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Adigrat University

Assessing scaffolding Works with respect to health and safety, system and type of materials

; The case of Building construction at Adigrat city

A research submitted to the School of Under graduate Studies of Adigrat University in

fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Construction
Technology and Management

Prepared BY:

Name Id. No.

Kemer Ayelgn 3532/07

Melat WeldeYohannes 3758/07

Nardos Merawi 3918/07

Advisor: Adane (Msc)

Adigrat, Tigray, Ethiopia

June, 2019 GC
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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction
Health and safety must be the most given priority the construction industry. Work in a building
and construction industry is risky activity. Contractors, subcontractors and their workers face
risks from hazards that must be managed to prevent deaths, injuries and illness. It is considered
as exception rather than the rule. So in any place which construction industry occurs, the
workers, engineers, contractors must understand and know the important of health and safety
issue and implement the practices that will safeguard the people and also the planet.
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2016)

All over Ethiopia thousands of daily laborers work in big constrictions in unsafe working
environment and without supportive and protective equipment. They don’t have protective caps,
gloves, eye coverings, work clothes, shoes, etc. They work at high-rise buildings standing on old
and inclined wooden scaffolds and ladders; they even transport heavy construction materials on
them. Moreover, the constructions do not have safety nets and restraint and fall arrest systems.
Because of this a significant number of accidents occur in the construction industry of Ethiopia.
(Araya, May 5, 2017)

Construction sites would be regard as very risky areas where construction workers are subject to
fatalities and ill- health problems. Many building construction activities are inherently risky to
health and safety such as working at height, working underground, working in confined spaces
and close proximity to falling materials, handling loads manually, handling hazardous
substances, noises, dusts, using plant and equipment, fire and exposure to live cables. Moreover,
deaths, permanent disabilities and severe injuries have been on the increase for building workers
through major accidents and poor working conditions.

Most of the accidents occur due to scaffolding works in construction industry. Scaffolding work
includes erection, alteration and dismantling of scaffolding members. Hence these activities
needs working in different level of heights laborers might fall or through down materials
damaging anything under. It has become common to accidents happened due to a failed
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scaffolding and kill people found to be at the wrong place at the wrong time; or made a serious
damage on physical properties.

1.2 Objective of the research

Assessing the type of scaffolding used in construction projects in Adigrat and health and safety
of scaffolding in general.

1.3 Specific objectives

• Assessing the type of scaffolding
• Identifying the impact of scaffolding on health and safety of workers.
• To identify local laws and regulations on health and safety and specifically for
scaffolding works.
• To assess the causes of injuries during erecting and dismantling of scaffolding.

1.4 Research questions

The research methodology is design in a way that it enables to collect adequate information to
answer the following core research questions.

• Do building projects include health and safety plan in the overall project?
• Does the choice of scaffolding material have impact on health, environment and
safety?
• Which materials have significant impact on health and safety?
• What measures should be taken to minimize the injuries that occurred during
scaffolding works?
• Do the stakeholders assign the required personal protective equipment?

1.5 Significance of the research

The significant of this research is to provide information on the current status of scaffolding. The
research would be significant for the construction industry to improve the awareness of
stakeholders to manage safety like any other management function.

This study identity’s health, safety and environment problems occurred during scaffolding
erection and dismantling and also, give construction companies, contractors, employees and
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regulators the necessary recommendation on the use of scaffolding to protect health of

employees and protect the environment.

1.6 Scope and limitation of the research

This research focused only on scaffolding systems, which are built from the base upwards to
provide temporary access and working platforms on elevated areas, used in building construction
projects in Adigrat. The research mainly focused on types of scaffolding, types of material used
for scaffolding in Adigrat and impact of poor scaffolding system on workers. It doesn’t include
related issues like form work and it is limited to timber/wood scaffolding and combined which is
timber and partially steel scaffoldings.
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CHAPTER TWO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This includes the methodology used in this research and provides information about the research
strategy, research design, various approaches for data collection and data analysis.

This research was conduct to contribute information by assessing the scaffolding works in
Adigrat and the causes of problems that have been faced. The research design was based on
“survey research methodology” using both primary and secondary data.

Primary data was obtained from questionnaire prepare for contractors and consultants, Interview
was also undertaken. In addition our observation also included. Secondary data also obtained by
thoroughly studying and investigating documents prepare on scaffolding and Health and safety in
general.

3.1 Research strategy and design

The type of research strategy used quantitative approach. The research design was based on
“survey research methodology” using both primary and secondary data. This method was used to
gather data from respondents within a limit time frame.

The general populations of this study are building projects which are both private and public that
are currently under construction in Adigrat. The main principle behind selecting sample
population is to come up with dividing projects which are government and private owned
buildings and also stratify by “kebelle” in Adigrat city. And the distribution of questionnaire is
based on based on their proportion in the sampling frame.

The study is carried out in five major phases, following the identification of the problem from
observation of local construction projects located in Adigrat. The procedures used to achieve the
study objectives can be summarized as shown in Figure 2.1 below. At first phase, the objective
of the research is defined and second phase data were collected through questionnaires, interview
and detailed literature review on scaffolding was conducted from different point of view such as
material, construction methods, safety and health. The third phase of the study was analyzing the
collected data and fourth phase is discussion on the results obtained. The last phase was to draw
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conclusions and forward recommendations to improve the current practice of scaffolding

construction systems in Adigrat.

Research objective

Data collection

Questionnaire and
Literature review
interview

Data analysis

Discussion and result

Conclusion and
recommendation

Figure 1 FLOW CHART OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.2 The Research Questionnaire Design

The questionnaire design was based on a combination of a general review of literature dealing
with the methods and the practices of scaffolding systems and researcher’s knowledge on the
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current scaffolding construction practice of local contractors and consultants. The questionnaire
was a mix of semi-structured and unstructured (open) type of questions.

3.3 Method of data collection

The structure questionnaire was probably the most widely used data collection technique for
conducting surveys to found out facts, opinions and views. The study was used survey as a
method of data gathering in the form of site visits, semi- structure and structure
questionnaires and open interview was made.

