SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

This module introduces students to the course on special needs education. Educators agree
that in every class let lone society, there learners and people with impairments who need
special attention. In fact expects suggests that every person is impaired in one way or the
other. In this module, the student will master elements associated with special needs
education. The handout looks at the history of special needs education in Malawi. It also
looks at the concepts of special needs education and special educational needs. The module
also looks at categories of impairments, their meanings and indicators. A brief description of
causes and preventive measures for each category is also looked at in this module.

Unit 1: HISTORY OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION IN MALAWI

In this unit you will be exposed to the history of Special Needs Education in Malawi. This
will help you to understand the state of Special Needs Education in Malawi. You will also be
exposed to disability organisations in Malawi and their roles.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Explain disability status in Malawi
2. Describe the deaf/blind education in Malawi
3. Explain challenges in Special Needs Education Delivery in Malawi
4. Describe roles played by different organisations in dealing with disability in Malawi

Disability Status/prevalence in Malawi

Currently, Malawi has no reliable statistics on disability. However three surveys have been
conducted in the years 1983, 2003 and 2008. These surveys do not provide information on
disability status which makes it difficult to plan programmes and services to make disability
inclusive. In 1983 it was estimated that 2.9% of Malawi’s population comprised of PWDs
(Persons With Disabilities) of which 93% lived in rural areas. The survey further indicated
that 190,000 were PWDs and 53.7% represented men with disabilities. It further showed that
at that time the major types of disabilities were total or partial loss of sight in one or both
eyes (20.5%), epilepsy (18.8%), physically challenged (18.2%) and deafness (13.3%).
Another national survey was done in 1993 and the prevalence of disability was almost the
same as that found in 1983.

The 2003 survey on Living Conditions found out that the prevalence of disability in Malawi
was 4.18%. Taking into consideration the population size at the time, this implied that there
were nearly half a million persons with disabilities in Malawi. This was higher than the two
earlier national surveys conducted in 1983 and 1993. In the 2003 survey 50.7% of the persons
with disabilities were females while 49% were males. The major forms of disabilities were
physical disabilities (43%), seeing (23%), hearing (15.7%) and 11.5% had intellectual
disabilities (Loeb and Eide, 2004).

The Living conditions survey was different from earlier studies because it used the
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) model which defines
disability in terms of activity limitations and participation restrictions. Ten years ago, in
2008, Malawi Population and Housing Census showed that there were 498,122 persons with
disabilities in Malawi and this translated into a national prevalence of 4.0% of the population
which is similar to the results from the Living conditions survey. The 2003 Living conditions
survey and the 2008 Population and Housing Census has helped Malawi to determine the
prevalence of disability for purposes of informing policy and programming (Munthali, 2011).

History of Deaf/blind Education in Malawi

Deaf/blindness as one of the disabilities is the least researched disability in Malawi. As the
term implies this disability is a combination of blindness and deafness. Attention to
deaf/blindness was made by Sr. Emma Kulombe and Mr Joseph Kuphazi, specialist teachers
for the blind, who could not easily assist children who were deaf/blind (DB) hence the birth
of deaf/blind education in Malawi. Deaf/blind Education in Malawi was started at Montfort
Demonstration Primary School in 2004 through the initiative of Mr Ezekiel Kumwenda,
former Chairperson of Malawi Union of the Blind. This happened when he had interacted
with Aubrey Webson from Perkins School for the Blind in United States of America who saw
the need for deaf/blind education and indicated to assist if such a school was opened. Later in
the same year, the Sisters of Blessed Virgin Mary of the Roman Catholic Church established
the Deaf/blind Centre at Mkwamba Village, Traditional Authority Likoswe in Chiradzulu
district, southern part of Malawi, with funding from the Norwegian Church Aid. In 2006
Deaf/blind Centre was officially named Chisombezi Deaf/blind Centre (CDBC) as it is near
Chisombezi River.

Currently the CDBC is being funded by Signo Foundation. The centre provides care and
teaches children who are DB life and communication skills. Parents of children who are
deaf/blind are also trained in how to care for their children. Children who are DB are
identified through hospitals.

Challenges in Special Needs Education Delivery in Malawi

Learners with disabilities are accepted into mainstream classrooms but they face several
challenges. The challenges include:
(a) Inadequate specialist teachers to teach students with diverse needs. In some cases
regular classroom teachers lack knowledge of how to handle students with
impairments
(b) The school environment is not suitable for students with impairments.
(c) The instructional materials such as Braille and other assistive devices are not
adequate.
(d) Some teachers do not have communication skills to communicate with students who
are deaf/blind and those who those with hearing impairment.
(e) In primary school with SNE provision, specialist teachers fail to provide adequate
learning support due to large classes. This is also the case in some secondary schools
and universities.
(f) Most of these specialist teachers do not stay long in the SNE system. They are usually
picked up by other organisations because in SNE in Malawi there is no defined career
path. There are almost no incentives. The working conditions are generally poor as is
the case with other teachers.

Note: 1. Students with mild deafness have problems in following lessons in the regular
classroom. The critical shortage of specialist teachers affects the quality of education
delivered to students with disabilities.
 2. Some how lack of specialist teachers is being addressed by Montfort SNE College in
Chiradzulu which only trains specialist teachers for students with learning difficulties,
hearing and visual impairments. There is need to widen the training of specialist
teacher training programme in Malawi. Upon graduating the teachers are posted to
various primary and secondary schools. Some specialist teachers go back to
mainstream teaching. Though most SNE institutions belong to religious organisations,
the Malawi Government recognises the importance of improving the education of
children and youths with disabilities (Makoko, 2007) and also a number of policy
documents have taken issues of SNE on board. The policies being advocated include
inclusion and promotion of recognising that all students can learn (Education For All)
given the right environment. This a step forward in addressing issues of SNE.

ROLES OF KEY ORGANISATIONS IN THE DISABILITY SECTOR IN MALAWI

The key organisations in the disability sector are the Malawi Council for the Handicapped,
the Department of Persons with Disabilities and the Elderly currently under the Ministry of
Gender, Women, Child Development and Community Services and the Federation of
Disability Organisations in Malawi (FEDOMA).

Department of Persons with Disabilities and the Elderly

This department is currently under the Ministry of Gender, Women, Child Development and
Community Services. It was established in 1998 as a ministry responsible for persons with
disabilities. Its major function is to formulate and provide policy direction and coordinate
sectoral programmes. The department is responsible for monitoring and supervising the
implement of the National Policy on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities. MACOHA is the main advisory and implementing government agency on
disability and is part of this department.

Malawi Council for the Handicapped

Malawi Council for the Handicapped (MACOHA) was established by an Act of Parliament,
the Handicapped Persons Act of 1971 Cap: 33:02 as a statutory corporation. Its goal is to
facilitate the empowerment of PWDs to enable them to actively participate and integrate in
social economic development activities of their communities and the country. MACOHA
provides rehabilitation services to persons with disabilities in the areas of medical, social,
education and economic empowerment. It provides counselling services, placement services
for open employment, medical rehabilitation services, vocational training, and education
sponsorship to persons with disabilities as well as encouraging community participation in
community-based rehabilitation (CBR) programmes. MACOHA works in collaboration with
disabled peoples organisations (DPOs) and other service providers to ensure that persons with
disabilities are integrated in the society since disability is a cross cutting issue.

