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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Dagmar Klichová
Libor Sitek
Sergej Hloch
Joško Valentinčič Editors
Advances in
Water Jetting
Selected Papers from the International
Conference on Water Jet 2019 -
Research, Development, Applications,
November 20–22, 2019, Čeladná,
Czech Republic
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Series Editors
Francisco Cavas-Martínez, Departamento de Estructuras, Universidad Politécnica
de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Francesco Gherardini, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Modena e Reggio
Emilia, Modena, Italy
Mohamed Haddar, National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia
Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering Machine and Tools,
Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine
Young W. Kwon, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Aerospace
Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA,
USA
Justyna Trojanowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
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Editors
123
Editors
Dagmar Klichová Libor Sitek
Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy
of Sciences of Sciences
Ostrava, Czech Republic Ostrava, Czech Republic
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Due to its diversity, the technology of high-speed water jets, to which this volume
of the Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) is dedicated, has long
ceased to be a marginal and exceptional scientific and research area of study and has
become an integral part of common industrial methods of machining and produc-
tion. Thanks to its specific properties, it is spreading to industries where the water
jet application would have been unthinkable a few years ago. In addition to the
growing importance of this technology, the attention is paid to the research and
development activities and obtained results directly related to the water jet
technology.
The major changes that have recently taken place to an increasing extent, not
only in industry but also in the economy, are closely linked to the massive digi-
talization and automation in production, whether we call this process the Fourth
Industrial Revolution, Industry 4.0 or something else. These changes are, of course,
reflected in manufacturing technologies, including the high-speed water jets. The
demand for energy savings encourages professionals to create more efficient cut-
ting, machining and cleaning machines and tools, thus improving the existing
production processes. The continuing global trend towards complete automation is
of fundamental importance for the further development of the water jet technology.
Combining robotic and control systems with the so-called intelligent water jet
nozzles is becoming a great challenge in the near future. In addition, the prospects
of the use of water jets is very promising in other areas. The disposal of unexploded
ammunition, micro-machining, car manufacturing, maintenance and disposal of
underwater constructions, objects and ocean-going vessels, but also the joint
replacement surgery, are only some of the sectors of possible water jet application.
In synergy with modern and advanced decision-making and control methods, such
as the fuzzy logic, machine learning or artificial intelligence, the water jet is
becoming an effective, safe and reliable tool fulfilling, at the same time, strict
environmental requirements. However, in order to meet all current and future
challenges, big efforts will have to be made and scientific and engineering
approaches will have to be effectively combined.
v
vi Preface
Members
Lenka Bodnárová Brno University of Technology, Czechia
Sergej Hloch Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE
with a seat in Prešov, Slovakia
Zdenko Krajný Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava,
Slovakia
Michael Jarchau Hammelmann GmbH, Germany
Marco Linde ANT Applied New Technologies AG, Germany
Guoyi Peng Nihon University, College of Engineering, Japan
Franz Perndorfer Perndorfer Maschinenbau KG, Austria
Frank Pude INSPIRE AG, Switzerland
Franz Trieb BFT GmbH, Austria
Joško Valentinčič University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Organizing Board
Chair
Libor Sitek Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Czechia
Members
Eva Dudková Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Czechia
Lucie Gurková Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Czechia
Dagmar Klichová Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Czechia
vii
viii Organization
External Reviewers
Lenka Bodnárová Brno University of Technology, Czechia
Augusto Bortolussi Institute of Environmental Geology and
Geoengineering of the Italian National
Research Council, Italy
František Botko Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE
with a seat in Prešov, Slovakia
Axel Henning OMAX Corporation, USA
Sergej Hloch Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE
with a seat in Prešov, Slovakia
Michael Jarchau Hammelmann GmbH, Germany
Marko Jerman University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Krzysztof Kotwica AGH University of Science and Technology,
Poland
Zdenko Krajný Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava,
Slovakia
Andrej Lebar University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Dominika Lehocká Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies TUKE
with a seat in Prešov, Slovakia
Guoyi Peng Nihon University, College of Engineering, Japan
Andrzej Perec Jacob of Paradies University, Poland