Building projects from several construction contractors and consultants that represent the
governmental and private financed projects in Adigrat were selected for the data collection.

3.4 Data analysis and interpretation

Data analysis method used for this research is descriptive analysis techniques which is mean

Mean = ∑ Xi / n;

Xi; number of response

n; total number of respondents

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CHAPTER THREE

3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 scaffolding
Scaffolding is an integral part of almost all construction projects and has been used ever since the
first structures were built. The word “scaffolding” refers to any raised platform or ramp used for
entrance and way out for pedestrian movement and the passage of building materials. Since the
mid-1920s the concept of using steel pipes fastened together with metal-form or cast clamps
(couplers) instead of poles and ropes was introduced. (Webb, 2017)

A scaffold is the temporary structure specifically that erects to support the access or working the
platforms. Scaffolds are commonly used in construction work so that workers have safe, stable
platform on which the work when work cannot be done at ground level or on finished floor.
Scaffolding work means the erection, alteration and dismantling or removing of the scaffold. It is
also temporary structure used that support people and material in the construction work or repair
of buildings and other large structures. It is usually a modular system of metal pipes or tubes,
although it can be from other materials like wood, steel, aluminum and Bamboo which is
frequently used in Southeast Asia. (Kolkata, 2010)

“Scaffold” means any temporary structure —

1. on or from which any person performs work in any workplace; or

2. which enables any person to obtain access to or which enables any material to be taken to
any place at which such work is performed,

and includes any suspended scaffold, hanging scaffold, tubular scaffold, trestle scaffold, work
platform, gangway, run, ladder or step-ladder (other than an independent ladder or step-ladder
which does not form part of such a structure) together with any guard-rail, toe-board or other
safeguards and all fixings, but does not include a lifting appliance, a lifting machine or a
structure used merely to support such an appliance or such a machine or to support other plant or
equipment. (workplace safety and health( scaffolds) regulation , 2011)
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3.2 Basic Scaffolding Elements

When a building is erected, scaffolding is used to provide external structural support for both the
building-in-progress and the people working on it. Materials, such as metal piping or tubing, are
often used as the back bone of scaffolding, in addition to couplers and boards. Because
scaffolding must be compatible with a wide array of buildings and structures, there are numerous
kinds of scaffolds to meet specific building requirements. However, all scaffolding is comprised
of the same basic elements. Basic scaffolding elements include three general components:
standards, ledgers and transoms. (Thomas, 2019)

1. A standard: is a long pipe or tube that connects the mass of the scaffold directly to the
ground, and it runs the length of the scaffolding. The base of each standard is connected
to a base plate, which helps distribute the weight each standard bears.
2. Ledger: In between each standard, running horizontally, which adds further support and
weight distribution.
3. Transoms: placed on top of ledgers at a right angle, come in several different forms.
Main transoms provide support for standards by holding them in position as well as
supporting boards. Intermediate transoms are placed alongside main transoms to lend
additional board support.

Figure 2 ELEMENTS OF SCAFFOLDING

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In addition to standards, ledgers and transoms, there are several other supportive elements that
serve to reinforce the fundamental scaffolding. Braces, such as Cross braces, façade braces, and
additional couplers, can be used in varying combinations to support the structure in several ways.
Cross braces run diagonally between ledgers and securely attach to standards to increase a
structure’s overall rigidity. However, the can also secure themselves to ledgers, in which case
they are simply called ledger braces. Façade braces help prevent a structure from swaying, and
are attached on the face of the scaffold, running the length of the face of the structure and
securely attaching at every level. (Thomas, 2019)

Couplers help connect structural elements, and come in several variants. To connect a ledger or
transom to a standard, a right-angle coupler should be used. If a transom supports a board and
must be connected to a ledger, a putlog or single-coupler should be used to connect the ledger to
the transom. For any other angle of connection between scaffold piping, a swivel coupler is
recommended. (Thomas, 2019)

3.3Type of scaffolding
There are many different types of scaffolding and the precise names and terminology tend to
vary from place to place, but in general the main categories are set based on how the structure
interacts with the building it’s up against, how it’s constructed, and the type of weight it can
support. All have some inherent dangers, manufacturers and users usually have to adhere to a
number of best practices in order to stay safe. (Webb, 2017)

Based on how scaffoldings are constructed they can be classified as follows:

3.3.1 Supported Scaffolding

Supported scaffoldings are built from the base upwards, and will normally be used wherever
possible. It is the most commonly used form of scaffolding in construction work and on most
other forms of work where elevation is required. Extra support may be required if the scaffolding
will be long or required to take a lot of weight. Supported scaffolding can be left in position for
longer periods of time, making it especially useful in those situations where permanent access
may be needed to elevated positions.
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Different forms of supported scaffolding are available, and each will serve a very specific
purpose and used in specific circumstances. The most common types of supported scaffolds are
the following:

1 Tube and coupler scaffolds: are built from tubing connected by coupling devices. Due to
their strength, they are frequently used where heavy loads need to be carried, or where multiple
platforms must reach several stories high. Their versatility, which enables them to be assembled
in multiple directions in a variety of settings, also makes them hard to build correctly.

2 Frame and brace scaffolding: frame scaffolds are the most common type of scaffold because
they are versatile, economical, and easy to use. However, such scaffolds suit mostly residential
or other kinds of symmetrical construction where a single configuration would be repeatedly
used. Framed scaffolds are also used in industrial projects depending on the type of situation as
they are far easier to construct and take down than a normal tube and clamp scaffold which in
turn saves considerable resources.

3 Systems scaffold: Systems scaffolds or all around scaffolds can be applied to a wide variety of
rectangular, dome or circular configurations. It’s not as adjustable as a tube and clamp; however,
they are comparatively quicker to set up and take down.