Three main approaches used in the delivery of rehabilitation programmes and services are;
community based, institutional based and community outreach strategies. According to the
provisions of the Handicapped Persons Act, MACOHA’s designated functions are to:
 advise the Minister on all matters related to the case and welfare of all PWD’s.
 design and implement rehabilitation programs and services for the social economic
empowerment and integration of persons with disabilities
 interests other government departments, public and private service providers and the
general public to be actively involved in the rehabilitation process
  run vocational training centres for persons with disabilities.
 regulate the work of service providers whose key is to support the disability cause
 raise and invest funds in rehabilitation programs and services

Federation of Disability Organisations in Malawi (FEDOMA)

FEDOMA was established in 1999 as an umbrella body of disability organisations in Malawi.
Its mission is to enhance the welfare of all PWDs and enable them to assume their rightful
role in society. Below are its objectives:
(a) to support and encourage the formation of PWDs organisations in Malawi and to
strengthen the existing ones.
(b) to promote and coordinate development efforts and self-help projects among PWDs and
their organisations.
(c) to co-ordinate the work for equal rights and equalisation of opportunities for PWDs in
Malawi society.
(d) to promote training of leaders of the organisations and the administrative personnel.
(e) to promote, support and complement government policies and programmes directed at
PWDs.
(f) facilitate the exchange of information in the field of disability through research, civic
education programmes and seminars.
(g) affiliate and cooperate with other national, regional and international organisations that
work in disability

The following are DPOs affiliated to FEDOMA:

a) Malawi Union of the Blind (MUB).
b) Disabled Women in Development (DIWODE).
c) Malawi National Association of the Deaf (MANAD).
d) Malawi Disability Sports Association (MADISA).
e) The Albino Association of Malawi (TAAM).
f) Association of the Physically Disabled in Malawi (APDM).
g) Parents of Disabled Children Association of Malawi (PODCAM)
Unit 2: SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION AND SPECIAL EDUCATION NEEDS
This unit introduces the student to the concepts of special needs education and special
education needs. It also looks at the purposes of special needs education. There is need to
understand these two concepts; special needs education and special education needs. An
understanding of these concepts will help the students support learner’s wit impairments.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Define the terms special needs educations and special education needs
2. State examples of special educational needs
3. Explain the purposes of special needs education
4. Describe why special needs education is special

WHAT IS SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION?

Special needs education can be defined from a number of perspectives. It may be defined as
an intervention and as an instruction.
The intervention component carries with it the following: where it is taught, what is taught
and how it is taught
The instruction component carries with it the following: compensatory, preventative and
remedial. Thus special needs education is a purposeful intervention that prevents, eliminates
or overcomes the barriers that keep individuals with disabilities from learning and from
active participation in school and society.

It is the education that provides appropriate modification in order to meet special educational
needs. The modifications include: materials (what services), delivery of services (who
teaches), instruction (how to teach) and curriculum (what to teach).
Special needs education is the instruction and services designed to meet the unique learning
needs of learners with disabilities.

Special materials, teaching techniques, equipment, facilities and related services such as
special transportation, psychological assessment, counselling, medical treatment, physical
and occupational therapy may be required if special needs education is to be effective.
What is special educational needs?

It is an umbrella term describing a wide range of difficulties which may impair children’s
ability to achieve during their time in school. These are unique learning needs of learners
with impairments. Not all learners with impairments have problems in learning. Many
learners without obvious impairments however fail in school because they are not assisted
accordingly. Below are some examples of special educational needs.
1. Children with physical difficulties: these may require special desks or communication
devices but may not need any modification of the curriculum
2. Children with difficult in attention, memory perception and general knowledge and skills:
these may need some modification or adaptation of the curriculum, materials and methods.
PURPOSES OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
1. Make education accessible to all children
2. Inclusion of children with impairments in mainstream schools. Learners are first prepared
in the resource room before being included in the mainstream
3. Identification of learners with special needs in schools
4. Provide recreation and sports related services (Special Olympics, referrals, counselling and
therapies) to students with impairments

Special Needs Education (SNE) tries to answer the following questions; WHO? WHAT?
HOW? and WHERE?
Below is an explanation of why SNE is Special
(a) WHO?

The exceptional child needs individually planned programme of instruction

(b) WHAT?

Special education is at times differentiated from general education by its curriculum. Some
children with special needs need intensive, systematic instruction to learn skills to
compensate for or reduce the effects of the disability. A child with visual impairment may be
taught to read and write in Braille where as a child with sight may not need these skills.
(c) HOW?

Special needs education can also be differentiated from general education by its use of
specialised or adapted materials and methods. For instance use of sign language for those
with hearing impairment, Augmentative Alternative Communication (AAC) for those with
hearing difficulties.
(d) WHERE?

SNE can at times be identified by where it takes place. Some children cannot be taught in a
regular classroom with their peers. Thus these are taught in a resource room or at a special
school.
The term special education is now replaced by the term special needs education to emphasize
the point that some learning problems may call for special adjustments as well as
emphasizing the idea of special educational needs in the regular classroom.

MEANING OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Special Needs Education is defined as from a number of perspectives.
1. It can be defined as an intervention or instruction. Meaning it comprises the following
under (A) intervention: (a) compensatory
(b) preventive
(c) remedial
(B) Instruction: (a) Where it is taught
(b) what is taught
(c) How it is taught.
2. It can also be defined as an intervention that prevents, eliminates or overcomes
barriers that keep individual with disability from learning and actively participate in
society.
3. It is the education which provides appropriate modifications so that it meets special
education needs. The modifications include:
(a) Materials, the what services
(b) Delivery of services, the who teaches
(c) Curriculum, the what to teach
(d) Instruction, the how to teach.
Unit 3: CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENTS
In the last unit you looked at special needs education and special education needs. Firstly you
will be exposed to categories of impairment. Secondly, you will look at the meanings,
indicators and characteristics or indicators of some of the categories of impairments. The unit
then looks at causes and preventive measures for each impairment category. In addition, you
will look at how teachers can assist students with impairments. Knowing the impairment
categories will enable you design and implement lessons which meet the needs of different
students in a regular classroom.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
5. State different categories of impairments
6. Define different categories of impairments
7. Describe the characteristics of different categories of impairments
8. Explain the causes of different impairments
9. Describe preventive measures for different impairments

IMPAIRMENT CATEGORIES
There are several impairment categories. The following are some of the categories:
1. Hearing impairment
2. Intellectual disability/mental challenges
3. Specific learning disabilities
4. Communication difficulties/speech and language impairment
5. Health impairment
6. Deaf-Blind (DB)
7. Autism/Pervasive Development Difficulties (PDD)
8. Emotional/behavioural difficulties
9. Multiple disabilities
10. Visual impairments
11. Physical impairments/orthopaedic impairment
12. Gifted and talented/high ability learners
The meaning and indicators of each category are discusses below.
Category Meaning
Hearing It is a generic term which indicates
a hearing disability. The disability
may range from mild to profound.
The main types are: conductive and . giving irrelevant or incorrect
sensor’s neural(inner ear loss)
Visual This is a visual disability. It ranges . eyes and eyelids are red and have
from low to total blindness. The
main types include: total loss of
sight (blindness) and low vision-
residual light
Intellectual or This is when one has limitations in
mental challenges intellectual functioning and deficits
in adaptive behaviour. It ranges
from mild to severe
Specific learning Difficult in one or more of the basic . make excuses for things not
difficulties psychological processes involved in
understanding or using language
Indicators/characteristics
. strange noises in ears
. pain and itching in the ears
. unable to hear what is said
answers
.turning heads
. watches the speakers face with
interest
. puss or tears
. eyes look dull, wrinkled or
cloudy
. sores in the eyes
. at times pupils are grey or white
. eyes cross or one eye turns in or
out
. child squinks
. difficult to see after sunset
. cannot read small letters
. inability to apply information
learned in one situation to
another
. learn fewer skills
. difficult in processing
information
. exhibit repetitive behaviour like
body rocking or hand flapping
. poor life skills like toileting,
washing, buttoning
shirts/browses
. poor social skills
. deficit in attention
remembered
. cannot follow oral directions
. cannot remember where he or
she stopped once interrupted or
stopped
. confuses meaning of similar
words
. omits/skips words and lines
while reading
. cannot concentrate
. loss of things
. reverse, invest and confuses
letters and words
 . attends to irrelevant details
Language and This is the inability to receive, send, . cannot make themselves
communications process and comprehend concepts understood
difficulties or verbal, non verbal and graphic . have either receptive or
symbols. It includes the following: expressive aphasia
(a) Speech difficulties or . do not understand ideas spoken
problems with production of to them by others
oral language
(b) Language difficulty,
problems with
comprehension o use of
spoken or written language.
Gifted students Children who produce very . out distances their peers
outstanding work in almost all the academically
subjects. These are sometimes . works harder than others
called children of high intellectual . well developed attention
ability . able to grasp, retain synthesise
and act upon information
. can work independently
. lead others during play or work
groups
. highly imaginative
. have good memory of events or
people
Health This is having limited strength, the indicators presented here are
alertness or vitality due to chronic for epilepsy only
or acute health problems. It includes . recurrent seizures
heart conditions, asthma, epilepsy, . loss of consciousness
AIDS, TB and diabetes. . body become stiff
. rhythmic jerking motion
Deaf/blind This means having both hearing and . cannot see and see
visual occurring at the same time
Emotional and Behaviours that fall significantly . don’t sit long in their seats
behavioural outside the normal of their peers. . disturb peers
difficulties Types include: . hit or fight
. conduct difficulties . steal
. socialised aggression . destroy property
. attention problem-immaturity . lie
. motor excess
. psychotic behaviour
. anxiety withdrawal
Autism/ Children have difficulties in three . fail to make eye contact
Pervasive major areas of functioning: . delayed language
Development (a) Communicating . relies on nonverbal
Difficulties(PDD (b) Relating language(gesturers or pointing)
) (c) Adapting to indicate preferences
PDD or autism ranges from mild to . echoes what has been
severe
 said(echolalia)
. unusual attachment to objects
. insists on sameness
. self injurious behaviour e.g.
. banging ones head against wall,
biting or scratching oneself
. self stimulating behaviours e.g.
rocking back and forth on heels