Frank Pude INSPIRE AG, Switzerland
Izidor Sabotin University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Franz Trieb BFT GmbH, Austria
Joško Valentinčič University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Contents
Keynote Lectures
Effect of Particle Fragmentation on Cutting Performance
in Abrasive Waterjets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Axel Henning, Michael Lo, Ernst Schubert, and Peter Miles
Measurement of the Effective Waterjet Diameter by Means
of Force Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Mikhail Kliuev, Frank Pude, Josef Stirnimann, and Konrad Wegener
Effect of Ventilation to Abrasive Suspension Jet Under
Submerged Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Guoyi Peng, Yukiteru Tamura, Yasuyuki Oguma, and Jiri Klich
Regular Papers
Systematic Change of Abrasive Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Thomas Bergs, Manuel Schüler, Tim Herrig, Jan Fernolendt,
and Marco Linde
Effect of Abrasive Water Jet Machining on the Geometry
of Shapes in Selected Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
František Botko, Petr Hlaváček, Dominika Lehocká, Vladimír Foldyna,
Michal Hatala, and Vladimir Simkulet
Erosion of Titanium and Aluminium Alloys Using Pulsating Water
Jet: Effect of Standoff Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Dominik Čuha, Akash Nag, Alice Chlupová, and Sergej Hloch
Water Jet as a Promising Tool to Disperse Carbon Nanotubes
in Water Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Vladimir Foldyna, Josef Foldyna, and Michal Zelenak
ix
x Contents
Abstract. Abrasive waterjets have become a standard tool for machining a wide
variety of materials. Today’s applications of abrasive waterjet cutting can be found
in many different industries that range from producing very small high precision
parts to making rough separation cuts of thick steel plates. Advancements in under-
standing of the physics of the abrasive waterjet cutting process continues to further
advance the state of the art in predictive modeling and motion control software
of the abrasive waterjet cutting process. Considerable research has been devoted
towards studying how the various abrasive waterjet process parameters affect one
another and their influence on the final cutting results. While several approaches
have evaluated the effect of hydraulic energy from the water jet itself, in this paper
the focus is laid on the effect of the particles that are interacting with the material. In
this paper the kinetic behavior and fragmentation of particles has been analyzed
in a wide range of different conditions. New insights into fragmentation of the
particles especially at higher pressures can explain the behavior of experimental
cutting studies where higher pressures did not provide a significant improvement
and in many cases a decrease of cutting performance. Studies like this will not
only help us understand the very processes that are involved in the cutting opera-
tion but also help us to optimize the overall process to increase performance and
reliability and also be competitive against other cutting methods while providing
ample new applications in the future.
1 Introduction
Abrasive waterjets have been well established in industrial application since its first
introduction in the 1980s. Today, applications of abrasive waterjet cutting can be found
in many different industries that range from producing very small high precision parts
to making rough separation cuts of 150 mm thick steel plates, from separating tiny
electronic components to medical surgery research. Advancements in understanding of
the physics of the abrasive waterjet cutting process continues to further advance the state
of the art in predictive modeling and motion control software of the abrasive waterjet
cutting process [1, 2].
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
D. Klichová et al. (Eds.): Water Jet 2019, LNME, pp. 3–14, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53491-2_1
4 A. Henning et al.
Fig. 1. Effect of pressure on separation speed for 25.4 mm mild steel (A36) with constant hydraulic
power [6]. (Orifice diameter as indicated).
Currently, the most common parameter that is used to evaluate abrasive waterjet
cutting performance is the operating pressure of the pump because it is the easiest
parameter to adjust by simply varying either the pump speed or adjusting pressure
regulators. This is a fallacy, as jet pressure is only a partial and indirect measure of
the overall hydraulic power being delivered to the work piece for removing material.
Hydraulic power incorporates the product of two variables, not just one: pressure and flow
rate. For a constant input power rating, any increase in pressure requires a proportional
decrease in flow rates. Higher pressures may be desirable because it drives the velocity
Effect of Particle Fragmentation on Cutting Performance 5
of the abrasive particles higher which increases the kinetic energy of each particle. But
the resultant decrease in flow rates, at a constant input power, decrease the ability to
carry and accelerate more abrasive particles which decreases the abrasive kinetic power
[3–5].
When evaluating the effect of operating pressure on cutting performance the exper-
imental results show that, even when varying the pressure widely, its effect is negligible
or even detrimental (see Fig. 1). While keeping the applied hydraulic power the same the
cutting performance increased slightly when using the same amount of abrasive feed rate
(Fig. 1b). It decreased slightly when using the same abrasive load ratio (Fig. 1a) [5, 6].
