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Engine Bearings
Engine Bearings
BEARINGS
An overlayer is a thin galvanic coating of mainly lead (Pb) and tin (Sn),
which is applied directly on to the white metal or, via an intermediate layer,
on to the tin aluminium sliding surface of the bearing. The overlayer is a soft
and ductile coating, its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between the bearing sliding surface and the pin surface
geometry.
Bearing Design
Plain bearings for MC engines are manufactured as steel shells with a
sliding surface of white metal or tin aluminium. Tin aluminium bearings are
always of the thin shell design
while the white metal bearings can either be of the thick shell or thin shell
design.
The bearing surface is furnished with a centrally placed oil supply groove
and other design features such as tangential run-outs, oil wedges and/or
bore reliefs.
Tangential Runout
A tangential runout is transition geometry between the circumferential oil
supply groove and the bearing sliding surface. This special oil groove
transition geometry prevents an oil scraping effect and reduces the
resistance to the flow of oil towards the loaded area of the bearing
Bore Relief
The bearing sliding surface is machined at the mating faces of the upper
and lower shells to create bore reliefs. Their main objective is to
compensate for misalignments which could result in a protruding edge
(step) of the lower shell's mating face to that of the upper shell. Such a
protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil starvation. Fig A-A
above.
a) To enhance the oil distribution over the load carrying surfaces. (The
tapered
areas give improved oil inlet conditions).
This type of bearing has a steel back with the required stiffness
b) To support the cast-on white metal in regions where the shell lacks
support, for example in the area of the upper shell mating faces.
The top clearances in this bearing design are adjusted with shims, while
the side clearances are a predetermined result of the summation of the
housing bore, shell wall thickness, journal tolerances, and the influence of
the staybolt tensioning force which deforms the bedplate around the bearing
assembly.
Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% and 2.5% of the
journal diameter.
The steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to support the cast-on
white metal alone. The bearing must therefore be supported rigidly over its
full length. This type of bearing is manufactured with a circumferential
overlength (crush/nip) which, when the shells are mounted and tightened
up, will produce the required radial pressure between the shell and the
bearing housing. The maximum/minimum top clearance in this shell is
predetermined and results from a summation of the housing bore, shell wall
thickness, journal/pin diameter tolerances and, for main bearings, the
deformation of the bedplate from the staybolt tensioning force.
Top Clearance
Correct top clearance in main bearings, crankpin bearings, and crosshead
bearings
is necessary to sustain the required oil flow through the bearing, and hence
stabilize the bearing temperature at a level that will ensure the fatigue
strength of the bearing metal.
In the main and crankpin bearings, the clearance ensures the necessary
space to accommodate the journal orbit so as to avoid mechanical overload
tendencies on the bearing sliding surface (especially in the main bearing).
In both cases, it is vital that the clearance values from the previous check
are available for comparison. Therefore, it is necessary to enter clearances
in the engine log book with the relevant date and engine service hours.
Wear
Under normal service conditions, bearing wear is negligible. Excessive wear
is due to abrasive or corrosive contamination of the system oil which will
affect the roughness of the journal/pin and increase the wear rate of the
bearing.
The reduction of shell thickness in the loaded area of the main, crankpin
and crosshead bearing in a given time interval represents the wear rate of
the bearing. Average bearing wear rate is 0.01 mm/10,000 hrs. As long as
the wear rate is in the region of this value, the bearing function can be
regarded as normal.
For crosshead bearings, the wear limit is confined to about 50% reduction of
the oil wedge length
Journals/Pins
Surface Roughness
Journal/pin surface roughness is important for the bearing condition.
Increased surface roughness can be caused by:
a) Abrasive damage due to contamination of the system oil.
b) Corrosive damage due to sea water contamination of the system oil
(acidic) or oxidation of the journals due to condensate.
Evaluate the roughness with a Ruko tester, by comparing the surface of the
pin/journal with the specimens on the Ruko tester.
When performing this test, the pin surface and the Ruko tester must be
thoroughly clean and dry.
Hold the tester close to the surface and compare the surfaces. If necessary,
use your finger nail to run over the pin/journal surface and the Ruko
specimens to compare and determine the roughness level.
Spark Erosion
Spark erosion is caused by a voltage discharge between the main bearing
and journal surface. The cause of the potential is the development of a
galvanic element between the ship’s hull, sea water, and the propeller
shaft/crankshaft.
The oil film acts as a dielectric. The puncture voltage in the bearing depends
on the thickness of the oil film.
