4. Discipline of intl relations no longer revolves around traditional issues of inter-state wares and
weaponry - it has grown to include matters such as ethnic identity, economy and civil society.
1. Post CW era, witnessed growth of Feminist theory, largely in opposition to Realist theory,
which is seen as essentially patriarchal and narrow.
5. Feminists argue that intl politics is seen solely from inter-state perspective, not accounting for
how citizens, especially women are treated,
1. They object that women are not represented in international politics, while decisions at
such levels, including declaration of war and conclusion of peace have serious
consequences for women.
2. Patricia Collins and Martha Nussbaum pointed out threats to women in security domain,
especially under circumstances of war.
1. Ex: Bucha massacre in Ukraine war of 2022.
3. Discussions in intl relations are steered by men, who have little or no consideration for
women’s experiences and perspectives. Therefore, the question is, as put by Cynthia
Enloe, “where are the women?”
1. 17 countries have women as head of state.
6. Cynthia Enloe exposed the multiplicity of roles women play in sustaining global economic
forces and inter-state relations. Adopted a gender-lens of women empiricism to add women to
existing analytical frameworks.
1. Feminists argue that intl relations will remain a prime example of patriarchy, as long as
it continues to undermine and exclude female sex.
7. Limitations
1. Realistic critique
1. Universal concept of gender cannot be applied globally. No feminist grounds from
where to theorise about international relations.
2. States value independence more than autonomy.
2. Security critique
1. Feminist solidarity problematic. Idea of women as peacemakers.
8. Impact of globalization on women
1. Negative impacts > Socialist feminist critique that neoliberal capitalism is inherently
patriarchal.
1. Feminization of work > pink-collar jobs lead to exploitation and low wages
2. Feminization of migration > nurses of developed societies, house-helps
3. Feminization of poverty and agriculture
4. Boosted sex tourism and trafficking
5. MNC have exploited women, paying them sub-par salaries
6. Re-emergence of conservatism and fundamentalism as a reaction
2. Positive impacts > Modernization theorists have associated economic development with
emancipation of women from their traditional roles.
1. In Gender Inequality Index, developed countries constantly outperform others.
2. Greater human rights and women rights awareness
3. Gender and women issues are mainstreaming
4. Fastened women political involvement > #MeToo
5. Integrating gender into development policies > gender budgeting
9. Global developments
1. Resolution 1325 (2000) affirms importance of participation of women and inclusion of
gender perspectives in peace negotiations, humanitarian planning, peacekeeping
operations, and post-conflict peacebuilding and governance.
2. In 1979,UNGA adopted CEDAW, Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women, dubbed as intl bill of rights for women.
1. States committed to include policies of equality, and ensure elimination of all forms of
discrimination.
2. Declared 1975 as International Women Year and organized First Conference on Women.
3. Beijing Platform for Action (4th Conference on Women) declared women rights as
human rights.
3. UN Women formed in 2010, dedicated to quality and empowerment.
4. UN Security General’s campaign Unite to End Violence Against Women.
1. UN call-to-action to fight Shadow Pandemic amidst pandemic.
5. ECOSOC established Commission on Status of Women as its principal policy making
body.
6. SDG provide for critical role of women in all the goals. SDG 5 aims to grant women equality
and equal opportunities.
10. Winds of change
1. 2018 Nobel Peace Prize to Nadia Murad, former ISIS human trafficking survivor.
2. 17 countries have a women head, with NZ’s Jacinda Arden, and Finland with its all women
cabinet led by Sanna Marin.
Terrorism
1. Definition of terrorism is highly contested. However, it can be broadly described as
unauthorized use of violence, to create a wave of terror with intention to secure a political or
social objective.
1. Frantz Fannon – Fervour is the weapon of choice of the impotent.
2. Robert Goodin - Form of political violence that aims to achieve its objectives through