Figure 3 DEFERENT TYPE OF SUPPORTED SYSTEM SCAFOLDINGS

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3.3.2 Suspended Scaffolding

Suspended scaffolding is typically suspended from a roof or other tall construct. It is most
commonly used when it is not possible to construct a base, or where access to upper levels may
be required, and the building of scaffolding from floor to the required level would be impractical.
The suspended scaffolding is high-efficiency modern overhead operation equipment capable of
replacing a traditional scaffold and being reused. Generally, the suspended scaffolding can be
divided into two kinds: manual and electric. It is widely applied to the outer wall construction,
curtain wall installation and outer wall cleaning and maintenance in high rise and it can be also
applied to large tanks, bridges, dams and other engineering operations. (Webb, 2017)

Figure 4 SUSPENDED SYSTEM SCAFFOLDING

3.3.3 Mobile Scaffolding

There are a number of factors to consider when deciding whether to use static or mobile
scaffolding. Ease of access is one such consideration, along with the amount of movement on the
scaffolding itself. Where possible, scaffold contractor should rely on the use of a single
scaffolding structure, or a number of structures, because mobile units, while perfectly safe when
well-constructed and used properly, do pose more of a hazard than mobile constructs. Most
scaffolding is considered semi-permanent. Once used, it can be taken apart and moved to another
location before it is constructed again. (Webb, 2017)

3.3.4 Aerial Lifts

Aerial lifts should be used where workers need to be able to access a number of levels in order to
be to complete a construction. For example, if building work is being completed on the outside
of a multi-story property and both workers and materials will be needed to work outside two or
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more floors, at different times, then an aerial lift will make it easier and safer to lift even large
amounts of material, and multiple workers to the levels required (Webb, 2017)

Usually specific type of scaffolding is common because the equipment is readily available and a
lot of people know the system. And here in Adigrat it is familiar with supported scaffolding
system which is Frame & Brace Scaffolding.

3.4 scaffolding materials

Materials for scaffoldings have experienced a big change due to the increase in safety
precautions and cost effectiveness in construction projects especially for buildings.
Internationally Scaffolding materials vary from place to place but the common accepted and used
types of scaffolding materials are timber, bamboo, metal, aluminum or a combination between
any of these materials.

Whatever the material, the principles of safe scaffolding remain the same as that it would be
adequate strength to support the weight and stress which the processes and workers will place
upon it, that it is securely anchored and stable, and that it is designed to prevent the fall of
workers and materials.

Depending on country in the world, different types of scaffolding material will be more common.
In Scandinavia and Northern Europe where labor is very expensive, aluminum scaffolding is
becoming more common. Since aluminum is lighter than steel, and most scaffolding has to be
manually lifted to be put in place, lighter scaffolding means that the scaffold can be built faster,
which reduces labor cost. In some countries, aluminum is expensive and labor is much more
affordable, so wooden poles common and bamboo is common in Asia.

In our county Ethiopia wood is very common and now in a day’s steel scaffold is used.

Here also in Adigrat the type of timber is eucalyptus wood and the price as well as the quality is
differ by the area which the eucalyptus wood comes and the diameter and length of wood. As we
have assesses the common type are “Merawi” and “Geregera” and rarely Adigrat type is used
because of the shorter availability of material it have higher cost.
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3.4.1 Timber scaffolding

The use of scaffolding made of timber or wooden have a history dating back several thousand
years. Timber structures offer a number of advantages. The first is that typically timber
constructions are quicker to erect than steel ones with reduced labour required to do so.

This quicker erection means that timber structures can be built in shorter good-weather periods
whilst the reduced labour can lead to significant cost savings. Another advantage of timber
structures is that they can offer a lower impact on energy consumption, especially if constructed
using locally sourced timber.

In Ethiopia eucalyptus wood is widely used for construction of scaffoldings. Eucalyptus is the
species widely distributed and used in different parts of the world. The total numbers of
eucalyptus species are estimated to be more than 700, native to Australia and neighboring
countries.

Its rapid growth and adaptability to a range of conditions has made it preferable than any other
exotic species grown in Ethiopia. About 70 species of Eucalyptus are available in Ethiopia, most
of which are widely spread in many regions of the country, mainly in central highlands where
higher population density. Eucalyptus wood can be constructed in different shapes and sizes to
support formwork for in-situ concrete construction or to provide temporary access and working
platforms in elevated areas which is scaffolding.

3.4.2 Steel scaffolding

Steel Scaffolding is manufactured in such a way that it can be reused. To make work easy and
safe, it also comes with safety lines, decking along with other supplies. In sites wherein the
workers need to be working with electricity, there is a provision for insulation so as to reduce the
danger of any sort that can occur due to electric shock. Workers should examine all the loose
pieces constantly when working with steel scaffolding and they must also check the things that
they are wearing.

Steel scaffolding has many advantages of which some of them are:

Steel scaffolding provides a steady and firm standing. Steel scaffolding can bear the load and the
pressure, be it heavy rain or intense wind. As a matter of fact, steel will be standing as robust as
ever even in dire circumstances like that of an earthquake.
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If required, steel has the capacity to withstand a complete lifespan. When compared to other
materials, steel scaffolding has a longer durability.

Steel Scaffold can be easily assembled and dismantled and it increases the work efficiency.

Inspection of scaffolding materials

Scaffold materials should be inspected before use for

 Damage to structural components

 Damage to hooks on manufactured platforms splits, knots, and dry rot in planks
 Presence of all necessary components for the job
 Compatibility of components

3.5 Erection and dismantling of scaffolding

Before erecting a scaffold, check the location for

 Ground conditions
 Overhead wires
 Obstructions
 Variation in surface elevation
 Tie-in locations and methods.

The following safe work practices would be used when erecting a scaffold:

 Develop and follow a standard methodical work sequence.

 Scaffold fittings and other connections should be securely tightened where required.
Fittings should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s or designer’s specifications and
the scaffolding plan.
 Scaffolding including all bracing and ties, guy ropes or buttresses should be installed as
the scaffold is erected.
 Consider using specifically designed loading platforms or back propping to prevent
overloading the building floor or the scaffold.
 Get certification from a competent person before erecting scaffold on awnings.
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 Check live loads arising from the work of erecting or dismantling the scaffold are within
the specification for the final design the number of workers on the scaffold at any one
time may need to be limited.
 Work from a full deck of planks whenever possible.