SOURCE: Initial Primary Teacher Education (IPTE), 2008. Pages 63-64

CUASES AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF SOME IMPAIRMENT

Category Causes Preventive measure
Hearing . infections during pregnancy .removal of excessive wax
as a result of sexually .atresia to be operated
transmitted diseases . avoid poking ears
.alcohol taking during Avoid exposure to loud
pregnancy sounds
. accidents leading to head . getting early treatment for
injuries diseases such as TB, malaria,
. loud noises meningitis, measles and
. ear infections headaches
. heredity
Visual . dry . underfive children to be
. trachoma immunised
. gonorrhoea . wash face with clean water
. Chlamydia daily and dry with a clean
. brain damage cloth
Eye injuries . eat fruits and vegetables
Problems such as rich in vitamin A
hydrocephalus, leprosy, . use recommended medicine
arthritis, brain tumours, for eye treatments
cataracts .keep dangerous objects
away from the eye
Mental . deseases such as meningitis, . expectant mothers to attend
challenges/intellectual measles, sexual transmitted underfive clinics
disability diseases and malaria . mothers and children to eat
. taking alcohol and nicotine balanced diet
during pregnancy . children to be immunised
. malnutrition against diseases
. premature or post mature . mothers to deliver at the
birth hospital or clinic
. protect children from
malaria
Specific learning difficulties . acquired trauma due to . expectant mothers to attend
maternal alcohol antenatal clinics

.malnutrition
. injury from medical
instruments
. head injury
. high fevers
lack of oxygen do to brain
injury (anoxia)
. genetic and heredity
influences
. diseases such as meningitis
and cerebral malaria
Language and . genetic defects
communication difficulties . chromosomal abnormalities
. infections such as syphilis,
measles and meningitis
. accidents affecting the brain
. lack of oxygen
. malnutrition
. brain damage
Health . heredity
. accidents
Deaf/blind . refer to hearing and visual
impairments
Emotional and behaviour . genetic factors
difficulties . environmental factors
Autism/ PDD . differences in the
neurological system due to
structural differences in the
brain, chemical differences,
differences in the way the
brain functions as a whole
Gifted students . heredity
. environmental factors
. guidance and counselling
. early treatment of diseases
. pregnant mothers should not
take alcohol and nicotine
. pregnant mothers and
children to eat balanced diet.
. take precautions to prevent
accidents
. pregnant mothers to attend
under-five clinics
. diseases to be treated as
soon as possible
. seeking medical attention to
decrease the frequency of
seizures
. medical referrals
. refer to hearing and visual
impairments
. good parental care
. consistent discipline
. mothers to attend underfive
clinics
. structure the environment
carefully
. implement a
communications system as
early as possible
. establish a consistent
routine
. emphasize on effective and
appropriate socialisation
. give them more challenging
work
Unit 4: IMPAIRMENT IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
Introduction
The previous chapter introduced you to different categories of impairments, their meanings
and characteristics. You also looked at the causes and possible prevent measurers of these
impairments. In this chapter, you will be looking at the processes followed when identifying
learners with impairments. The chapter further looks at some basic tools for identifying
learners with impairments. It concludes with factors to consider when using impairment
identification tools. This knowledge gained from this unit should help you identify
impairments within your classroom and school so as to make sound decisions for the benefit
of the learner.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you must be able:
1. Define impairment identification process
2. Describe the processes for identifying impairments
3. Explain the function of different simple impairment identification tools
4. Construct simple impairment identification tools
5. Use different simple impairment identification tools

WHAT IS IMPAIRMENT IDENTIFICATION PROCESS

This refers to the process or ways of identifying somebody with impairment(s). As teachers
you need to find out about the child’s learning challenges, including impairments as early as
possible. This is important because it will help you make decisions which will help the child
attain her of his potentials. Below are the processes you need to follow when identifying
impairment.

IMPAIRMENT IDENTIFICATION PROCESS

Basically there are four ways of identifying learners with impairments. Each of these ways is
explained below.
A. CHILD FIND (IDENTIFICATION)
This is the process of identifying children with impairments. Within this process,
locating process is the first step and includes a number of activities including the
following:
(a) Defining the target population
(b) Increasing the public awareness of services
(c) Canvassing the community for children in need of special needs education and
other related services
(d) Encouraging referrals
B. SCREENING
This is an initial step in assessment and intervention process. It is meant to assist
learners in receiving appropriate education basing on their needs. It provides an
efficient way to sort out learners who may need special needs education services from
the general population. Thus this stage lays the ground for the next step as it looks at
the general areas of possible impairments.
C. INDEPTH ASSESSMEN
This is a detailed evaluation of the learners identified in stage B through screening. At
this stage the learner is cautiously studied to confirm on the screening
 recommendations so as to determine if indeed the learner has an impairment requiring
special education services. It should be pointed out that screening and in-depth
assessment answer the question: does the learner have impairment?
D. EVALUATION
This is the process of determining learners’ progress and achievement in his or her
studies. It looks at how well an individualised education plan is working. It provides
data regarding future placement of the learner.

It should be noted that these process are interrelated hence they must be properly coordinated
so as to meet the special needs of the learner.

BASIC TOOLS FOR IDENTIFYING LEARNERS WITH IMPAIRMENTS

A number of tools have been developed to aid teachers and other practitioners in identifying
learners with impairments. The tools are easy to use and you should find them useful in your
classrooms.
(a) Snellen charts (E-chart) is used to identify visual impairment
(b) Audiometer, voice and noisemaker are used to identify hearing impairment
(c) Teacher made tests and observation checklist are used to identify cognition
impairments
(d) One word picture, vocabulary tests, observation checklist, oral interview are used to
identify speech and language impairment
(e) Observation checklist, psychomotor tests are used to identify gross and fine motor
skills
(f) Observation checklist is used to identify self help skills
(g) Behavioural checklists is used to identify social – emotional status

CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE IMPAIRMENT IDENTIFICATION TOOLS

As a teacher you need to have basic skills for constructing simple impairment identification
tools. Below are some of the materials for constructing these basic impairment identification
tools.
Material Possible materials to be used
Snellen chart(e-chart) Chart paper, pental pens, card boards
Voice and noisemakers Empty tins, small stones, seeds
Observation checklists, behaviour Flip charts, markers, pencils, pens an
checklist and teachers made tests

USING IMPAIRMENT IDENTIFICATION TOOLS

Construction of impairment identification tools is the initial step before using them. Once this
initial stage has been done, you as a teacher need to learn about how to appropriately use
these tools to avoid errors. Therefore you need to consider a number of factors including the
following:
a. Identifying the target group
b. Planning how to conduct the test
c. Choosing the appropriate identification tool or tools
d. Selecting conditions for the test
e. Pre-testing for several times to minimise errors
f. Planning how best the test is going to be administered
g. Recording the results
 h. Reporting the results and if possible make referrals to specialist teachers and other
professionals.