creating a climate of fear and apprehension.
2. Features
1. Against non-combatant targets by individuals or subnational groups by extremists, whose
interests are not that widely shared.
2. Protracted warfare, resting on propaganda, that exists in an environment of neither war
nor peace.
3. Highly publicised atrocities to intimidate enemy, and to mobilize popular support.
4. Often result of strategic interaction with position of authority, to elicit concessions. Violence
oftentimes, is a bargaining failure. However, whatever be the goal, terrorism is morally
in-excusable.
3. Evolution
1. Not a modern phenomenon, from Sicarii in the Roman empire, Jacobins led by
Robespierre, during the Reign of Terror, the Irish Republicans, and the Thugees in India.
2. Forms of terrorism
1. Ethnic: Islamist fundamentalism like Al-Qaeda, Taliban
2. National: PLO, Muslim Brotherhood, Kurds
3. Ideological: Naxalism and ISIS
4. Secessionist: Khalistan, LTTE, IRA
5. Insurrectionary: Free Syria Army
4. Post globalization, non-state actors gained advantage over states
1. Groups and lone wolf attackers have enhanced capabilities with access to new and
emerging tech including drones, cryptocurrencies and encrypted communications
2. Social media has contributed to a new amorphous nature of terrorist groups, with increased
radicalization and global recruitment, like ISIS
3. Pandemic had made world more susceptible to radicalizing narratives and extremist
propaganda, with isolation and associated distress and economic uncertainty
4. Terrorist groups have diversified funding portfolios through range of criminal activities,
including extortion, money laundering, drug smuggling, trafficking and smuggling of drugs,
humans, antiquities, etc
5. New age terrorists, have greater transnational reach. 9/11 attack had ultimate command
and control in Afghanistan while attackers came from several Arab states.
6. Islamist terrorism and religious extremism got a boost with rise of IS in Iraq and Syria.
South Asia, and Europe has suffered dramatic attacks, and influx of refugees with political
and social consequences.
5. Four Waves of modern terrorism by David C Rappaport
1. Anarchist terror of 1880s-1920s
1. Catalyst was slow political reforms, declining legitimacy of monarchies.
2. Goal was revolution and elimination of govt oppression.
3. Targets were head of state.
4. Tactics used were assassinations and robberies.
5. Aggressive state opposition and beginning WW1 led to decline.
2. Anti-colonial or nationalist terror of 1920-1960s
1. Catalyst was Treaty of Versailles and increased desire for self-determination.
2. Goal was to eliminate colonial rule, create new states.
3. Targets were police and military.
4. Guerrilla style hit and run attacks.
5. Achieved its goals, colonial rulers withdrew.
3. Leftist terror of 1960s-1980s
1. Sparked by Vietnam War which showed vulnerability of contemporary democratic state.
2. Groups see themselves as part of anti-capitalist struggle.
3. Target were governments - inherently anti-US.
4. Hijackings, kidnappings and assassinations.
5. Ended with end of Cold War.
4. Religious terror of 1979-present
1. Inspired by Iranian revolution of 1979, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
2. Muslim states experienced crises of governmental legitimacy as Islamic fundamentalism
was growing.
3. Goal was creation of global Islamic Caliphate.
4. Target was US, Israel.
5. Suicide bombings, aircrafts hijacking.
6. International character not because of its nature but more due to the response to it
(War on Terror). ISIS, Al Qaeda are all products of this.
6. New Terrorism – until 1990s, terrorism was considered a security concern of 2nd order. However,
with the Global War on Terror, terrorism became prime security threat being dubbed as new
terrorism, global terrorism; catastrophic terrorism.
1. Old terrorism was secular (political, nationalist) and strategic, and sought to achieve
particular aims through restrained use of violence. Now it’s religious fanaticism, practiced
like a sacred duty of perpetrating terror in extreme sense.
2. Old terrorism was hierarchical and commanding; now it is amorphous and has a diffused
control structure with suicide bombings, lone-wolf attacks, sleeper cells.
3. Territorial orientation, is now transformed to a new transnational orientation.
4. Islamic Fundamentalism