With increasing engine ratings, the specific load in the main bearing is
increased. This will reduce the oil film thickness, and enable the discharge
to take place at a lower voltage level.
Since the hydrodynamic oil film thickness varies through a rotation cycle,
the discharge will take place at roughly the same instant during each
rotation cycle, i.e. when the film thickness is at its minimum. The roughening
will accordingly be concentrated in certain areas on the journal surface.
In the early stages, the roughened areas can resemble pitting erosion - but
later, as the roughness increases, the small craters will scrape off and pick
up white metal – hence the silvery white appearance.
Tin based white metal is used in the main bearings, crankpin bearings,
crosshead guide shoes, camshaft bearings and thrust bearings
because of its excellent load carrying and sliding properties.
Overlayers
An overlayer is a thin galvanic coating of mainly lead (Pb) and tin (Sn),
which is applied directly on to the white metal or, via an intermediate layer,
on to the tin aluminium sliding surface of the bearing. The overlayer is a soft
and ductile coating, its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between the bearing sliding surface and the pin surface
geometry.
Flashlayer, Tin (Sn)
A flash layer is a 100% tin (Sn) layer which is applied galvanically; the
thickness of this layer is from 2 µm to 5 µm. The coating of tin flash is
applied all over and functions primarily to prevent corrosion (oxidation) of
the bearing. The tin flash also functions as an effective dry lubricant when
new bearings are installed and the engine is barred.
LUBRICATION OF BEARINGS
Effect of Viscosity
Note that in larger bearings, the flow of heat from the bearings takes place
largely through the bearing oil flow. Rate of oil flow depends on viscosity.
So the bearing temperature rise depends on oil viscosity.
This is a thin layer of oil between the bearing and shaft, essential for
separating them from each other. This lubricating oil must be maintained at
the right temperature through the bearing otherwise the viscosity of the oil
will be affected.
Lower viscosity will result in thin oil film termed as Boundary Lubrication or
Thin Film Lubrication. The bearing and shaft can come in contact with each
other in this situation. This will be extremely damaging if prolonged.
Higher than designed viscosity of lubricating oil will result in bearing running
hot and eventually the viscosity of oil will be dropping. Boundary lubrication
will be the end result.
The desired lubrication is termed as Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Thick Film
Lubrication which will provide full separation between bearing and shaft.
Viscosity
Lubricant
Bearing
Temperature
Fig 1
Bearing Operating Temperature
Lubricant insists on following the lubricant curve and since bearing must
operate on computed bearing curve, the particular ‘Bearing-Lubricant’
combination will reach a steady operating condition at the intersection of
these two curves. This method of solution is known as the Operating-Line
Method and is quiet general in its applicability.
Boundary Lubrication
In bearings of almost all designs there are periods of operation during which
a Hydrodynamic or Thick Film Lubrication cannot be maintained between
moving surfaces. In starting a Hydrodynamic Lubrication, rubbing will occur
at the initial stage before a load-carrying film is established. In other cases,
the load may be so high and speeds so low that it is not possible to obtain a
hydrodynamic film under any conditions.
It can be seen that the film thickness is directly proportional to the viscosity
of lubricant and rubbing speed on the bearing surface. However, beyond a
certain viscosity and speed the film will be affected as mentioned earlier.
Beyond this limiting speed, turbulence occurs in the oil film. This results in
higher power loss, lower oil flow and higher operating temperature. This
higher temperature will eventually lower the viscosity resulting in thin oil film.
Fig 2
Generation of Oil Film (Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)
Fig 3
Generation of Oil Film (Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)
With reference to Fig 2 & 3, note the wedge formation between the shaft
and bearing and the eccentricity in the shaft as it has stabilized.
Fig 4
Fig 4
Generation of Oil Film: Gudgeon Pin Bearing
(Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)
With reference to Fig 4, note the oil film in the gudgeon pin bearing of 4
stroke engine along with load reversal during the end of exhaust stroke.
The cylinder pressure and inertia forces vary very much in magnitude
throughout the working cycle. Hence the loads to be sustained by the
bearings fluctuate very severely and the bearing must be designed to
withstand fluctuation.