Foundation and support surface

Scaffolds must be erected on surfaces that can adequately support all loads applied by the
scaffold. To support scaffolds, backfilled soils must have been well compacted and leveled. Mud
and soft soil should be replaced with compacted gravel or crushed stone. Embankments that
appear unstable or susceptible to erosion by rain must be contained.

Where mudsills must be placed on sloping ground, leveling the area should be done, wherever
possible, by excavating rather than backfilling.

Figure 5 IMPROPER SURFACE

Base plates and adjustable screw jacks should have been used whether the scaffold is outside on
rough ground or indoors on a smooth level surface. Base plates should be centered on the width
of the sill and nailed securely after the first tier has been erected. Sills may run either across the
width or along the length of the scaffold depending on grade conditions and other factors.
Generally, bearing capacity will be increased by running sills longitudinally because the sill has
more contact with the ground.
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Figure 6 BASE PLATE

3.6 Scaffolding safety

Over seven year period, statistics report that about 28% of the scaffolds accidents occur are the
result of construction deficiencies. These deficiencies include using substandard components,
omitting essential components, or failing to complete the assembly. (Minstry of labor and safety
affairs , 2006)

Scaffolds have been provided an efficient and safe means to perform the work. However, unsafe
scaffolding procedures can lead to accidents, serious injuries and death. The policy for safe
scaffold below makes clear that planning ahead for reduce scaffold-related accidents and
injuries. Compliance with the manufacturer’s instructions or procedures, that the use of this
guide and compliance with all scaffolding standards will help ensure a safer workplace for
employees. (a guide to safe scaffoldng)

3.6.1 Policy for safe scaffold

Sources of information for policy development and work rules include OSHA and ILO
standards, scaffold trade associations, scaffolding suppliers, and safety and engineering
consultation services.

Safe scaffold erection and use should begin by developing policy and work rules. Policy and
work rules should have been concentrating on:

 sound design
 selecting the right scaffold for the job
 assigning personnel
 training

Sound Design

The scaffold would have been capable of supporting its own weight and at least four times the
maximum intended load to be applied or transmitted to the scaffold components. Suspension
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ropes should be capable of supporting six times the maximum intended load. Guardrails should
be able to withstand at least 200 pounds of force on the top rail and 100 pounds on the mid rail.

Selecting the Right Scaffold for the Job

Choose a scaffold supplier, rental agency and/or erector who are thoroughly
knowledgeable about the equipment needed and its safe use. Obtain the owner’s manual prepared
by the scaffolding manufacturer, which states equipment limitations, special warnings, and
intended use and maintenance requirements.

Account for any special features of the building structure in relationship to the scaffold,
including distinctive site conditions, Experience of erection and working personnel, Length and
kind of work tasks to be performed, Weight of loads to be supported, Hazards to people working
on and near the scaffolding needed fall protection

Assigning Personnel

Assign the competent person to oversee the scaffold selection, erection, use, movement,
alteration, dismantling, maintenance and inspection. Only assign trained and experienced
personnel to work on scaffolding. Be certain they are knowledgeable about the type of
scaffolding to be used and about the proper selection, care and use of fall protection equipment
(perimeter protection, fall protection/work positioning belts and full harnesses, lanyards,
lifelines, rope grabs, shock absorbers, etc.).

Training

Employees would be received instruction on the particular types of scaffolds that they are to use.
Training should focus on the proper erection, handling, use, inspection, removal and care of the
scaffolds. Training must also include the installation of fall protection, particularly guardrails,
and the proper selection, use and care of fall arrest equipment.

Fall Protection

Guardrails must be installed on all scaffold platforms in accordance with required standards and
at least consist of top rails, mid rails and toe boards (if more than 10 feet above the ground or
floor).
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3.6.2 Work-related health and Safety of scaffolding works

Construction industry has been identified as one of the most hazardous industries both in
developed and developing countries. In United States in year the 2014, out of 4,679 worker
fatalities in private industry, 874 or 20.5% were in construction that is, every week almost 17
workers were killed in construction (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2016). The
estimated direct and indirect costs of fatal and nonfatal construction injuries totaled about $13
billion annually. The impact is also 10 to 20 times higher in developing countries developed
countries, where the greatest concentration of the world’s workforce is located and two thirds of
the total construction accidents are related to scaffolding caused injuries (World Health
Organization/International labor organization. 2001). In Ethiopia accidents related to shoring and
scaffoldings occurred frequently for example nineteen young female workers died from
scaffolding collapse in Bahir Dar, Broken wood scaffolding led to the tragic deaths of three
construction workers in Addis Ababa around Meskel Square, a wooden scaffolding collapsed
claiming the life of one laborer and injured 21 others and many more accidents related to
scaffolding are observed throughout the country. (Araya, May 5, 2017)

More often accidents can be traced to defective materials or equipment and untrained or
improperly trained workers. Compliance with the manufacturer’s instructions, the use of code of
practices and compliance with all scaffolding standards will help ensure a safe workplace for
employees.

Scaffolding can provide an efficient and safe means to perform work. However, unsafe
scaffolding work procedures can lead to accidents, serious injuries and death. Unsafe scaffolds
endanger workers in many ways. Components can break, collapse, or give way. Planks, boards,
decks, or handrails can fail.

3.7 Major Hazards

Fall: - are attributed to the lack of guardrails, improper installation of guardrails and failure to
use personal fall arrest systems when required. The OSHA standard requires fall protection must
be used when work heights reach 10feet or more. Lack of proper access to the scaffold work
platform is an additional reason for falls from scaffolds. Access in the form of a secured ladder,
stair tower, ramp, etc. is required whenever there is 24” vertical change to an upper or lower
level. The means of access must be determined before erection of the scaffold and employees
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are never allowed to climb on cross braces for either vertical or horizontal movement.
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2016)

Scaffold collapse: - The proper erection of a scaffold is essential in preventing this particular
hazard. A knowledgeable individual who can perform preplanning will reduce the chances of
injury and save money for any task. However, when building, moving, or dismantling a scaffold,
a knowledgeable person, also known as the scaffold competent person, must be present. A
competent person must also inspect the scaffold daily to ensure the structure remains in a safe
condition. Improper construction can lead to a total collapse of the scaffold or falling
components and both of which can be fatal. (Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
2016)

Struck by falling materials: - Workers on scaffolds are not the only ones exposed to scaffold
related hazards. Many individuals have been injured or killed due to being struck by materials or
tools that have fallen from scaffold platforms. These people must be protected from falling
objects.