The effect of higher hydraulic power through better pump efficiency largely outshined
the effect of pressure (65% - Intensifier design, 85% - Direct Drive design). In the end it
is the abrasive particle that performs the erosion process by impacting on the workpiece.
In this paper the focus is on how particles can be accelerated and what effect that has on
the kinetic power they can obtain.
2 Fragmentation of Particles
The particle size has a large impact on speed and acceleration of the particles and on
the available kinetic power to perform the cutting task. Therefore the question at hand
was which distribution of particle sizes we should expect to impact on the material. The
original abrasive material that is fed into the cutting head already consists of a wide
distribution of particle sizes (see [7]) and previous evaluations [8, 9] have shown that
fragmentation of particles occurs in the cutting head.
This project goal was to characterize the amount of fragmentation of the abrasive particles
that have passed through an abrasive water jet (AWJ) cutting head. Experimental data
was collected to characterize levels of abrasive fragmentation based on perturbations
of certain operating conditions. The data was characterized by altering one variable at
a time while holding others constant in an effort to correlate direct cause and effect of
each parameter.
The experimental setup consisted of a 1.5 m tall, 250 mm diameter PVC pipe standing
on end. The pipe was fitted with a close-fitting cover and a removable plug at the bottom
that had an integral drain. AWJ cutting heads were mounted to the top cover by means of
an adaptor that ensured the head was aligned to fire axially into the tube. The tube itself
was filled with water to decelerate and collect all the fired abrasives while preventing
impact with any solid surface (Fig. 2).
6 A. Henning et al.
For each test the nozzle was fired into the catcher at different pressures and abrasive
feed rates without hitting a workpiece. After the test the abrasive material was collected
by fully draining and flushing the catcher. The liquid and abrasives that were collected
were passed through a filter in a dewatering process and then subsequently dried in
an electric convection oven. Once dried, the particles were separated from the filter and
classified by a vibratory sieve. The individual sieve pans were weighed, and the resulting
weight and screen size data recorded. The filter was also weighed, and the additional
weight of the trapped abrasive added to the fines. Particles smaller than the finest sieve,
63 µm, were collected and weighted together and considered ‘fines’ or ‘pan’.
2.2 Experiments
In Fig. 3 the particle size distribution, by mass, of original garnet abrasive Barton Mines
HPX80 is compared against the particle size distribution at the exit of the mixing tube.
While the largest portion (35%) of the original abrasive was classified at 250 µm, the
accelerated garnet showed a rather flat distribution with a maximum of 18% at 150 µm.
Notably, approximately 18% by weight portion of fines were discovered. Due to the fines
being smaller than 50 µm this 18% portion will most likely not result in a significant
erosion on the workpiece.
Effect of Particle Fragmentation on Cutting Performance 7
40%
35% HPX80
Particle Size Distribution 227g/min
30%
341g/min
25% 454g/min
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Particle Size in μm
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution at different abrasive feed rates (pressure 345 MPa).
Also, it is very notable that changing the abrasive feed rate from 227 g/min to
454 g/min had no impact on the fragmentation of the particles. Changing the abrasive
feed rate would increase the number of particles inside the cutting head at any given time
and therefore the likelihood of particle interaction. Since this did not have a significant
impact one can conclude that particle to particle interaction is not a significant factor in
the fragmentation process.
40%
HPX80
35%
172 MPa
207 MPa
30% 241 MPa
Particle Size Distribtion
276 Mpa
25% 310 MPa
345 MPa
20% 552 MPa
15%
10%
5%
0%
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Particle Size in μm
Fig. 4. Particle size distribution at different pressures with different hydraulic power (Orifice
250 µm mixing tube 760 µm, abrasive 340 g/min)
A second set of experiments was conducted where the size of the orifice and mixing
tube were kept constant while changing the operating pressure from 186 MPa to 553 MPa.
This results in a significant increase in hydraulic power with higher pressure. As can
be seen in Fig. 4 the mass portion of fines significantly increased with higher pressures
while the portion of large particles decreased with pressure.