1. Ideological reasons: rooted in anti-westernism. Highlights clash of civilizations and
incompatibility of values, leading to intolerance and extremism.
2. Political reasons: regain pristine glory of the Muslim World, and rise of Wahhabism
in Middle East.
3. Bush’s War on Terror, Invasion of Iraq 2003, support to Mujaheddin in Afghan, Muslim
Brotherhood and Syrian Democratic Forces to secure political ends had direct
implications.
4. American actions in West Asia and Middle East acted as barrier to secular nationalism,
with repercussions like destabilizing regimes like those of Nasser in Egypt, Mosaddeq
in Iran, Gaddafi in Syria and most recently Bashar Al Assad in Syria.
1. Hence, it has made terrorism more self-perpetuating.
5. US backing of Israel, and its support to Israel’s long history of rejecting peace clauses
on Palestine is both the cause and effect of Palestinian violence.
1. Strategic interests - strong ally in west Asia with huge military and nuclear capability,
along with intelligence sharing.
6. Legitimation crisis of govts; movements to topple apostate govt
1. Arab Spring 2011 – protests erupted in Tunisia for democratic govt; spread to
Egypt, Lebanon, Yemen, Libya, Bahrain, Syria.
5. Global terrorism
1. MK Narayan argues that there is cross-pollination of ideas and pooling of resources.
This has also led to backlash against cosmopolitan globalization.
2. Diaspora has become important source of funding.
3. Technology: Pulwama attacker used virtual sim to contact JeM handlers in Pak. Leading
to rise ofremote-control terror, internet-enabled terrorism.
4. Huntington in Clash of Civilizations pointed at how conflicts over identity and religion
will dominate geo-politics.
1. Robert Cooper calls this clash among pre-modern and modern/postmodern states.
6. Catastrophic terrorism
1. Particularly difficult to defend against due to its clandestine use, suicide bombings
have greatly exacerbated it.
2. Scope of terrorism has greatly widened after threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction
falling into their hands.
3. Lesser moral compulsions on new terrorism.
7. USA’s War on Terror
1. International military campaign launched after Sept 11, 2001.
1. USA resorted to asymmetrical balancing, by way of wielding armed rebel groups
against terrorists, becoming the only state to wage war against terror affected nation
states.
2. Bush’s Doctrine launched attack Axis of Evil – comprised of Iran, Iraq and North
Korea
2. Neo-conservatism holds domestic and intl sphere to clear moral and ideological standards,
and champions the use of militarism to further that standard globally.
1. This ideology led the view that after 9/11 America should use the “unipolar moment”
(Krauthammer 1990) to create a “unipolar era” of unrivalled American power projection
globally (Kagan 2002).
3. Views
1. John Ickenberryhas argued that ideology of WOT was unsustainable politically and
financially.
1. Joseph Nye says it led decline of soft power of the USA.
2. Francis Fukuyama – critical of Bush Doctrine – aimed at eliminating terror by
targeting non state actors and rogue state.
2. C Rajamohansays American ideologues used 9/11 moment to pursue all kinds of
fetishes - hunting for nuclear weapons that did not exist in Iraq, promoting democracy
in Middle East, and pursuing disastrous regime changes in the region.
1. After 9/11, President Bush, turned his attention to confronting an imagined “global
axis of evil”, none of which was involved in 9/11.
2. US rewarded Pakistan with billions of dollars in military and eco assistance that
actively nurtured Taliban.
3. Militaristic states overstretched itself. Richard Rosecrance points rise of trading
states which give power to economic factor, focusing on soft power.
4. Noam Chomsky – US’s attempt to secure resources in the Middle East. Human
rights a cloak for hegemonic ambitions.
1. Critical of US role, calls it first terrorist state.
5. Biggest benefit, in hindsight has been China, whose ambitions and expansion have
been unfettered, rose as revisionist power.
4. Issues
1. Rogue/outlaw/pariah nation states, considered threatening to world peace are
demonized which has counter-productive effect.
2. At home, rights becoming casualties to national security and rise of Islamophobia is
further playing down wishes of extremists.
3. Diluted soft power and alienated Muslim world. Anti-Americanism sentiment resulted