Electrocution: - Once again we look to preplanning and the competent person to assure there are
no electrical hazards present during scaffold use. (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, 2016)

3.8 Causes of Accidents

Unsafe Acts:

• Use of defective equipment

• Failure to use personal protective equipment
• Unsafe material handling
• Failure to follow safety procedures
• Workers carelessness

Unsafe Conditions

• Improper guarding of equipment, platform

• Improper dress
• Poor site layout,
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• Defective tools and equipment

• Poor maintenance
• Unhealthy conditions
• Unsafe design and construction

3.9 Economic Impact of Accidents

Many owners and contractors still believe the myth that safety concerns will lead to greater cost
and reduced productivity. However the cost of implementing Health and safety systems within a
company which it is estimated to cost between 0.5% and 3% of total project costs. These
international literatures confirm the total cost of accidents exceeds the cost of implementing
Health and safety systems. (The cost of accidents at work, 2016)

The costs associated with health and safety in construction companies are:

 The cost of goods and services utilized in implementing actions by the company to
improve working conditions and to reduce accident rates in construction sites, and
 The negative value derived from the occurrence of incidents and/or accidents.

Cost of implementing health and safety systems

The costs associated with implementing health and safety systems can be distinguished between
prevention costs and evaluation and monitoring cost.

 Prevention costs: are those incurred in order to comply with legal requirements with
respect to accident prevention, to implement measures to prevent accidents during
construction work and to improve health and safety conditions in all areas of the work
performed. Providing personal protective equipment, first-aid equipment, training new
employees, periodic refresher training for each employee, etc. (smallwood, 2004)
 Evaluation and monitoring costs: these are derived from the actions taken by the
company for appropriate testing and maintenance of the health and safety measures
adopted, regarding every facet of the work in question, with the aim of reducing or
minimizing the risk of accident or occupational disease. (smallwood, 2004)
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The costs associated with accidents and fatalities are:

 Direct Costs (Insured): tend to be those associated with the treatment of the injury and
any unique compensation offered to workers as a consequence of being injured and are
covered by workmen's compensation insurance premiums. (smallwood, 2004)
 Indirect Costs (Uninsured): which are borne by contractors, include reduced productivity
for both the returned worker(s) and the crew or workforce; clean-up costs; replacement
costs; stand-by costs; cost of overtime; administrative costs; replacement worker
orientation; costs resulting from delays; supervision costs; costs related to
rescheduling; transportation, and wages paid while the injured is idle, the costs of
impaired company image and loss of market. (smallwood, 2004)

3.10 Local practice

The Ethiopian Labor Proclamation establishes general occupational safety and health standards
and their means of enforcement. Part Seven of the proclamation on Occupational safety health
and the Working Environment has three relatively brief chapters on preventative measures,
injuries and benefits. Although there are regulation governing occupational health and safety
issues in Ethiopia, such us The Ethiopian Labor Proclamation, there remains a gap in addressing
those high risk sectors like the construction industry. (Ethiopian labor proclamation no 377/2003.
occupational health and safety enviroment, 2004) Even if the Ministry of Urban Development
and Construction has prepared a draft code (EBCS 14) regarding health and safety in building
construction which includes code of practice for scaffolding works and false work, its adoption
status remains unrealized. (Ethiopian building code standards EBCS 14, 2013)

An overview of health, safety and environment aspect scaffolding works in Ethiopia construction
industry. The construction industry of Ethiopia is highly labor intensive and it mostly done by
common trends that have been in practice from the beginning. But the issue of health safety and
environment in the construction industry of Ethiopia do not get the appropriate attention.
Therefore it is a common thing in construction accidents from minor to severe injuries on project
sites.
`

CHAPTER FOUR

4 Data analysis and discussion

As discussed in the methodology part of this study, the approach to assess scaffolding works
with respect to health and safety and type of system and material on building projects in Adigrat
is survey through questionnaires. Questionnaires were distributed to contractors and consultants
which are engaged in building construction projects, In addition data’s were collected through
interviews and observations on construction sites which were at stage of erecting and
dismantling scaffolding.

4.1 Questionnaire response rate

The total number of questionnaires distributed to respondents was forty which is thirty for
contractors and ten for consultant. From the ten questionnaires distributed to consultants eight of
the questionnaires were collected and seven of them were considered valid. The validity is
determined based on appropriateness of the responses given. i.e., questionnaires with no
responses and partial responses are considered invalid. Accordingly, from the thirty
questionnaires distributed to contractors twenty-four questionnaires were returned and one of
them were considered invalid response.

As shown in the table 1 below, a total of forty questionnaires were distributed to respondents and
thirty of them were collected valid responses were collected which shows 75% response rate.

Contractor Consultant Total

Questionnaire distributed, (A) 30 10 40
Questionnaire returned 24 8 32
Valid responses, (B) 23 7 30
Response rate (valid),= 76.67% 70% 75%
(B/A)*100

Table 1 Questionnaire response rate

`

4.2Questionnaire sample characteristics analysis

Sample characteristics of the person who filled our questionnaire were analyzed. This
information was necessary to confirm the validity of result obtained and to develop an
understanding of the background respondent.

Sales
office engineer site engineer company owner forman

forman
7%
company owner
10% office engineer
27%

site engineer
57%

Figure 7Respondent response on position.

As we can see the above pie chart our most respondents to the questionnaire is site engineers,
second rank respondents are office engineers and by company owners and Forman.