Bearing Clearance
This relationship means for example, if clearance comes down by two (2)
times, the oil flow will come down by eight (8) times. This will seriously
affect the bearing performance. The clearance must not be so small that
the oil flow is unduly restricted and the bearing overheats. This has been
mentioned earlier that the bearing performance significantly depends on oil
flow which in turn depends on clearance. While the clearance must not be
so small as to restrict oil flow, larger clearances will make excessive
slapping noise and end leakage will be excessive. In extreme cases it may
damage bearing material, reduce the load carrying oil film. In order to
obtain an adequate oil flow without slapping from large clearance, the
clearance in the direction of principal load is normally kept small and
clearance at right angles in the direction of the split is two to four times the
clearance in the direction of the load. Actually less oil will flow through
bearing with smaller clearance, causing it to run warmer. This will drop oil
viscosity and further decrease film thickness. In order to avoid excessive
slapping and noise, connecting rod bearings are often held to minimum
clearance in the direction or rod axis. The clearance is 2 to 4 times as much
in the direction at right angle along the bearing spilt. This increases oil flow,
maintaining the bearing temperature and oil viscosity.
Oil Grooves
The use of oil grooves in the pressure areas of bearing should be avoided,
as the pressure built up within the oil films tends to escape from the high to
low pressure zones. All the oil will have a tendency to escape in the groove
thus reducing the possibility of establishing hydrodynamic conditions on the
bearing surface. However, in some diesel engine bearings, a
circumferential groove is used to convey oil to other bearings. In such
designs the bearing length is usually increased to compensate for the
groove. Longitudinal groove should not extend to the end of bearing to
prevent excessive side leakage. Grooving differs extensively between main
bearing, connecting rod bearing and top end bearing.
Identify the type of grooves on the crosshead bearing, main bearing and
bottom end bearing i.e. circumferential, longitudinal and combination of
both.
Oil can enter the bearing surface only from the unloaded part. For example,
oil enters main bearing from top because this is the unloaded half of the
bearing. In case of bottom end bearing of large 2 stroke engines, oil enters
from the side. Correct oil flow through the bearing is essential for
satisfactory operation.
The journal or shaft surface of highly rated engines are hard and smooth.
The hard surface reduces embedment of dirt or other foreign matter.
Study the manual and identify the oil entry point to main bearings and
bottom end bearings?
Is there any difference in oil entry point between crosshead and trunk type
engines?
It is important to note that oil outlet is through the side leakage. This must
not be restricted under any circumstances. Free flow of oil at right quantity
is the aim for satisfactory operation.
Bearing Properties
Material
Provided that load and temperatures are not excessive, good tin-based or
lead-based white metal alloys are most widely used bearing alloys for diesel
engines, marine turbine and auxiliary machinery. Thick white metal linings
(up to 12.7mm) which was the old practice have relatively poor compressive
strength at high operating temperature. This will cause fatigue failure of
bearing material if load is high. That is why the modern practice is to u se
bearing shell with thin lining of white metal.
Measurement of Clearance
Bridge Gauge.
Measuring thickness by micrometer.
Lead Clearance
It is advisable not to use this method in thin shell bearings. Clearance can
be measured over a wide bearing surface. It is very important that the wire
is soft enough and does not make indentation on the bearing alloy. The
wire should not get compressed less than 2/3rd of its original diameter. The
bearing should be tightened to required torque or tension.
Feeler Gauge
Feeler gauges are easy and simple to use where it is accessible. It is very
important to make sure that sufficient length of feeler gauge has been
inserted to give a representative measurement of the full length of the
bearing. It must not be taken in way of oil grooves, this may restrict entry of
the feeler gauge. The feeler gauge should not score the bearing surface or
the shaft. In case of a very small clearance, sometimes the feeler gauge
tends to break because of insufficient stiffness. It is ideal for checking guide
clearance.
Inside and outside micrometers are used for measuring internal bore of
bearing halves (bolted) and pin diameter. It is used where clearance is
large compared to the diameter.
Bridge Gauge
The thin shell bearing is not confined to steel lined with white metal but
could benefit from more advanced materials such as ‘tri metal’ i.e. steel
lined with an intermediate layer of copper lead overlaid with white metal
or steel lined with Tin Aluminium. As newer materials are developed, they
would only be available in shell form due to the manufacturing techniques
required.
Thin shell bearings could and indeed must be, made to high degree
accuracy for wall thickness and circumferential length. As the bearings
are thin and flexible until fitted into a housing, the diameter would not be
measured and is meaningless. The fit will be determined by
circumferential length. Shells could be completely prefinished and
interchangeable.
Identify the crosshead bearing spare shells in the workshop. These are thin
shell bearings. Observe the grooves on the bearing shell (bottom half). The
grooves are provided to spread and store lubrication oil.