in more terrorism.
4. Toppling of autocratic but secular regimes in West Asia allowed extremist movements
to thrive again.
5. Exporting democracy at gunpoint above and regime change – led to widespread
anarchy which provided vacuum to led non-state actors thrive in Syria and Iraq like
ISIS.
6. Many Arab states do not see al Qaeda and its offshoots as existential threats, and they
worry more about Muslim states like Turkey, Qatar and Iran that seek to leverage Islam
for geopolitical purposes.
1. Pushed smaller kingdoms towards Israel.
7. 20 years, US exited its first outpost, a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. As President
Biden said, terror threat has metastasized across the world. Instead of one centralized
base, the world now has many al-Qaedas.
8. Approaches
1. Realist approach – motives are strategic; strong emphasis on dichotomy b/w actions of
states and non-state actors; state’s response should be uncompromising.
2. Liberal approach – motives are ideological; ethical dilemmas on response to terrorism;
even human rights of terrorists; attack on humanitarian values
3. Radical theorists – hold that terrorism may advance cause of political justice. Noam
Chomsky equates terrorism with killing of unarmed citizens, both states and non-state. US
has perpetrated more terror.
4. Constructivists and post-structuralist approach – point to dangers of essentializing
terrorism. Terrorism is social and political construct used to define certain groups and
political causes as non-legitimate.
9. Countering terrorism
1. Any strategy to fight terrorism has to be grounded in rule of law, should be victim centric
and reduce appeal of terrorists through civil society participation against propaganda war.
1. This should go hand in hand with addressing root causes like poverty.
2. Offensive measures: deter by potential targets, by threatening massive retaliation against
terrorist organizations, should attacks occur.
1. Terrorists are less likely to be deterred than states. Terrorists use strategy of provocation,
retaliation by target may simply play into their hands.
2. Ex: military repressing (War on Terror), pre-emption (Surgical Strike)
3. Criticism – poor track record, greater retaliation by terrorists, human rights violation;
civil life harmed
3. Defensive measures: strengthening state security; border protection, surveillance;
choking money laundering, immigration control
1. Criticism – not cheap (US 1/2 trillion on homeland security), impose greater costs on
society, endanger human rights, often counter-productive, not totally effective
4. Criminalization: mostly reactive, it seeks to arrest terrorist for attacks after they have
been committed.
1. For transnational terrorism, this hinges on effective international cooperation.
2. By bringing justice, states hope not only to disrupt terrorist groups, but to deter them
from carrying out attacks as well.
5. Negotiation and compromise: political dealing like Columbia and FARC or NSCN-IM
and India
1. Ends up emboldening groups, and provides legitimacy
2. Bargaining failures inevitable due to miscommunication and indivisibility of issues
6. S Jaishankar in his UNSC speech said terrorism is a crime against humanity, laid out
action plan to combat terrorism
1. Removing distinction b/w good and bad terrorists
2. Enhanced coordination b/w FATF and UNSC
3. Adequate funding to UN counter terrorism efforts and bodies
4. Preventing access to financial resources
7. Realizing negotiations on Draft Comprehensive Convention on Intl Terrorism CCIT
are moving at snail’s pace, India plans to build a Comity of Nations Against Intl Terrorism
as a voluntary multilateral forum based on principles of CCIT.
1. CCIT was proposed by India in 1996.
1. Intends to criminalize all forms of intl terrorism and deny terrorists finances, arms
and safe heavens.
2. Inter-govt to enhance prosecution and extradition of terrorist.
3. Binding on all signatories.
4. Develops universal definition of terrorist.
5. Makes cross border terrorism and extraditable offence worldwide.
2. Along with its support for resolutions like 1267 (ISIS and Al Qaeda) 1373 (Counter
Terrorism Committee), 1988 (sanctions on Taliban) and 1540 (pertaining to non-
proliferation of WMDs)
3. Concerns
1. US opposes provision “military attacks during peacetime”, due apprehension