Sales
contractors consultants

23%

77%

Figure 8 Respondent response on organization

`

As we can see the above pie chart our most respondents to the questionnaire is contractors
Year of experience in construction industry
1-3years 3-6 years 6-10years Above10 Total
Contractors 3 15 3 2 23contractor
s
consultants 2 4 1 - 7 consultants

4.3 Contractors response

4.3.1 Kind of scaffolding material
Type of material No of contractor % of response Remark

Wood only 20 86.95% 86.95% 0f of the

Steel only 0 0% contractors are
`Wood $ steel 3 13.04% use wood scaffolding
Total 23 100%
Table 2 kind of scaffolding material
86.95% of the contractors were used wood scaffolding, 13.04% of them were used combined
which is steel and wood type of scaffolding.

Preconditions for considering specific scaffolding material;

 Cost of initial investment
 Availability of material
 Workmanship
 Time for assemble and dismantle
 Contractor’s responsibility as mentioned on the agreement
4.3.2 Problems by using wood scaffolding

Number of % of respondents Remark

contractors
Has no problem 16 69.56% Above half (69.56%) of
contractors believed that
Has problem 7 30.43% wood scaffolding has
problems
Total 23 100%
`

From 23 respondents 30.43% of them believed that wood scaffolding has no problems, 69.56%
of them believed that wood scaffolding has problems and the reasons were stated below.
Some problems faced by using wood scaffolding;
 Lack of more strength
 Wood scaffolding is easily decompose due to rain water
 Cannot be reused for longer time
 Nails are used for connection which might cause injuries
4.3.3 Problem by using steel scaffolding
Number of % of respondents Remark
contractors
Has no problem 19 82.60% 82.60% of contractors
believed that steel
has problem 4 17.39% scaffolding has no
problems
Total 23 100%

Table 3 Problem by using steel scaffolding

Some problems faced by using wood scaffolding;
 Shortage of skilled person for erect and dismantle.
 Expensiveness (costly initial investment price).
4.3.4 Apply design of scaffolding with local or international regulations
Number of contractor % of respondents Remark

Apply 1 4.34% 95.66% the respondents

did not apply design of
Not apply 22 95.66%
scaffolding with local
total 23 100% lows and regulations

As discussed in the literature review, applying regulation for scaffolding works is mandatory in
order to ensure health and safety. But according to the data gathered out of 23 contractors almost
all contractors, 95.66% of them did not apply design of scaffolding with local or international
laws and regulations.
4.3.5 Companies having competent supervisor for scaffolding work
Number of contractors % of respondents Remark

Have 17 73.9% 73.9 % of the respondents

had competent supervisor
Do not have 6 26.1%
for scaffolding works
`

Total 23 100%

73.9 % of the respondents had competent supervisor for scaffolding works and 26.1% of
contractor does not have competent supervisor.
4.3.6 Skill of responsible person or competent supervisor
No of contractor % of response remark
Semi-skilled 5 29.41% 70.59% of the
Skilled through training 0 0% Respondent’s
Skilled through experience 12 70.59% skilled through
Totally unskilled 0 0% experience persons
Total 17 100% were responsible for
Out of 17 respondents, 70.59% of the respondent’s responsible personscaffolding workworks at
for scaffolding
project sites is skilled through experience. And 29.41% of the total respondents respond semi-
skilled through training, out of this 0% of them indicates that they have not a trained scaffolding
team.
4.3.7 Reuse wood scaffolding after dismantling
Number of contractor % of respondents Remark

Reuse 23 100% 100% of the respondents

were reuse wood
Not reuse - 0% scaffolding
Total 23 100%
From 23 respondents, all contractors (100%) were reuse wood scaffolding after dismantling.
Some criteria listed by respondents for reusing wood scaffolding;
 Durability for next use
 Strength after removing all nails
4.3.8 How often accidents happen
period Number of Contractor % of response Remark

daily 0 0% 65.21%of accidents were

occurred yearly 30.04% were
weekly 1 4.34%
occurred monthly and 4.34%
monthly 7 30.04%
weekly
yearly 15 65.21%

Total 23 100%
`

4.3.9Occurrence of accident related to scaffolding

Occurred Number of contractor % of respondents Remark

yes 18 78.26% 76.26% of accidents

related to
No 5 21.17%
scaffolding

Total 23 100%
From the respondents, 78.26 % of them experienced accidents due to scaffolding works. The
accidents occurred on sites which use wood and combined scaffolding material. This indicates
that whatever the material is unless it assembled properly accidents will happen.
4.3.10 Kinds of accidents occurred due to scaffolding
Accident kind Number of % of responses Remarks
contractors

Fatalities only - - 52.94 % of accidents occurred is minor

Minor injuries 9 52.94% injuries , 29.4% is severe injuries and
Severe injuries 5 29.4% 17.6% is Fracture
Fracture 3 17.6%
Electric shock - -
Respiratory - -
injuries
Total 17 100%

4.3.11 Causes of scaffolding accident

Cause of scaffolding Accident occurrence status Remark
accidents
Always Often Rare None N.B total on of
contractor = 17
Falling from height - 11 5 1 64.70% occurred
often
Injuries due to direct 2 15 - - 88.23% occurred
pulled nails often
Hit by falling materials - 6 11 - 64.26% occurred
rare
Injuries due to direct - 2 15 - 88.23% occurred
pulled woods rare
Electrocution - - - - No electrocution
cause of accident
occurred
`

Scaffold collapse - - - - No scaffolding

collapse cause of
accident occurred

4.3.12 Victims of scaffolding accident

Number of contractor % of response Remark
Skilled labor 2 11.7% 82.3% 0f victims
were unskilled
Unskilled labor 14 82.3% labors
Site visitor 1 5.8%
Total 17 100%
Out of 17 contractors whom experienced scaffolding accident on their construction sites, 82.3%
of them agreed that most victims of scaffolding accidents are unskilled labors who engaged
directly on erecting and dismantling scaffolding as well as work on it.
4.3.13 Periods where scaffolding accident happens a lot
No of contractor % of response remark
During erecting 3 17.64% 82.35% of accidents