Conclusion
This unit has looked at the process of identifying impairments. You should have noted that
the processes and discussed in this unit are only a guide and therefore care must be taken on
how to use them. It should also be pointed that differences in individual educational needs
may call for different approaches when making referrals. However do not hesitate to start
using this knowledge in your schools.
Unit 5: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
In the last unit you looked at the processes of identifying learners with impairments which
included child find, screening, in-depth assessment and evaluation. You also looked at
different tools that can be used to identify learners with impairments. This chapter introduces
you to the concept of inclusive education. Nature doesn’t give one a guarantee to live without
disability throughout peoples’ life span. Disability or defect in physical ability can happen at
any time because of natural calamities like earthquake and flooding, or manmade calamites
like car accidents, air plane crash or others. These accidents are unconditional and happen
without criteria as rich or poor, educated or illiterate. Therefore, any kind of service provision
needs to consider disability. Among the services education is one.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Define the terms inclusive education
2. Explain principles of inclusive education
3. Describe opportunities and challenges of inclusive education
4. Describe why special needs education is special

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION DEFINED

Inclusive education means welcoming all children, without discrimination into regular or
general schools. By the change of attitude against differential treatment of education
differences in people will likely be seen in a positive perspective. It calls for a respect of
difference and celebration of diversity.

It is not only accommodating children in the regular or general school rather it goes beyond
that. For this, the same author said that “It is a focus on creating environments responsive to
the differing developmental capacities, needs and potentials of all children.
(Disability in Ethiopia, 2005)

Inclusion is not just about placing students with disabilities in to mainstream classrooms. It
recognizes that all children have individual needs, and that teachers who are trained to
facilitate an inclusive classroom, can better meet the needs of all children (Tomlinson, 1996).
Therefore, from the cited text we can understand that it is a shift in service from simply trying
to fit the child into “normal setting”, to trying to change the system of education to
accommodate the child.

Generally, the concept and practical move needs to be applicable in schools in Ethiopia
because our country is not free from the practice of educational exclusion, particularly for
people with disabilities, therefore this paper deals with the challenges and opportunities to
provide inclusive education in our school system.

PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION SERVICES IN GENERAL

The following principles briefly give hints about inclusive education and try to show even the
scope that inclusive education touches, from the accommodated child to the general
community through parents’ representation and government bodies. From interest and right
point of view the principle states that:
Inclusion is the process by which schools, local education authorities, and others develop
their cultures, policies and practices to include pupils.” (Strategies to promote inclusive
practice, 2003). So, all children should have access to an appropriate education that
affords them the opportunity to achieve their personal potential and the interest of children
must be safe guarded.

From the responsibilities and service point of view the principles state that:
“With the right training, strategies and support nearly all children with special educational
needs can be successfully included in main stream education. And an inclusive education
service offers excellence choice and incorporates the view of parents and children.”
Therefore, Schools, local education authorities and others should actively seek to remove
barriers to learning and participation.” (Strategies to promote inclusive practice, 2003)

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

OPPORTUNITIES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

a. It provides students with disabilities access to students without disabilities access to
curricula and textbooks to which most other students are exposed.
b. It developed out of a strong belief in human rights and social justice, it perceive separate
special education as dehumanizing, labelling, ineffective and expensive.

CHALLENGES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

a. The new challenge to inclusive education is to meet the needs of all children with and
without disability in the general classroom. It is not an easy process and requires a lot of
struggle and commitment to overcome attitudinal and social barriers.
b. One of the determinant factors refers to attitudes of the community towards persons with
disabilities and inclusion. A limited understanding of the concept of disability, negative
attitude towards persons with disabilities and a hardened resistance to change are the major
barriers impeding inclusive education.

Generally, the challenge towards inclusive education could emanate from different directions
such as attitudinal factors, resistance to change, rigid school systems and learning
environment, lack of clear educational strategies, lack of instructional and learning materials
and inadequate budget.

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF LEARNING FOR STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL

NEEDS
The physical environment (classroom layout and appearance, classroom arrangement,
furniture arrangement etc) contribute a lot to promote active-learning method. According to
Dilnesaw (2009), the physical environment in a classroom can challenge active-learning.
According to him there should be adequate well-maintained and furnished classrooms to
effectively conduct teaching-learning process. Therefore the place where the child is
positioned in the class, the way the classroom materials are arranged, the effects of sound
environment and the condition of a building play a vital role in enhancing or retarding the
-learning process of visually impaired children.

TEACHING METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Method in general means a particular order imposed up on teaching or presentation of
activities. It refers to the construction of how teaching ought to be done. Methods are means
of conveying ideas and skills to impart and acquire a certain subject matter in more concerted
and comprehensive way.

Methods describe conceptually the instructional process, that is not only how information
gets from the teacher to the learner but also how the learner, use it, interact with it, receives
guidance and is given feedback. No learning can occur if the students passively sit. The
student must actively respond; must participate. Because education is a human experience
acquired in the process of mans interaction with his physical and social environment.
Basically, method in teaching concerns the way teachers organize and use techniques of
teaching, subject-matter, teaching tools, and teaching materials to meet teaching objectives. It
consists of formulating the goals and objectives for teaching, selecting the subject matter and
the teaching procedures, evaluating the success of the learning activates, and following up
their success and failure.

THE CHARACTERRISTICS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive education

 Acknowledges that all children can learn

 Acknowledges and respects differences in children age, sex language, important, HIV
and AIDS status etc.
 Attempts to include children with specials education needs in all education activities.
 Enables education structures, systems and methodologies meet the need of all
children.
 Allows participatory education.
 Allows for single education system for all.
 Ensures equitable high standards and outcomes for all children.
 Involves dialogue and information sharing.

PURPOSES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive education is about creating schools that are responsive to the actual diverse needs of
children. The purposes on inclusive education include:

 To enable students with impairments status within their families and communities
 To improve the quality of education for all
 To overcome discriminatory attitudes towards learners with impairment
 To help in breaking the cycle of poverty and exclusion.
 To uncover and minimize barriers to learning

BARRIERS TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive education is concerned with identification and removal of barriers. It is also

concerned with participation of all learners who are vulnerable to exclusive and
marginalization. The following are some of the identification barriers in schools:

 Negative attitudes
 Physical access
  Large classes
 Gender discrimination
 Poverty
 Shortage of teaching and learning resources
 Shortages of specialist teachers and related services
 Lack of parental involvement
 High level of dependency of some children with impairment on their carers

STRATEGIES TO OVERCOME BARRIERS TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Schools must identify various ways of addressing barriers of inclusive education.
Some of the strategies are:
1. Promoting positive attitudes
The society’s lack of knowledge, misinformation and negative attitudes excludes gilrs
and boys with impairment from education. Education officials and class teachers must
understand that children with impairment lack opportunities to develop their full
potentials to effectively participate in the society. There is need to raise awareness
that each child is unique and different and that children with impairments have the
same rights, needs, and aspirations as all children.
2. Promoting inclusive learning environments
Children need to be able to travel safely to and from school. They need to be in a safe
physical and social environment whether at home or school.

3. Promoting early intervention

The earlier the intervention, the greater the impact on the child’s future development,
early medical referrals or rehabilitations
4. Promoting positive role models
Inviting men and women with impairments to give talks at the school about their lives
and achievements
5. Supporting appropriate policy development
Policies must mainstream disability issues. They should address issues to do with
breaking the discriminatory tendencies.
6. Supporting change of system in education
The introduction of more inclusive practices in education necessitates changes in the
curriculum, teacher training, teaching methodologies and teacher attitudes.