8 A. Henning et al.
40%
35%
HPX80
186 Mpa
30%
241 Mpa
Parcle Size Distribuon
310 Mpa
25% 345 Mpa
414 Mpa
20% 552 MPa
15%
10%
5%
0%
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Parcle Size in μm
Fig. 5. Particle size distribution after firing at different pressures (see legend) with same hydraulic
power.
In the third set of experiments the pressure was varied from 186 MPa to 553 MPa.
But this time the orifice size was varied to keep the hydraulic power the same. Even
though the hydraulic conditions are very different from the previous set, the result is
fairly similar: The mass portion of fines increases with higher pressures and the mass
portion of large particles decreases with higher pressure (Fig. 5).
60.0%
Particle Distribution by weight per class
50.0%
40.0% coarse
(>180μm)
30.0% medium
(106-180μm)
20.0% fine
(63-106μm)
dust (<63μm)
10.0%
(same orifice 0.010”)
0.0%
0 140 280 420 560 700
Pressure in MPa
Fig. 7. Particle size distribution after firing at different pressures with same hydraulic power.
In Fig. 7 the particles are classified in broader classes: coarse (>180 µm), medium
(106–180 µm), fine (63–106 µm), and dust (<63 µm). This representation clearly shows
the effect of pressure on size distribution. The portion of coarse particles is significantly
reduced with higher pressures from 50% down to 20% while the portion of dust increases
significantly from 10% to over 30%.
While it is an important first step to analyze the speed and size of the particles that are
hitting the workpiece and eventually perform the cutting operation, the true measure for
cutting performance is the kinetic power of the particles. Each particle obtains a certain
amount of kinetic energy.
1
EP,kin = ma va2 (1)
2
The overall kinetic power, PP,kin , of the cutting jet can be represented as a function of
the particle’s mass flow rate, ṁa , and its velocity
1
PP,kin = ṁa va2 (2)
2
In Fig. 8 the power of each particle size portion is displayed for different conditions. All
tests were performed with the same orifice diameter (250 µm) and the same abrasive
feed rate (340 g/min) while the pressure was varied from 186 MPa to 553 MPa. This
means that the available hydraulic power changed from 3 kW to 19 kW. It is therefore
no surprise that the test with the highest hydraulic power also showed the highest kinetic
power. All different tests showed a peak kinetic power at the particle size cluster of
150 µm. It is very notable, though, that the portion of fines, that do not have a significant
10 A. Henning et al.
4000
3500
Kinec parcle pwer in W
172 Mpa
3000 207 Mpa
2500 241 Mpa
276 Mpa
2000 310 Mpa
345 Mpa
1500 551 Mpa
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Parcle Size in μm
Fig. 8. Total kinetic power at different pressures (see legend) with the same orifice (250 µm) and
the same abrasive feed rate (340 g/min).
impact on erosion increased with pressure and proved to be a major portion of the overall
kinetic power especially at higher pressures.
By comparing the hydraulic power of the jet with the total kinetic power of effective
particles it becomes clear that the kinetic efficiency (hydraulic power divided by the
kinetic power) is linearly decreasing with higher pressures (Fig. 9). At 172 MPa the
kinetic efficiency is about 60% whereas at 553 MPa the efficiency has dropped down to
30%. This will have a significant impact on cutting performance of the abrasive waterjet
and might explain the behavior that was experimentally shown in Fig. 1 where higher
pressures actually were seen to have a detrimental effect on cutting performance.
20,000 100%
18,000 90%
16,000 80%
14,000 70%
Kinec Efficiency
Power in W
12,000 60%
10,000 50%
4,000
Kinec Efficiency 20%
2,000 10%
0 0%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Pressure in MPa
Fig. 9. Efficiency of converting hydraulic power into kinetic particle power (same orifice).
Effect of Particle Fragmentation on Cutting Performance 11
4000
3500
Kinetic Power of particles in W 533μm/186MPa
3000 457μm/241MPa
381μm/310MPa
2500
355μm/345MPa
2000
355μm/345MPa
1500 254μm/551MPa
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Particle Size, microns
Fig. 10. Kinetic power of particles at different pressures, same hydraulic power (18 kW) and
same abrasive feed rate (340 g/min) (orifice diameter and pressure as indicated in legend).