over its own long standing armed forces presence.
2. OIC opposes it, and calls for exclusion of “national liberation movement”,
especially in context of Palestine.
3. Latin Am countries want “terror inflicted by state” to also be included in the definition.
Nuclear Proliferation
1. Nuclear proliferation is spread of nuclear weapons and fissionable material to states not
recognized as nuclear weapon states by Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT.
a. John F Kennedy – Weapons of war must be abolished, before they abolish us.
2. Massive destructive capacity of nuclear weapons means they have affected international
and domestic politics in a way that no other weapons ever have.
a. Archetypal example of a new category of weapons, recognized by the United Nations
since 1948: weapons of mass destruction, or WMD.
3. First and only nuclear weapons that have been used in warfare were the atomic bombs,
developed by the Manhattan Project, which were exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
1945 respectively.
4. Why nations acquire nuclear weapons?
a. Cold War era
i. Due to security dilemma. Mearsheimer – to ensure security and survival in anarchic
world.
ii. As a deterrence. Margaret Thatcher – world without nuclear weapons would be less
stable, and more dangerous for all of us.
iii. Balance of terror where threat of nuclear annihilation discourages war has succeeded
balance of power.
iv. Symbolic impact and international prestige.
v. Proliferation remained vertical > created nuclear apartheid
vi. Robert Jervis called it nuclear revolution > nuclear weapons have caused a
fundamental shift in nature of warfare with chief goal of states to avert wars.
b. Post-Cold War era > seen as nuclear age to heightened anxiety
i. Incentives to acquire have increased
1. For purpose of security (India; nuclear umbrella or extended deterrence ended >
self-help)
2. As a diplomatic tool (Pakistan)
3. As a bargaining power; discourage intervention (North Korea)
ii. Bigger powers continue to deploy nuclear weapons as START III broke down >
weakened moral and diplomatic pressure
iii. New generation sophisticated low yield weapons available
iv. Proliferation is easier due to lack of water-tight MICs and diffused technology
v. Proliferation is easier with globalization; with collapse of USSR, its nuclear technology
was released
vi. Rogue states like North Korea and Iran and rise of Axis of Evil heightened fears
vii. Dangers of nuclear capabilities with non-state actors
5. Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty 1987
a. Eliminated ground based nuclear war heads of medium and shorter range. US cited Russian
non-compliance.
b. Highlighted lack of concrete security infrastructure being detrimental to stability in
international nuclear domain.
6. Why nations do not use nuclear weapons?
a. Realists (Kenneth Waltz) – nuclear weapons as weapons of peace through balance of
threat; more the better
b. Social Constructivists (Nina Tannenwald) – role of norms, values, institutions.
i. Many states with potential to develop nuclear weapons have chosen not to do so.
Even, weapon states have not used it since Hiroshima, like in Vietnam war.
ii. In book The Nuclear Taboo she argued rationalist cost-benefit evaluations and realist
emphasis on self-interest and power do not fully account for non-use of nuclear weapons
since 1945.
iii. Due to taboo around use of nuclear weapons, they have come to be defined as
unacceptable and practically unthinkable.
c. Non-proliferation regime has been getting stronger. Although INF treaty seemed
outdated, it still held the two powers accountable.
7. Arms control and disarmament regimes
a. Central means of containing conflict and ensuring global security.
i. Objective is to regulate arms levels either by limiting their growth or by restricting how
they can be used.
ii. Principal means are treaties and conventions, which attempt to establish security
regimes to counter uncertainty generated by the security dilemma.
b. On the credit side, there are some undoubted, if partial, successes. For example,
the Partial Test Ban Treaty went a long way to ensuring the elimination of atmospheric
nuclear testing.
i. Similarly, NPT, single most important nuclear arms control treaty, has made major
contribution to slowing pace of horizontal proliferation, especially amongst developed