Lack of Compatibility
This failure is due to the corrosion of the tin phase of the white metal to
form tin oxide. Tin oxide is extremely hard and brittle. This breaks off
rapidly causing wear of the surfaces and breakdown of the film. The
appearance of film so formed is grey in the early stages, becomes
progressively darker as its thickness increases and particles become
detached.
Cause of the Corrosion
One of the main causes is water. It is probable that this form of corrosion
has always taken place in marine bearings but in the past, bearing loads
and clearances have been able to tolerate a thin layer of oxide and
bearing has continued to work with a slight rise in temperature.
More recently, with higher loads, when the oxide layer becomes thick, the
bearing temperature may rise sufficiently to melt the underlying metal and
failure occurs by wiping. Regular and continuous removal of water from
lubricating oil should prevent tin oxide formation.
Electrical Potential
Identify the spare pedestal bearing of the alternator end in the engine
room. The back of the bearing will be insulated. Check with the
electrician on board as to how the pedestal bearing (alternator end) is
inspected.
Fretting
Bearings carrying high dynamic loads are liable to fatigue damage, often
caused by a concentration of load due to mechanical imperfection e.g.
poor geometric form, misalignment and distortion. White metal bearings
are particularly prone to fatigue since any high loading not only increases
the stress in the lining but the associated temperature rise reduces the
strength.
Cavitation Erosion
These cavities are usually around oil grooves or holes particularly in low
pressure areas. It is caused by an implosion of gas or air bubbles
released from a lubricating oil film under particular conditions. Some of
the dissolved air is released as bubbles, usually fairly large in size, which
form cavities in the oil film, unless they escape with oil through end of
bearings.
Thermal Ratcheting
This is the deformation of tin based white metal by alternate heating and
cooling. Its occurrence is generally and indication of high bearing
temperature. This problem is common thrust pad bearing surface.
CROSSHED BEARINGS
In the slow speed 2 stroke Diesel Engine, the top end bearings have
number of factors which limit their safe working load. Improvements in
design and materials have barely matched the engine builders requirements
for up rating, and these bearing still operate with tool small a margin of
safety. In a two-stroke engine, the bearing must operate under slow speed
oscillating conditions which produce very thin oil films and there is no load
reversal, which in a higher speed engine allows the entry of providing a
squeeze film.
In most designs the pin hardened and polished to a pure finish of at least,
and preferably better than 0.1 um. It should be stressed that geometric
shape is equally important and there should be an absence of waviness in
the surface. The bearing surfaces and geometric tolerances are equally
important, as also are those of the housing bore.
Factors Limiting Safe Working Load on Crosshead Bearing
Crosshead bearing
Fig 5
Older Model Engines
Bending moment and deflection are maximum at centre. This will cause two
problems as follows:
Fig 6
Crosshead design with pin bored at the centre-older design
(Source: Motor Engineering Knowledge by T D Morton & L Jackson)
The crosshead pin design in the Fig 6 of older model engines where the pin
is not getting the full support at the bottom. Bending moment is maximum at
the centre where the pin has been bored to accommodate the piston rod.
Fig 7
Crosshead design with full support at the bottom –modern engines
(Source: Motor Engineering Knowledge by T D Morton & L Jackson)
This is the crosshead design of modern engines with full support at the
bottom of the pin.
This results in better alignment between the pin and the bearing. Study the
manual and spare bearing shell (bottom half) to identify the type of
crosshead design in your main engine. Crosshead bearings must be given
due attention during operation and maintenance because of its onerous
working condition as mentioned in earlier sections.
Fig 8
Bearing Clearances at Top and Bottom End
(Source: Sulzer Engine Manual)
Study the manual and observe carefully how the crosshead bearing
clearances are measured. It is checked at the top of the pin with the
crank at BDC. Crosshead bearings are thin shell type. So if the
clearance is excessive, the shells have to be renewed.
Thin shell bearing must be inspected thoroughly on the bearing surface
as well as at the back of the shell. If there are rubbing or fretting marks
on the back of the shell, the shell must be renewed because this is an
indication of shell running loose in the housing. This can block lubricating
oil passage with serious consequences. Study the following figure. Thin
shell bearing has just a layer of white metal or soft material on the
running surface. So never scrap or use rough brush.
Fig 9
Lubricating Oil Passage through Trunk Piston Engine
(Source: Pielstick Engine Manual)
REFERENCE
Useful Link:
1. http://www.hotrod.com/how-to/engine/ctrp-1201-bearings-clearance-
basics/
2. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/marine-engines-
machinery/28734-bearings-used-in-marine-diesel-engines/
3. www.marineengineering.org.uk
Thank you!