The next set of experiments were performed with the same hydraulic power while chang-
ing pressure. This was accomplished by using different orifice sizes to maintain a constant
hydraulic power. In the first batch of tests the same abrasive feed rate (340 g/min) was
used with all experiments. This means that as the hydraulic pressure increases the result-
ing water flowrate decreases, and the abrasive load ratio (abrasive mass flow rate divided
by the waterjet mass flow rate) is increases. In Fig. 10 the kinetic power is displayed for
each portion of fragmented particle sizes. As can be seen in Fig. 10 the distribution of
kinetic power shows a general trend of increasing as the abrasive load ratio increases.
But also here as in the previous test the amount of kinetic power within the fines is
significantly increasing with higher pressures.
In the typical application of abrasive waterjet nozzle configuration’s using a low
water flow rate typically uses a lower abrasive feed rate. There are many practical reasons
for this setting with the most important being that the capability of reliably delivering
particles into the cutting head depends on the amount of air delivered through the venturi
process for that orifice. In Fig. 11 the experiments were carried out with an abrasive load
ratio of 11%. This means that the abrasive feed rate is larger at lower pressures due to the
larger water flowrate at the same pressure. With those conditions it becomes clear that
the experiments with the higher pressures show lower kinetic power of different portions
of particle sizes. Also, as we have seen before, the amount of power that goes into fines,
which are not effective in the cutting process, is the largest at higher pressures.
12 A. Henning et al.
3000
533μm/186MPa
2500 457μm/241MPa
Kine c Power of par cles in W
381μm/310MPa
2000 355μm/345MPa
355μm/345MPa
1500 254μm/551MPa
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Par cle Size, microns
Fig. 11. Kinetic power of particles at different pressures, same hydraulic power (18 kW) and
same abrasive load ratio (11%).
Figure 12 shows the total abrasive kinetic power for the tests that were carried out
using the same hydraulic power, where in one case the abrasive flow rate was held
constant (344 g/min), and the other case the abrasive loading was held constant (11%).
Two distinct trends can be seen. First, the constant abrasive feed rate shows the total
kinetic power increases at the lower pressures but then appears to find a maximum level
after around 400 MPa where there is no significant change at higher pressures. Second,
when the abrasive load ratio was kept constant the trend clearly shows a decrease in
total abrasive kinetic power. The main reasons here are probably an insufficient supply
of particles that could be accelerated and the large portion of fines that do not have a
significant impact in the erosion process.
8000
7000
Abrasive feed 344g/min
6000
Kine c Power in W
5000
4000
2000
1000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Pressure in MPa
Fig. 12. Total kinetic power of particles over pressure at different abrasive feed rates.
Effect of Particle Fragmentation on Cutting Performance 13
4 Conclusions
Abrasive waterjet cutting has found large application in different industrial applications.
As its usage widens the abrasive waterjet can be applied in areas that traditionally have
been occupied by competing cutting methods. It is therefore of essential importance
to understand its potential and opportunities for optimizing the cutting process. Over
the years since its inception in the 1970s, innovations in pumping technology have not
only increased reliability but also hydraulic power and pressure. In pure waterjets higher
pressures have shown some benefits that users have not been able to match in cutting
with abrasive waterjets. Experimental data actually showed minimal effect and even
detrimental effects of higher pressures. By focusing on the actual particles, this paper
tries to analyze the reason why nominally faster water jets do not translate in higher
abrasive cutting performance.
In this paper we have been analyzing the behavior of abrasive particles during the
acceleration process in the cutting head. For this we have looked at different conditions
where either the hydraulic power of the process was kept constant or the orifice size was
kept constant, which results in changing hydraulic power. Also, the effect of different
abrasive feed rate conditions were taken into account.
In the first section the size distribution of particles exiting the mixing tube was
analyzed. These are the particles that impact on the workpiece to perform the cutting
operation. It was shown that pressure has the most significant effect on the particle
distribution/fragmentation. The portion of larger particles decreases significantly with
higher pressures and the amount of fines that have no significant impact in the cutting
process increases substantially. Even though we were applying very different operating
conditions, the average particle size showed the same behavior of linearly decreasing
with increasing pressure. Massive fragmentation of particles into small ineffective fines
would be a first indication why the abrasive waterjet is not as effective at higher pressures.