states that clearly possess the economic and technological capacity to acquire nuclear
weapons.
c. On the debit side, however, nuclear treaties and conventions singularly failed to prevent
the vertical proliferation of nuclear weapons during the Cold War, as the USA and the
Soviet Union each built up nuclear arsenals of staggering proportions.
i. START I and START II were, for example, simply dead letters, even though they set
out only to reduce the increase in nuclear weapons, not to reduce them.
d. Problems
i. Security dilemma as realists would point out, is an intractable problem, meaning security
regimes are likely to break down and arms race is unavoidable.
ii. Difference b/w national security and collective security. States always view their build
up as legitimate in terms of providing defence and deterrent. Like India has never
signed NPT.
iii. It seeks to control the most heavily armed and most powerful states. They will only be
bound by security regimes when their national interests coincide.
1. Like post 2010 as security priorities of US and Russia changed it marked the end of
Peace Dividend > economic benefit as a result of cut in military spending.
e. Arms control – NPT; NSG; MTCR; Wassenaar; Australia Group
f. Disarmament – Conference on Disarmament; Non-Proliferation Treaty; Nuclear Prohibition
Treaty
8. Why nuclear proliferation still continues?
a. Security dilemma
b. National security trumps global security
c. Nuclear weapon states are most powerful and seldom follow norms
d. Failure of non-proliferation regimes and incapacity of global actors like IAEA
e. Rogue states by their nature are not susceptible to pressures constructed by security
regimes. Iraq after the Gulf War.
i. Bush doctrine, through which the combined threat from rogue states and WMD would
in future be addressed through pre-emptive war.
9. Should nuclear proliferation occur?
a. Views about the implications of nuclear proliferation vary significantly. Whereas realists
have interpreted nuclear weapons as a major component of the long peace of the Cold
War, others have warned that they pose an ever-present, and indeed deepening, threat to
peace and security.
b. Yes
i. Absence of nuclear war. Entirely of symbolic and not practical importance.
ii. Effective deterrence or prevention of war through the massive destruction that would
befall an aggressor.
iii. International stability as vertical proliferation of nuclear weapons has not destabilized.
iv. Nuclear statesmanship where possession of nuclear weapons may engender a sense
of responsibility and strong bias in favour of caution, among those who had previously
inclined towards adventurism or aggression.
v. Kenneth Waltz - Yes, weapons of peace.
1. Gradual spread is better than no spread.
2. Extremely high costs prevent their use.
3. Asymmetric capabilities are okay.
4. Relevant even for smaller states.
c. No
i. Fallibility of deterrent systems. Nuclear deterrence is naive and dangerous.
Deterrence may fail due to miscalculations and accidents.
ii. Danger of nuclear imbalances. No guarantee that vertical or horizontal proliferation
will preserve balance of power. Inevitable crates temporary imbalances which may be
exploited by aggressive states.
iii. Useable nuclear weapons like tactical or battlefield weapons are no longer of symbolic
importance alone. This has led to theory of NUTS or nuclear utilization target selection,
which rejects the logic of MAD in suggesting that it is possible for limited nuclear
exchange to occur.
iv. Irresponsible nuclear powers. Deterrent effect worked out in the first bipolar nuclear
age. It is far less reliable in the less stable, multipolar circumstances of the second
nuclear age.
v. Scott D Sagan – No
1. Military displays organizational behavior and has offensive culture.
2. Weak capability of security of nuclear weapons.
3. Multiples actors increases chances of miscalculations.
4. N(th) nation problem – endless proliferation.
5. Usable nuclear weapons like tactical weapons.
10. However, image of a world in which all states, to say nothing of a collection of non-state
actors, seek to acquire nuclear weapons is misleading. Indeed, the extent of proliferation is
much less than we might otherwise have expected in an anarchic, self-help system
(Smith 2010).
a. A number of states with clear economic and technological potential to develop nuclear