During working on them and 14 82.35% occurred during

dismantling working and
dismantling and
Total 17 100%
17.64 % during
erecting
4.3.14 possible measures taken by contractors to minimize scaffolding accidents;
1. Considering weather for erecting and dismantling period
2. Supervise by competent person
3. Select best wood for reusing purpose
4. Instruct and guide workers on site
5. Securing the safety of erection and dismantle of scaffolding through well experienced
worker
6. Use of proper and standard materials for scaffolding
7. Make awareness for the labors
`

4.3.15 compare the following criteria’s

Comparison criteria Steel Wood Remark
scaffolding scaffolding NB. total number of
respondents are 23

Story of building less than or 8 15 65.52 % of respondents

equal to 6
Story of building greater than 6 14
Cost of scaffolding
Reuse status
Health and safety status for 22
workers
Life cycle(durability) 23
Environmental affect
Quality of the material
Availability of the material
Common practice
said wood type scaffolding
9 60.86% of respondents said
steel type scaffolding
2 21 91.3% of respondents said
wood type scaffolding
23 0 100% of respondents said
steel type scaffolding
1 95.65% of respondents said
steel type scaffolding
0 100% of respondents said
steel type scaffolding
0 23 100% of respondents said
wood type scaffolding
23 0 100% of respondents said
steel type scaffolding
0 23 100% of respondents said
wood type scaffolding
1 22 95.65% of respondents said
wood type scaffolding

Out of 23 contractors 23 of them believe that steel scaffolding is superior on wood by Reuse
status, Life cycle (durability), Quality of the material.
And 23out of 23 0f them agreed that wood scaffolding is preferred by availability of material.
4.4 CONSULTANTS RESPONSE
4.4.1 Designing building
Number of consultant % of response Remark
Yes 7 100% All consultants are
No - - design and
Total 7 100% supervise building
`

4.4.2 Designing scaffolding

Number of consultant % of response Remark
Yes 1 12% 86% of consultants
No 6 86% Do not considered
Total 7 100% scaffolding during
design
From 7 respondents, 12% of them were design scaffolding works. 86%of the respondents were
not design scaffolding.
Design consideration taken by those consultants who design scaffolding;
 Height and complexity of the building to be constructed
 Loads
 Strength,
 easily accessibility
 economy
Things that hold consultants from designing scaffolding;
 Most of the client did not need this during design phase
 Most believes that it is the responsibility of the contractor
 Lack of design specification and codes to govern the process
4.4.3 Choice of scaffolding material affect by number of stories
Number of consultant % of response Remark
Yes 7 100% 100% of consultants believed that
choice of scaffolding materials affect by
No - -
number of stories
Total 7 100%

Preconditions to consider scaffolding materials;

 Type and complexity of the building to be constructed
 Stability of the material under different loads (wind load, impact load, weight of fresh
concrete, weight of workers,) etc.
 Strength of the material in different whether condition
 Availability of the material and the required workmanship
`

Chapter five

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
The research conclusions made with respect to the mentioned objectives and the above analysis.
And the following issues are summarized below.
Assessment on scaffolding Works
Wood scaffolding is commonly used even if it has many defects in the process. Most scaffolding
accidents occur at project sites where wood used as a scaffolding material. This is because
 Wood loss it strength when it reused again and again
 Wood joints are weak
 Wood easily affect by weather
 Wood needs nails for connection which are the main source of injuries
 Wood is not be stable for high rise buildings
There are also companies which use combined steel and wood scaffolding works. Steel is
stronger and stable than wood and comes with its own specification and manual. But it limits the
steel scaffolding because of the following reasons;
 Needs skilled or trained workers
 High initial investment
 Less availability in the market
 Easily affect by corrosion
Scaffolding works are done by skilled through experience labors with unskilled helpers and this
makes them the most victims of accident since they lack the knowhow of health and safety
precautions
Assessment on Causes of scaffolding accidents;
 Improper material choice, due to cost and other reasons which stated above most
companies fail to provide the proper material
 Assignment of unskilled workers, lack of training and education on health and safety
precautions and on the work which is going to be done
 Lack of proper supervision, Even though there is awareness among stakeholders of the
construction industry, they are carless and unwilling to accept it as an agenda. Only a few
companies are willing to consider safety as a major issue and appoint a safety engineer in
their project sites.
 Lack of PPE, The health and safety materials require an intensive amount of initial
capital, which most companies currently fail to allocate.
 Lack of governing laws on health and safety, there are no strict laws and regulation to
control health and safety in the construction industry
`

Assessment on health and safety;

Applying regulation for scaffolding works is mandatory in order to ensure health and safety. But
according to the data gathered out of 23 contractors almost all contractors, 95.66% of them did
not apply design of scaffolding with local or international laws and regulations.
Lack of Personal protective equipment, the health and safety materials require an intensive
amount of initial capital, which most companies currently fail to allocate.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
We can observe that constructions are growing every corners of the country creating a massive
job opportunity for skilled, unskilled and semi-skilled laborers which help the country’s overall
economic growth. However from our findings we discovered that there is a huge gap concerning
health and safety in the construction industry.
The main goal of this research is to assess Scaffolding works with the aspect of health and safety,
material and system of scaffolding in Adigrat focusing on building projects.
There were suggestions made from our findings that are important to minimize the health and
safety problems created due to scaffolding works. These are:
 Components of safety management systems; safety policy, safety organization, safety
training and education, safety plan and etc., should be applied in every company projects
with the intention of protecting the health of workers and safety of the environment.
 Since budget is the main issue, appropriate safety budget should be allocated
separately from the project cost. Since safety is the responsibility of all stakeholders,
clients should consider cost of safety in addition to the overall project cost.
 Using appropriate scaffolding material with respect to the height and complexity of the
project and assigning skilled scaffolding worker as much as possible. If it is hard to find
one, companies can create by giving training on the job to be done.
 Assigning a competent safety supervisor or a safety engineer for specific projects who
can alert the unskilled workers and supervise on their work.
 Whatever the scaffolding materials is if it constructed properly it will be efficient but
design specification and requirements should be done in accordance with the
country situation by responsible bodies.
 Strict laws and regulation which govern health, safety and environment aspect of the
construction in general and scaffolding works should be prepared by responsible bodies.
 Preparing the document won’t be enough if it is not enforced therefore the
government should assign a safety supervisors in each level of construction bureaus to
held a random supervision in construction sites.