The second section then focused on the kinetic power of the abrasive water jet. Again
it showed that the higher rate of fragmentation at higher pressures limited the capability
of the abrasive jet to perform the cutting process. Only increasing the abrasive load
at higher pressures helped to overcome the losses caused by massive fragmentation to
maintain and eventually increase the total kinetic power. This is limited by the ability to
feed the abrasives into the cutting head, though. With the same abrasive load, the kinetic
power was significantly reduced at higher pressures.
In this paper the kinetic behavior and fragmentation of particles has been analyzed in a
wide range of different conditions. With new insights into fragmentation of the particles
especially at higher pressures we were able to explain the behavior of experimental
cutting studies where higher pressures did not provide a significant improvement and
in many cases a decrease of cutting performance. Studies like this will not only help us
understand the very processes that are involved in the cutting operation but also help
us to optimize the overall process to increase performance and reliability and also be
competitive against other cutting methods while providing ample new applications in
the future.
14 A. Henning et al.
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Louisiana (2015)
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8. Ohlsen, J.: Recycling von Feststoffen beim Wasserabrasivestrahlschneiden. Fortschr. Ber. VDI
Reihe 15 Nr. 175 Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag (1997)
9. Zaremba, D., Heese, P., Bauer, M., Maier, H.J., Hassel, T.: Particle: disintegration in the abrasive
water injection jet. In: Proceedings of the 2015 WJTA-IMCA Conference and Expo, 2–4
November, New Orleans, Louisiana (2015)
Measurement of the Effective Waterjet Diameter
by Means of Force Signals
Abstract. The application of both pure and abrasive waterjets is well established
in manufacturing and related processes like surface preparation. Particle free sur-
face processing in order to avoid any particle residuals on the machined workpiece
surfaces was addressed as core requirement by quality engineers who had to fight
against induced failure of functionalized surfaces after surface preparation by e.g.
sand blasting.
Due to the need of multi-path processing for generating surfaces it is necessary
to monitor the effective geometry of the impact zone of the waterjet and the related
impact forces. By getting these data it becomes possible to calculate the necessary
grade of overlapping of the neighbouring traces. This becomes more ambitious by
permanently changing waterjet shapes caused by very little and not preventable
changes of the micro structure inside the used nozzle. A nozzle change mostly
induces a change of the jet shape and related geometry of the impact zone on the
hit surface.
In this paper an apparatus and method for waterjet shape measurement are
presented. By using this method it is possible to generate necessary information
on nozzle wear related jet shape changes or new jet shapes after nozzle change
which enables the operator to recalibrate the process parameters. The effect of
machining velocity on waterjet characteristics is studied. Also the capability of
sorting of not acceptable nozzles becomes possible and can avoid damage of
surfaces to be processed.
1 Introduction
The application of both pure and abrasive waterjets is well established in manufacturing
and related processes like surface preparation. The pure waterjet type is mostly used for
cutting of soft material like foamed plastic or paper webs. Quite recently in [1] particle
free surface processing in order to avoid any residuals on the machined workpiece surface
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
D. Klichová et al. (Eds.): Water Jet 2019, LNME, pp. 15–27, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53491-2_2
16 M. Kliuev et al.
was addressed as core requirement. This came up especially from quality engineers who
had to fight against induced failure of coatings after surface preparation by e.g. sand
blasting.
The potential of pure waterjets to generate different grades of roughness on the hit
surfaces was shown by various research groups round the world. The paper [2] presented
the utilisation of pure waterjets for roughening of Titanium surfaces.
Due to the need of multi-path processing for generating surfaces it is necessary to
monitor the effective geometry of the impact zone of the waterjet and the related impact
forces. These parameters depend on the distance of individually generated droplets to
the jet axis. Only this way it is possible to get information about the penetration depth
and also the path-width of the processed trace. By getting this data it becomes possible
to calculate the necessary grade of overlapping of the neighbouring traces. This becomes
more ambitious by permanently changing waterjet shapes caused by very little and not
preventable changes of the micro structure of the effective tearing edge at the point of
jet formation inside the used nozzle. A nozzle change automatically induces a change
of the jet shape and related geometry of the impact zone on the hit surface.
It was shown by several research groups that the waterjet diameter can be measured
by using different technological approaches. The application of an optical measure-
ment system which uses images made by a photo camera was introduced by [8]. For
the measurement of abrasive waterjet diameters it is necessary to understand the wear
mechanism of the focusing tube [5, 6]. The measurement principles which were applied
in this case using optical principles. The experimental set-up was equipped with a photo
camera [4] or a laser transmitter/receiver system [5].