Unit 5: BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS – CAUSES AND DIAGNOSIS

Although there is considerable diversity among individuals with learning disabilities, the
literature consistently identifies some common characteristics of learning disabilities.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Explain behavioural challenges of learner with impairments
2. Describe different disorders of learners with impairments

Relative to their peers, students with learning disabilities are often:

 Less engaged in learning tasks - poorly organized in both thoughts and work habits
 Less confident in their ability to learn - frustrated with difficult work tasks
 Less willing to take risks in learning situations - discouraged by their lack of success
 Unable to cope with multiple instructions

Due to individual differences, no single description or profile can represent all individuals
with learning disabilities. Since learning disabilities occur along a spectrum of severity,
people can experience mild to significant impacts.
Students with learning disabilities have average to above average intelligence and potential,
and while they may demonstrate unexpected underachievement compared to their abilities,
they can experience academic success and lead happy, successful lives.
Self-advocacy helps students gain higher self-perceptions, stronger self-esteem and
independence. Students are most likely to experience success in secondary and post-
secondary studies if they understand and know how to explain their disabilities, can describe
the accommodations that support their learning and engage with an adult to support them in
navigating their school experience.

Early identification and intervention, appropriate adaptations and supports are keys to
success. If a student’s performance is assessed in the absence of appropriate adaptations, the
assessment may not accurately measure the student’s knowledge.
Success for a student with learning disabilities does not mean the disorder disappears. It
means that the student makes effective use of strengths and compensatory strategies to
accomplish personal and educational goals.

LEARNING DISABILITY AND BEHAVIOUR

Teachers should explore the possible existence of a learning disability when a student who
appears to be capable has a history of struggling with specific components of school and or
begins to demonstrate behavioural difficulties

Students with undetected learning disabilities might demonstrate undesirable behaviour for a
variety of reasons. They might feel angry, sad, lonely, frustrated or hopeless as a result of
focusing on their difficulties. Frustrations might arise out of the student’s level of
performance compared to their level of actual ability. Lack of understanding of why they
struggle to perform the task or sometimes the inability to communicate in un appropriate way
may also lead to frustrations.

A student might also exhibit inappropriate behaviour in order to avoid the frustrating task
itself. At other times behaviour might result from poor self-esteem, connected to the student’s
focus on what he/she can’t do; or a student might quit trying, believing that no matter how
hard they try they will never attain success. Other behaviour might be the result of an
emotional disturbance.

However the learning difficulty presents itself, students with learning disabilities can
experience success in school if appropriate supports are provided. It is important to focus on
early identification and remediation and utilize research-based, effective strategies to assist
students before behavioural or emotional issues emerge.

ATTENTION DIFFICULTY
Some students with learning disabilities have difficulties focusing, sustaining and shifting
attention. These difficulties might result from physical discomfort, emotional issues, interest
and motivational factors or from challenges with self-regulation. Persistent patterns of
difficulties such as inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity, or any combination of these,
might be the result of a biologically based condition known as Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is a regulatory problem of attention, activity level and
impulse control, and it can have a significant impact on a student’s ability to learn.
A student with self regulation or attention challenges might exhibit difficulties in:
 organizing supplies, managing time or categorizing and/or classifying information
 managing social interactions, taking turns, refraining from calling answers out,
controlling, attaining, maintaining and changing levels of arousal
 developing and using strategies to address academic challenges, and making and
following through with a plan or task
 understanding personal strengths and weaknesses
 maintaining thought patterns and managing sensory stimulation, e.g. fidgeting,
making noises (tapping etc.) or touching people/things

SPEECH AND LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association states that learning disabilities can be a
cause of speech-language difficulties. A language disorder is defined as “impaired
comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and/or other symbol systems. The impairment
might involve; the form of language, the content of language and the function of language in
communication in any combination.

Language development has a profound impact on communication, both expressive (the ability
to send messages) and receptive (the ability to understand messages), in both verbal and
written form. Some of the speech and language related disorders commonly referred to in
educational circles include: phonological processing disorder central auditory processing
disorder, expressive language disorder, receptive language processing disorder and language
delay. Strategies for students with these disorders will include not only those that address a
learning disability but also the consultation and/or services of a speech/language pathologist.

MEMORY DIFFICULTY
Students with learning disabilities might demonstrate problems with one or more types of
memory. Working memory is a component of memory in which information is stored and/or
manipulated for brief periods of time in order to perform another activity. It enables learners
to hold on to pieces of information until the pieces blend into a full thought or concept.
Working memory is important for a range of activities, such as controlling attention,
problem-solving, and listening and reading comprehension. A student with working memory
difficulties might have forgotten the first part of an instruction by the time the full instruction
has been given. Or the student might be unable to recall the beginning of a sentence by the
time he/she has read to the end. Some students will be unable to hold material in working
memory in order to complete a task or understand a concept.

Short term Memory is a component of memory where information is stored briefly until it is
either forgotten or integrated into long term memory. It is similar to working memory,
however more passive as information is not manipulated. A student with short term memory
challenges might not be to remember information long enough to copy it down from one
place to another.

Long-term memory refers to information that has been stored and is available over a long
period of time. Effective short-term memory is critical to move information into long-term
memory. A student with long-term memory difficulties might find it necessary to review and
study information over a longer period of time in order for it to become part of his or her
general body of knowledge. Rehearsal, repetition and association are well-known paths to
improving long-term memory.

TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

Although students with learning disabilities may share some common attributes, there are
many different types of learning disabilities. Some of the most common learning disabilities
are outlined below. It should be pointed out that, in many cases, a student will demonstrate
qualities which indicate a disability in a number of different areas, not just one.
Arithmetic Disorder
Arithmetic Disorder (Dyscalculia) is generally characterized by difficulty in learning or
comprehending mathematics. It affects a person’s ability to understand and manipulate
numbers or understand numbers themselves. A student with arithmetic disorder might have
difficulty with:
o organizing problems on the page, keeping numbers lined up
o following through on multiple step calculations, such as long division
o transposing numbers accurately on paper or on to a calculator, such as turning
56 into 65
o distinguishing right from left
o using the mathematical calculation signs, confusing basic operations and facts
o applying logic but not accurately completing calculations
o understanding and solving word problems
o being hesitant, refusing or experiencing anxiety when asked to engage with
mathematical concepts
o remembering and applying mathematical functions in various ways
o recalling math rules, formulas or sequences
o being able to perform an operation one day but not the next
o understanding abstract concepts like time and direction
o checking change, reading analogue clocks, keeping score during games,
budgeting, estimating
o remembering dance step sequences or rules for playing sports
o visualising the face of a clock or places on a map
 o recalling dates, addresses, schedules and sequences of past or future events