weapons have demonstrated a consistent determination not to do so. These include
Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan and South Korea.
b. A further collection of states have voluntarily abandoned nuclear programmes and
renounced nuclear weapons. Brazil, Argentina and South Africa are all former opaque
nuclear states.
c. Reasons for this level of unilateral self-policing or self-restraint are many and various.
They include that states recognize that the costs of acquiring nuclear weapons may
outweigh benefits they bring, that the possession of nuclear weapons is widely viewed
by international community as illegitimate, and that non-proliferation is clearly favoured
by established nuclear powers, particularly the P-5.
11. Disarmament and post nuclear world
a. Long been advanced by peace movement anti-nuclear activism.
b. For many, the historically unprecedented scale of death and destruction that nuclear
weapons made possible fundamentally altered thinking about the ethics of war, perhaps
making the notion of a just war entirely redundant.
i. International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) was launched in 2007
and represents over 200 organizations in some 50 countries.
c. Most prominently, nuclear weapons have been seen as morally indefensible, if not
quintessentially evil. In this view, the development, use or threatened use can never be
justified, in any circumstances.
i. Economic and political case in favour of nuclear disarmament is based on considerations
such as huge cost of development, belief deterrence simply leads to an escalating,
and unstable arms race, and that nuclear weapons deepen inequality as elite nuclear
club try to dictate to the rest of the world.
ii. Psychological arguments against nuclear weapons have also been advanced, not least
linked to their capacity to generate unending anxiety and dread, as post-1945
generations have lived under the shadow of the bomb.
d. However, this strategy faces at least three problems.
i. In the first place, it is unclear whether such pressures, will have any impact on rogue
states, which have demonstrated willingness to endure condemnation from
international community in pursuit of what they see as key security goals.
ii. Second, great power unanimity on this issue may be fragile. China, for instance, has
made it clear that it has no plans to scrap its nuclear weapons.
iii. Third, significant technical problems about verifiable nuclear security
infrastructure will have to be surmounted if abolition is to become a reality.
e. There are some, nevertheless, who argue that even if elimination of nuclear weapons
is possible, it may not be desirable.
i. Concerns have been expressed about impact of nuclear disarmament will have on
likelihood of war. Decline in interstate war post 1945 has been a consequence of
fear that conventional wars will escalate into nuclear wars.
ii. A major factor helping to prevent nuclear proliferation in recent decades has been
the existence of the USA’s nuclear umbrella.
iii. Efforts to create a world free of nuclear weapons maybe counterproductive.


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Nature of Comparative Politics

Approaches in Comparative Politics

2. It involves: 4 input functions (political socialization, communication and interest

STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE: CHARACTERISTICS AND

State in Capitalist Economies

State in Socialist Economies

State in Advanced Industrial Societies

State in Developing Societies

POLITICS OF REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION: POLITICAL

Old Social Movements Old Social Movements

12. Differences between social movements:

Developed Countries Developing Countries

GLOBALISATION: RESPONSES FROM DEVELOPED AND

KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: NATIONAL

Balance of Power BOP Collective Security CS

Rise of Superpowers; Strategic and Ideological Bipolarity

Arms Race 1960-72

Collapse of the Soviet Union

EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM: FROM

Bretton Woods Institutions

International Monetary Fund

World Trade Organization

New International Economic Order NIEO

Globalization of World Economy

UNITED NATIONS: ENVISAGED ROLE AND ACTUAL RECORD;

Envisaged role and actual accord of the UN

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