In this paper an apparatus and method for waterjet shape measurement is presented.
By using this method it will be possible to generate necessary information on new jet
shape after nozzle change which enables the operator to recalibrate the process param-
eters. Also the capability of sorting of not acceptable nozzles becomes possible and can
avoid damage of surfaces.
2 Experimental Setup
The principle configuration of the measuring device is shown in Fig. 1. A steel plate is
mounted on a type 9327C F x = 7.694pC/N, F y = 7.672pC/N, F z = 3.763pC/N Kistler
piezoelectric sensor. V f is the feed rate of the jet. While the waterjet moves over the steel
plate force signals are detected by the piezo electrical sensor. Figure 2 shows a typical
shape of the kind of signal detected. X E is the entrance distance; X O is the jet output
distance and X FC the distance during which the whole jet cross-section of the jet is
within the workpiece. S is the width of the plate plus twice the radius of the waterjet.
Measurement of the Effective Waterjet Diameter by Means of Force Signals 17
According to Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 the jet diameter can be presented as a multiplication
of the traverse velocity and the time which the jet requires to enter or to leave the plate
which is written in:
DWJ = S − XFC = XE = XO (1)
Due to the complexity of jet behaviour the following parameters are changed for the
purpose of understanding the range of process stability and conditions of profile mea-
surement. The stand-off distance between the waterjet nozzle and the sensor plate was
varied in the interval between 40 mm and 80 mm. The feed velocity of the jet V f
was 100/200/400/800/1000 mm/min. The water pressure was selected in a range from
100 MPa to 300 MPa with a step of 100 MPa.
Because the shape of the jet cross-section may deviate from perfect circularity a
single measurement does not provide sufficient information to determine the diameter.
Eight separate measurements of the diameter of the jet cross-section are made, in steps
of 45° according to the direction of the feed rate vector, and each measurement consists
of entrance and output values so as to provide more accurate results.
18 M. Kliuev et al.
According to [3] for the determination of the jet diameter the “Three Lines Method” can
be used, as it is shown in Fig. 3. The algorithm linearizes of the slope of the response
curve from the force measurement as third line. Then two horizontal lines give the
extrapolation of the plateaus representing constant values before and after the full cross-
section of the waterjet impacts the plate. The “Three Lines Method” is able to determine
the jet diameter using the projection dc of the third line segment on the x-axis. The line
Fn is parallel to the x-axis and sometimes coincides with it. The second line Fn2 is fitted
to the mean value of force after the jet enters the plate. The third line Fn3 is found by
two points A1 and A2 which are located on the line. Pointes A1 and A2 are defined in
the force signal curve.
The method is used to locate the entrance point (the point at which the jet first impacts
the sensor plate) and the exit point. Knowing the duration of the full impact time and
the feed rate of the machine, it is possible to calculate the full diameter (Eq. 1) of the jet
with core, fog, and droplet zones.
It is also possible to exclude the fog zone from the force signal curve by high-pass
filtering, since it is present as noise. Separating the droplet zone can be much more com-
plicated, as the droplets sometimes have sufficient energy to exceed the threshold beyond
which they actually remove material from the surface of the steel plate. A threshold can
be determined experimentally, below which the jet lacks of pressure to remove material
from the surface.
»Mutta kun olette löytänyt hänet», kysyi hän, »niin mitä aiotte
tehdä hänelle?»
Ja Martigny? Ken hän oli? Missä suhteessa hän oli näihin naisiin?
Että rikos oli huolellisesti suunniteltu, sitä en voinut epäillä; ja se oli
suoritettu hämmästyttävällä taitavuudella. Ei näkynyt mitään
epäröimistä noissa lujissa katseissa, ei mitään kahden vaiheella
olemista, ei mitään neuvottomuutta, vaan sen sijaan melkein
pirullista toiminnan kylmäverisyyttä, joka ilmaisi voimaa ja tottumusta
sellaisissa asioissa. Epäilemättä se oli Martigny, joka oli punonut
salajuonen ja myöskin toteuttanut sen. Ja kuinka uskaliaasti! Hän ei
ollut pelännyt olla läsnä tutkinnossa, kuten ei myöskään lähestyä
minua ja keskustella kanssani asiasta. Suutuksissa itseeni, kun olin
kiinnittänyt niin vähän huomiota siihen, koetin muistella
keskustelumme yksityiskohtia. Hän oli kysynyt, muistelin, mitä
tapahtuisi neiti Holladaylle, jos hänet huomattaisiin syylliseksi.