Writing Disorder
Writing Disorder (Dysgraphia) is generally characterized by distorted writing in spite of
thorough instruction. A student with writing disorder might experience some of the following
difficulties:
o inconsistent and sometimes illegible writing; e.g., mixing print and cursive,
upper and lower case, irregular sizes, shapes or slant of letters
o inconsistent positioning on the page, with respect to lines and margins
o unfinished words or letters, omitted words and many spelling mistakes
o fine motor difficulty, such as inability to reproduce letters or remembering
motor patterns
o inconsistent speed in writing, either extremely laboured or quick
o writing that doesn’t communicate at the same level as the student’s other
language skills
o odd grip, unusual wrist, body or paper position
o pain or muscle spasms while writing
o talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand while writing
o refusal, reluctance or extreme stress when asked to complete a written task.
Reading Disorder
Reading Disorder (Dyslexia) is generally characterized by difficulties with the alphabet, word
recognition, decoding, spelling, and comprehension. A student with reading disorder might
have difficulty with the following:
o naming, learning the sequence of or printing the alphabet
o memorizing non-phonetic words
o reading words that cannot be translated into a mental picture (and, a, the, etc.)
o sound/symbol correspondence, or sequencing of letters to create a word
o reading aloud without repeated mistakes and pauses
o comprehending reading material, grasp of vocabulary
o reading numbers and confusing math symbols
o organizing what he or she wants to say verbally, or not being able to think of
the word needed
o retelling a story in sequence of events
o finding a word in the dictionary, naming the days of the week and months of
the year
o understanding inferences, jokes or sarcasm.
Spelling disorder
Spelling disorders (Dysorthographia) are generally characterized by difficulties with spelling.
They stem from weak awareness or memory of language structures and letters in words. A
student with a spelling disorder might present some of the following difficulties, often in
conjunction with poor skills in reading and/or arithmetic:
o arbitrary misspellings, such as addition, omission and/or substitution of letters
in words
o reversal of vowels and/or syllables
o slow, hesitant or poor written expression
o errors in conjugation and grammar
 o phonetic spelling of non-phonetic words
o misunderstanding the correspondence between sounds and letters.
Auditory processing disorder
Auditory processing disorder describes a variety of disorders that affect the way the brain
processes or interprets what it hears even though the student might have adequate hearing. A
student with an auditory processing disorder might have difficulty with the following:
o listening, particularly where there is background noise or when attention is
divided
o processing information if the speaker is speaking quickly
o understanding what is said
o recalling what they have heard or following a sequence of directions
o recognizing and interpreting distinct sounds or attributing meaning to sounds
in words
o using phonemes incorrectly when speaking
o applying phonics, encoding (spelling) and decoding (sounding out) words
o reading comprehension, vocabulary and basic literacy.
Visual Processing Disorder
A visual perception disorder involves difficulty making sense of what is seen, even though
vision is intact. A student with visual processing disorder might find the following tasks
challenging:
o recalling and using visual information, e.g. remembering the order or meaning
of symbols, words or pictures
o differentiating colours, letters or numbers that are similar
o recognizing objects or parts of an object
o noting and comparing features of different items
o distinguishing a particular shape from its background and/or understanding
how objects are positioned in relation to one another
o attending when there is competing visual information
o perceiving distances, depth or movement
o accurately identifying information from books, pictures, charts, graphs and
maps
o organising essays with information from different sources into one cohesive
document or solving Mathematics problems
o writing within margins or on lines or aligning numbers in Mathematics
problems
o fine motor tasks such as writing or copying
o tracking and reading with speed and precision

Sensory Integration (Processing) Disorder

Sensory Integration Disorder is associated with the ability to integrate information from the
body’s sensory systems (visual input, auditory input, olfactory input, taste, tactile input,
vestibular input (balance/movement), and proprioceptive input (position). Information from
the senses are not interpreted in ways that it can be used efficiently by the brain. A student
with a sensory integration disorder might present some of the following difficulties:
o extremely over- or under-reactive to senses, such as touch, sound, light, smells
or anything put into the mouth
 o strong over- or under-responsiveness to movement: e.g. avoids movement or
craves it, startles easily, seems clumsy, careless or very physical
o having a strong attraction to or dislike for getting messy
o knowing where one’s body is in space
o knowing how much physical pressure to apply to something
o unusually high or low activity level, or rapidly moving from one to the other
o calming oneself or unwinding
o social emotional problems, e.g. easily frustrated, tantrums, acting out, poor
self concept,
o making smooth transitions
o being easily distracted
o carrying out small or large motor tasks
o determining physical characteristics of objects
o putting ideas into words, delays in speech/language development, articulation.

Organizational Learning Disorder

An organizational learning disorder is a type of learning disability related to challenges with
executive functions and frequently accompanies other learning disabilities. Organizational
learning disorder might include difficulties in handling too much stimuli or information at
one time, thinking in an orderly and logical way, distinguishing direction or organising
materials and time. A student with an organizational learning disorder might present some of
the following difficulties:
o allocating or organizing time
o arranging, or locating the beginning, middle and end
o setting priorities, time management, estimating time
o following schedules and meeting deadlines
o solving problems in stages
o organizing desks or notebooks, finding materials
o settling down and functioning effectively when settings or expectations
change
o remembering what they are required to do
o drafting an outline or assembling materials for presentations.

Social Cue Disorder

Individuals with social cue disorder have difficulty behaving in an automatic way. Picking up
on spoken and unspoken cues is a complex process. Information must be detected, processed,
have meaning extracted; then a response must be formulated. A student with social cue
disorder might present some of the following difficulties:
o poor impulse control and/or needs immediate gratification
o illogical reasons for actions and/or little thought about logical consequences
o inappropriate conclusions or goals, due to deficient reasoning ability
o inability to interpret environmental and social cues: e.g. body language, pitch
of voice, personal space and/or facial expressions
o trying too hard or inappropriately to be accepted socially
o being disruptive due to low tolerance for frustration
o not understanding social conventions such as standing too close or turn taking.
Behaviour problems can be due to medical or behavioural causes, or both. A clinical history,
physical examination, and diagnostic testing will help determine if there are underlying
medical conditions contributing to the problem. "Although there may be a single cause
behaviour problem, it is often the combined effect of the environment and learning”

Although there may be a single cause for a behaviour problem, it is often the combined effect
of the environment and learning on the pet's mental and physical health that determines
behaviour. For example, the pet that is fearful of children may become more reactive,
irritable, and aggressive as conditions such as dental problems, arthritis or an infection make
the pet more uncomfortable, painful or less mobile. Another example is the cat that has been
exposed to other cats roaming across its territory, but only begins to mark when it developed
an overactive thyroid gland at 10 years of age. Correcting the thyroid problem or providing
pain relief as well as behaviour modification techniques can resolve some of these problems.

WHAT ARE SOME BEHAVIOURAL CAUSES OF MISBEHAVIOUR?

Any change in the environment or the daily routine may contribute to the emergence of
behaviour problems. For example, schedule changes, a new member of the household (baby,
spouse), moving, illness or injury of a family member, loss of a family member or another
pet, or the addition of a new pet can have a dramatic impact on behaviour. Medical or
degenerative changes associated with aging may cause the pet to be even more sensitive to
these environmental changes. "Learning also plays a role in virtually every behaviour
problem."

Learning (e.g. reinforcement, punishment) also plays a role in virtually every behaviour
problem. When a pet's actions result in unpleasant consequences (e.g. punishment), the
chances of repeating the behaviour will decrease. Punishment might be the application of
something unpleasant or the removal of something good (i.e. petting stops if you do that
behaviour). If a behaviour is followed by pleasant consequences such as obtaining food,
attention, or affection (rewards), the behaviour is likely to be repeated (positive
reinforcement). These consequences could be administered unintentionally by the owners, as
when the owner gives a reward following a behaviour, or obtained by the pet itself through its
actions (as when the pet gets a favoured treat when rolling around its feeding toy. Although
in practice the goal would be to use rewards to encourage desirable behaviour, many
undesirable behaviours are encouraged because of rewards. Examples of these rewards
include the owner who allows the dog into the house to stop the dog from barking or the dog
that finds leftovers in the garbage.

Another very powerful form of learning is that of negative reinforcement where the pet's
behaviour is reinforced because something either pleasant or undesirable has been removed.
This might be the case when a dog exhibits aggression and the stimulus (person or other
animal) retreats. It can be difficult to determine what might be reinforcing a behaviour but if
a behaviour is ongoing then(apart from pets perspective)reinforcement is operating to
maintain the problem behaviour.

What role do genetics and early experience have in the development of behaviour problems?
Some of the most important causes of behavioural problems are genetic and environmental
factors, and these might be most difficult to improve. Genetic factors can influence or even
dictate the pet's response to stimuli. The environment that the pet experienced during its most
sensitive periods of development has a major impact on behavioural development. The most
sensitive periods include a) the socialization period from 3 to 12 weeks b) prenatal and
neonatal experiences and c) secondary socialization and development through to maturity.
Lack of stimulation, lack of handling, lack of exposure, insufficient socialization, and
particularly stressful or traumatic events during these times can have a major impact on the
pet's behaviour.

WHAT TESTS CAN BE DONE TO DETERMINE A BEHAVIOURAL CAUSE?

A good history is one of the most important means of determining the cause of a behavioural
problem. This involves an in depth analysis of the pet's medical and behavioural history
including any training, as well as the circumstances surrounding the problem itself. Daily
interactions with the pet and any changes in schedule need to be explored. "We cannot ask
the pet how it is feeling or if anything hurts"

Often the event that precipitated the behavioural change may be different from that which
maintains it. If you can catch the problem on videotape, this can be a valuable diagnostic aid
for the veterinarian. Perhaps the most important element in determining the cause of the
problem and what diagnostic workup might be needed will be the clinical signs that you
report. Since we cannot ask the pet how it is feeling or if anything hurts, we will need to find
out from you, the pet owner, all of the signs that your pet is exhibiting, both behavioural and
medical. Then based on the history you provide, previous health problems, any medications
that your pet might be taking and the findings of a physical examination, additional
diagnostic tests might be warranted. A final diagnosis of a behavioural cause can only be
made after all medical factors have been ruled out.

The definition of learning disability has varied over time, across jurisdictions and among
disciplines. Learning Disabilities refer to a number of conditions that might affect the
acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information.
These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average
abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning. As such, learning disabilities are distinct
from global intellectual disabilities.
Learning disabilities result from impairments in one or more processes related to perceiving,
thinking, remembering or learning. These include, but are not limited to language processing,
phonological processing, visual spatial processing, processing speed, memory, attention and
executive functions (e.g. planning and decision making).
Learning disabilities vary in severity and may interfere with the acquisition and use of one or
more of the following:
 oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, understanding)
 reading (e.g., decoding, phonetic knowledge, word recognition, comprehension)
 written language (e.g., spelling and written expression)
 mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving)
Learning disabilities may also involve difficulties with organizational skills, social
perception, social interaction and perspective taking.
Learning disabilities are life-long. The way in which they are expressed may vary over an
individual’s lifetime, depending on the interaction between the demands of the environment
and the individual’s strengths and needs. Learning disabilities are suggested by unexpected
academic under-achievement or achievement that is maintained only by unusually high levels
of effort and support.

Alters brain function in a manner that affects one or more processes relate to learning. These
disorders are not due primarily to hearing and/or vision problems, social-economic factors,
cultural or linguistic differences, lack of motivation, inadequate or insufficient instruction,
although these factors may further complicate the challenges faced by individuals with
learning disabilities. Learning disabilities may co-exist with other disorders such as attention,
behavioural or emotional disorders, sensory impairments, or other medical conditions.

Learning disabilities can interfere with a student meeting his or her intellectual and life
potential. Learning disabilities result in unexpected academic underachievement. Learning
disability may impact the acquisition, understanding, retention and or use of information.

Learning disabilities are complex and go beyond the stereotypical perceptions of the disorder
as simply reading difficulties, or letter reversals. They vary considerably, both in terms of the
functions they impact and the severity of the impact experienced. The appropriate
accommodations depend upon the individual’s strengths as well as his/her specific
difficulties.

Frequently, learning disabilities are not detected before children start school. Many students
with learning disabilities display no signs of difficulty, except when they attempt the specific
academic tasks that challenge their particular area of cognitive processing difficulty.
Unlike many other disabilities, identifying a learning disability poses some particular
challenges since processing disorders are assessed through inference based on student
responses. It might not be obvious that a student’s learning difficulties are due to a learning
disability.

The specific needs of individuals with learning disabilities change and evolve throughout
their lifetime. This does not mean the disability no longer exists, but by varying the activities
they undertake and the strategies they develop to address their particular learning disabilities,
students may experience different challenges at different times.
Unit 7: REHABILITATION SERVICES
The previous chapter has taken you through behavioural problems which may be observed in
learners with special education needs. Having looked at the behavioural problems, the next
chapter looks at how these behavioural problems can be cultured. None of these ways is
through rehabilitation.

UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
1. Define rehabilitation
2. Describe some rehabilitation services in Malawi
3. Explain placement options for learners with Special Educational Needs
4. Describe the purpose of Individualised Educational Plan (IEP)
5. Construct an IEP
6. Implement an IEP

WHAT IS REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation is when one is assisted in his or her problem so that he or she is able to
contribute effectively. As a teacher therefore, you need knowledge, skills and attitudes in
rehabilitation to enable you take part in effective disability prevention through networking
with other professionals.

REHABILITATION SERVICES
In Malawi rehabilitation services are mainly in three categories namely: health, education and
social. These services are provided by government ministries, statutory bodies and
nongovernmental organisations. Below are some examples of rehabilitation services in
Malawi.

1. Ministry of Education Science and Technology

The Ministry of Education Science and Technology offers special needs at primary,
secondary and tertiary levels. It also trains special teachers.
2. Ministry of Health
The Ministry Of health offers medical rehabilitation through surgery, guidance and
counselling. It also provides psychiatric and physiotherapy services.
3. Ministry of Gender, Women, Child Development and Community Services
The Ministry of Gender, Women, Child Development and Community Services identifies and
refers people for rehabilitation.
4. Malawi Against Physical Disabilities (MAP)
The MAP provides assistive devices such as wheel chairs, clutches. It also offers
Physiotherapy and occupational therapy and trains rehabilitation assistants
5. Beit Trust Cure Hospital
It provides orthopedic surgery to young children with impairments
6. Malawi Council for the Handicapped (MACOHA)
It provides vocational training and sheltered employment to persons with disabilities.
7. St. John of God
It offers guidance and counselling and vocational training

Rehabilitation services have professionals that form a team whose members interlink to offer
necessary provisions. They all work collaboratively to reach out to children’s ultimate goal of
self independence.

REFERRALS TO REHABILITATION SERVICES

When teachers are unable to offer rehabilitation services, they send the clients to special
people. Teachers need to acquire necessary skills for referring learners with disabilities to
other professionals for rehabilitation services. However before making referrals, a teacher
needs to collect enough information about the learners (case history) an in a referral form

PLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL

NEEDS
These are choices of educational programs for children with special educational needs. In
Malawi, the following are placement options:
1. Special schools: these are schools that learners with specific impairments go to.
These schools have all teachers as specialists. The following are examples of special
schools
(a) Special schools for children with hearing impairment
 Embangweni school for the deaf in Mamba
 Mua school for the deaf in Dedza
 Maryview school for the deaf in Chiradzulu
 Mountainview school for death in Thyolo
(b) Special schools for children with visual impairment
 Chilanga school for the blind in Kasungu
 Lulw school for the blind in Nsanje
2. Resource class placement system
It is a system where learners with impairments are included in mainstream but are
occasionally withdrawn to resource room where they are assisted by a specialist
teacher. The following are some examples of resource class placement schools in
Malawi
(a) Resource centres schools for children with visual impairment
 Montfort demonstration school in Chiradzulu
 Salima LEA school in Salima
 Blantyre Secondary School in Blantyre
 Ekwendeni Girls Secondary School in Mzimba
 Mzimba Secondary School in Mzimba
(b) Resource centre schools for children with learning difficulties
 Ekwendeni primary school in Mizimba
 SOS primary school in Lilongwe
 Luchenza primary school in Thyolo
 Chimwala primary school in Mangochi
 Chankhanga primary school in
 Kamuzu LEA in Mchinji
(c) Resource centres for children with hearing impairment
 Chayamba secondary school in Kasungu
 Migowi primary school in Phalombe
 Bandawe primary school in Nkhatabay

3. Mainstream system
Learners with special educational needs are included in the mainstream school system
and they receive additional help from itinerant (wandering) specialist teachers.