Hänelle oli siis tärkeätä pelastaa hänet. Hän oli — niin, nyt käsitin
sen! — kirjoittanut kirjeen, joka pelasti hänet; hän oli antautunut
vaaraan tulla ilmi saadaksensa hänet vapaaksi!
Niin, ja sitten oli vielä eräs toinen asia, jota minun oli varottava.
Mikä esti häntä niin pian kuin tuli maihin sähköttämästä
rikostovereilleen ja kehoittamasta heitä pakenemaan? Taikka
myöskin hän voi odottaa ja vakoilla meitä, kunnes näkisi, että he
todellakin olivat vaarassa. Oli miten oli, joka tapauksessa he voisivat
helposti paeta; neiti Kemball oli ollut oikeassa muistuttaessaan, että
meidän ainoa toivomme onnistumisesta oli siinä, että yllättäisimme
heidät valmistautumattomina. Jospa vain voisin hänet eksyttää,
pettää hänet, vakuuttaa hänelle, ettei hän ollut missään vaarassa!
Leijonan pesässä
»Oli vain sattuma, että sain tietää teidän olevan laivassa», selitin
istuutuessani. »Oletteko jo parempi?»
»Niin, en ole ollut ylhäällä koko aikana, aina matkan alusta asti.
Enkä nousekaan, ennenkuin tulemme Hovreen huomenna.»
»Mutta te, herra Lester», sanoi hän, »mistä johtuu, että te olette
myös matkalla Ranskaan? En tiennyt, että te tulisitte —»
»Vai niin?»
»Niin, ja eräs mies nimeltä Bethuny taikka Bethune taikka jotakin
sellaista. Mutta en kiinnittänyt paljon huomiotani häneen — hänellä
ei oikeastaan ole asiassa mitään tekemistä. Hän ei edes
matkustanut naisten mukana. Samana päivänä, kun lähdin ulos
tiedusteluilleni sai hän halvauskohtauksen jossakin kadulla ja vietiin
sairaalaan, niin lähellä kuolemaa, että oli epätietoista vieläkö hän
lainkaan tointuisi. Niin että hän on poissa pelistä. Jourdainit kertoivat
minulle, että naiset olivat matkustaneet Ranskaan.»
Minä nyökäytin.
»Ei, jos käyttää poliisin apua», sanoi hän. »Ehkäpä siinä piankin
onnistuisitte, jos pyytäisitte poliisia auttamaan teitä.»
»Ah», sanoi hän hiljaa, ja vielä kerran »ah! Niin, näyttääpä vähän
ihmeelliseltä! Mutta jos olisitte odottanut kirjettä, niin ehkä —»
»Niin, enkö ole vielä puhunut sitä teille? Herra Royce, nuorempi
päällikköni, on mukanani — hän on ollut vähän heikko, ja hänen
myöskin tarvitsee levätä.»
»Meille olisi suuri ilo, jos saisimme tulla», vastasin, vaikka tiesin
hyvin, että tarjousta ei tultaisi koskaan käyttämään. »Olette hyvin
ystävällinen.»
»Ei», väitti hän vastaan; »ei!» Mutta hänen äänensä oli melkein
kuulumaton.
»Oikeuksistanne?»
»Hyvästi, herra Lester», sanoi ääni, joka oli tullut minulle hyvin
rakkaaksi. »Odotan kiihkeästi saavamme vielä tavata!»
»Samaa voin minä sanoa», vastasin, ja tunsin kuinka kasvoni
helottivat.
»Se oli ystävällisesti sanottu, neiti Kemball!»
»Ja suoraan sanoen, herra Lester», lisäsi tohtori, »olen iloinen kun
pääsin hänestä. Oli onni, ettei hän kuollut matkalla. Mielipiteeni
mukaan ei hänellä ole kauan elonaikaa jäljellä.»
»Kaksikymmentä kilometriä.»
*****