The seriousness of the impairment of the learner determines the placement option

PURPOSE OF INDIVIDUALISED EDUCATIONAL PLAN (IEP)

Children learn differently since each child is different from the other. Therefore teachers need
to plan so as to help each child effectively. IEP is important because:
1. Helps practitioners and parents to direct their energies and support more specifically.
2. Allows children’s progress to be regularly monitored.
 3. Gives an overall view of the child
4. Provides other professionals with information about effectiveness of the planned
strategies for success

CONSTRUCTING AN IEP
An IEP is constructed as soon as a child is identified to have problems in learning. The
following should be contained in an IEP
1. Childs name and date of birth
2. Date of IEP
3. Date and level of support
4. A brief summary of child’s difficulty and needs
5. Strength and limitations
6. Success criteria or objectives
7. Teaching methods and strategies
8. Relayed services being offered
9. Staff to be involved
10. Date or review
11. Signatures of parents and staff

IMPLEMEMNTING THE IEP

Once a child’s IEP has been written, three next is for the teacher to implement it.

Case study
Read the case study below to understand how an IEP can be constructed.
Daniel was born ten weeks early. He is small for his age and he has poor motor skills, both
fine and gross. He has poor concentration. He changes activities frequently even when
supported with an adult. He is sociable and enjoys watching and being with others. He
particularly enjoys painting and playing games. Staff has noticed that he responds well to
sensory activities such as sand and water. His parents report that at home he enjoys having
friends around and playing in a garden. They have noticed that he finds it hard to follow
instructions.
 Below is a sample IEP beginning with the child’s information provided in the case study

Name: Daniel Area(s) of difficulty: Fine motor skills and concentration

DOB: 04/12/99 Review Date: 14/03/03 Start Date: Jan, 2003
Proposed support: Support began: Jan, 2003

Target Success criteria Possible Class Ideas for Outcome

resources strategies support/assistance
technique
Grasp small . pick up 5 beads . Sorting . Provide small . demonstrate picking
objects and transfer to a activities objects within objects with pincher
pot in 3 minutes reach grip praise success
Maintain . participate . Building . provide . encourage to
attention fully in sensory sand opportunities participate and take
activities castles to participate turns
and take turns
at appropriate
time

Parents/practitioners contribution: work with Daniel on related activities at home. Practice

taking turns at home. Playing games
Parents signature: __________________________________________
Practitioners signature: ______________________________________

Source IPTE, 2003, page 100

Theories of Learning
There are three sets of learning theory used in educational circles, under the headings
of:

Behaviourist
A particular embodiment of a positivist "scientific" approach to learning

Humanistic
Arising from a value-base of empowering and even liberating the learner with Constructivism
somewhere in-between them and . . . .

Cognitive
Everything else apart from sheer imitation, which does not seem to be dignified with a
theoretical home.

Somewhat outside this mainstream sits situated learning theory, which is primarily
social, but raises important questions about how we expect people to learn. All of them make
important points, and this site is not partisan: the issue is about the "range of convenience" of
each of the models.

Contextual Reading
Note that because education and training are ‘professional’ rather than ‘academic’ disciplines
they are selective in the way in which theories of learning have been approached, adopted,
distorted and developed. So the biological approach does not get
much of a look-in in educational circles, unsurprisingly — but for popular discussions of
biological approaches to learning refer to:

Behaviourism
Behavioural theory in psychology is a very substantial field which is
primarily associated with Pavlov (classical conditioning) in Russia and with Thorndike,
Watson and particularly Skinner in the United States (operant conditioning). Behaviourism is
dominated by the constraints of its (naïve) attempts to emulate the
physical sciences, which entails a refusal to speculate about what happens inside the
organism. Anything which relaxes this requirement slips into the cognitive realm.

Much behaviourist experimentation is undertaken with animals and generalised. In

educational settings, behaviourism implies the dominance of the teacher, as in
behaviour modification programmes. It can, however, be applied to an understanding of
unintended learning.

Classical conditioning:is the process of reflex learning—investigated by Pavlov—through

which an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) which produces an unconditioned response
(salivation) is presented together with a conditioned stimulus (a bell), such that the salivation
is eventually produced on the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, thus becoming a
conditioned response.

This is a disciplined account of our common-sense experience of learning by association

(or "contiguity", in the jargon), although that is often much more complex than a reflex
process, and is much exploited in advertising. Note that it does not depend on us doing
anything.

Such associations can be chained and generalised (for better of for worse): thus "smell
of baking" associates with "kitchen at home in childhood" associates with "love and
care". (Smell creates potent conditioning because of the way it is perceived by the
brain.) But "sitting at a desk" associates with "classroom at school" and hence perhaps
with "humiliation and failure"... pavlov.gif (7311 bytes)

Operant Conditioning

If, when a person emits a behaviour (does something), the consequences of that
behaviour are reinforcing, it is more likely to emit (do) it again. What counts as
reinforcement, of course, is based on the evidence of the repeated behaviour, which
makes the whole argument rather circular.

Learning is really about the increased probability of a behaviour based on

reinforcement which has taken place in the past, so that the antecedents of the new
behaviour include the consequences of previous behaviour. Abc.gif (4094 bytes)

The schedule of reinforcement of behaviour is central to the management of effective

learning on this basis, and working it out is a very skilled procedure: simply reinforcing
every instance of desired behaviour is just bribery, not the promotion of learning.

Withdrawal of reinforcement eventually leads to the extinction of the behaviour,

except in some special cases such as anticipatory-avoidance learning.

Gagné's model
Applied to the theory of teaching, behaviourism's main manifestation is "instructional
technology" and its associated approaches
Humanistic (or Humanism)

Humanistic "theories" of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like
prescriptions (about what ought to happen) rather than descriptions (of what does
happen).
• They emphasise the "natural desire" of everyone to learn. Whether this natural
desire is to learn whatever it is you are teaching, however, is not clear.
• It follows from this, they maintain, that learners need to be empowered and to have
control over the learning process.
• So the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a facilitator.

The Humanistic approach is particularly associated with

• Carl Rogers, and
• Abraham Maslow (psychologists),

• Malcolm Knowles (adult education and proponent of andragogy). Insofar as he

emphasises experiential learning, one could also include
• Kolb among the humanists as well as the cognitive theorists.

Cognitive Theories
The cognitive school is perhaps best defined by exclusion: if it’s not behaviourist or
humanist, it's cognitive

It all starts with Gestalt theories, originally theories of perception, interested in the
way the brain imposes pattern on the perceived world, Gestalt moved into problem-
solving learning. It is also influenced by the developmental psychology of Piaget (but also
read Donaldson (1984) if reading Piaget), focusing on the factors affecting understanding.
Broadly, cognitive theory is interested in how people understand material, and thus in;
aptitude and capacity to learn and learning styles.

It is also the basis of the educational approach known as constructivism, which emphasises
the role of the learner in constructing his own view or model of the material and what helps
with that.

GLOSSARY

Assistive Devices : Appropriate aids, appliances, technologies and other support systems
that facilitate effective learning of learners with special educational
needs
Deaf/blind: A combined vision and hearing disability that limits activities and
participation of a person in a society
Inclusive Education: The education that expects the curriculum means of communication,
teaching methods, educational materials and other environmental
factors to adapt to the needs of learners with special educational needs.
Learning Support Assistant: A person trained to assist a specialist teacher in the
management of learners with special educational needs
Low Vision: Loss of eyesight that makes everyday tasks difficult or impossible to
be accomplished.
Resource Centre: An institutional setting attached to a primary, secondary school or
college to serve learners with special educational needs.
Special Educational Needs: Difficulties learners experience in learning due to impairments.
Special Needs Education: A system for providing supportive learning environment for
learners who may require extra support in order to achieve
maximum potential.
Special School: A school that provides educational and other related services
solely to learners with special educational needs and is
managed by specially trained teachers.
Specialist Teacher : A trained teacher to assist learners with special educational
needs.

References
Hillier Y. 2005, Reflective Teaching in Further and Adult Education 2nd Edition, London:
Continuum

Jarvis M., 2005, The Psychology of Effective Learning and Teaching, Cheltenham: Nelson
Thornes Ltd.

Konner M 1993, The Tangled Wing: biological constraints on the human spirit,
Harmondsworth, Penguin

Plotkin H 1994, Darwin Machines and the Nature of Knowledge, Harmondsworth, Penguin

Winstanley J., 2006, Key Concepts in Psychology, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Ltd.

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/theories.htm (accessed 21/01/08)