 According to the findings, as compared to wood scaffolding steel scaffolding is safe to

use if proper erecting and dismantling mechanisms are undertaken and if the design
requirements and specifications are followed.
`

 Wood scaffolding is the choice of most contractors mainly because its initial
investment is cheap as compared to steel scaffolding but if consideration of long term
investment and profit taken, unlike wood steel only cost once and serves for almost a
lifetime. Therefore contractors should think about wealth maximization other than short
term profit maximization by neglecting the concept of health, safety and environment in
the construction industry.
 In general, protecting health of workers and safety should be the first goal of every
stakeholder.

References
`

a guide to safe scaffoldng. (n.d.). north carolina: department of labor .

Araya, E. (May 5, 2017). three-killed-in-construction-site-tragedy. adiss fortuen .
Bambhava, H. D. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.ijettjornal.org
Ethiopian building code standards EBCS 14. (2013). Adiss Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ethiopian labor proclamation no 377/2003. occupational health and safety enviroment. (2004).
Kolkata. (2010, 2010). history of scaffolding. S R engineering co.
Minstry of labor and safety affairs . (2006). Federal Democratic Repuplic of Ethiopia .
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2016, April 05).
smallwood, J. (2004). optimum cost the role of health and safety. international cost engineering.
council 4th world congress (pp. 17-21). Cape Town: J.J.P. Verster.
The cost of accidents at work. (2016). health and saftey Executive .
Thomas. (2019). Basic scaffolding elements.
Webb, B. (2017, October 17). Avontus web site corporation. Retrieved from Avontus US.mhtml.
workplace safety and health( scaffolds) regulation . (2011). singapor.
World Health Organization/International labor organization. 2001. (n.d.).
`

APPENDIXES
Questionnaire
The questionnaire will be used for a research that is being conducted to assess the current
scaffolding practice in building construction in Adigrat. All the information you submit will be
treated confidentially. Questionnaire listed below are statements, which describe some aspects of
Scaffolding practice in your project. Please indicate your response by marking an X in the box of
your choice and appropriately fill in the blanks.

e.g. X

Part one: Background information

1. Position: Company owner Project manager Site engineer other

2. Year Experience in construction industry:

1-3years 3-6 years 6-10 year above10 years

3. Have you done in building construction before?

Yes No

4. Number of building projects worked in the past years:

_____________ Project

Part Two:

1 What kind of scaffolding materials does your project use?

Wood Steel Aluminum Other
If others, specify _____________________________________________
2 What precondition do you consider for choosing the specific material?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think there are problems by using wooden scaffolding?
Yes No
If your answer is yes, please list some:
`

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4 Do you think there are problems by using steel scaffolding?
Yes No
If your answer is yes, please list some:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5 Do you apply the design of the scaffolds with local and international regulations?
Yes No
If yes, which__________________________________
6 Does your company have a competent supervisor for scaffolding works [erecting, altering and
dismantling]?
Yes No
7 Who is the responsible person in your staff for scaffolding work at actual implementation,
carpenter/ metal worker?
______________________________________________________________________________
What is his/her level of skill
Totally unskilled skilled through training
Skilled through experience semi-skilled
8 Do you train your worker especially the unskilled once about health and safety precautions?
Yes No
If yes, what kind of training are you giving?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

9 Do you reuse wood scaffolding members after dismantling?

Yes No
`

10 If yes, what criteria do you consider for reusing them? Do you consider the required
standards?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11 How often did accidents happen in your company’s project site?
Period Number

Daily

Weekly

Monthly

Yearly

12 Do accidents related to scaffolding occur on your site?

Yes No
If yes, who are the victims?
Staffs Site Visitors
Skilled Laborers Others
Unskilled Labors if other
specify______________________________
13 what kinds of accidents occur due to scaffolding?
Accident kind Number

Fatality

Minor injuries

Severe injuries

Electric shock

Respiratory
injuries
fracture
`

If other:-
A _________
B _________
C _________
D _________

14 What is the cause of scaffolding accidents?

Cause of scaffolding accidents Accident occurrence status
Always Often Rare None
Falling from height
Injuries due to direct pulled nails
Hit by falling materials
Injuries due to direct pulled woods
Electrocution
Scaffold collapse

15 In what stage is accidents happen a lot?

During erection
During Working on them
During dismantling
16 What do you think is the reason for falling from Scaffoldings?
Workers carelessness during work
Lack of proper supervision
Failure of the scaffolding
17 What possible measures did you take to minimize these accidents occurring due to scaffolding
work?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
`

18 compare the following criteria’s

Comparison criteria Steel scaffolding Wood scaffolding

Excellent Good Excellent Good

Story of building less than or
equal 6
Story of building greater than 6
Expected duration of work for
assembling and
dismantling( speed of
construction)
Cost and scaffolding

Reuse status
Health and safety status for
workers
Life cycle(durability)
Environmental affect
Quality of the material
Availability of the material
Common practice
If other
A, ___________________
B,____________________
C, ___________________

19 If the construction industry were to use steel scaffolding materials widely, what kind of
impact would it bring on the current status of health and safety issues? As compared to wooden
scaffolding, to what extent is steel scaffolding is safe on construction and is environmentally
beneficiary?
Very To a Great Extent to Some Extent
`

To a Great Extent to a Very Little Extent to No Extent at All

20 What are some of things that you think should have to be done in creating awareness about
health and safety of erecting and dismantling scaffolding in construction industry in Adigrat?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
21 Do you think the current health and safety laws and regulations provide a sound solution to
the current scaffolding construction safety accidents in Adigrat?
Yes No
Can-you-explain?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
22 If you feel there is any other issue related to scaffolding practices in Adigrat that should be
raised please mention it?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
FOR CONSULTANTS
23 What are the services provided by your company?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
24 Do you design and supervise buildings?
Yes No
25 During your design phase do you consider scaffolding construction?
Yes No
Elaborate-your-answer
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
26 What are the designs considerations do you think to be undertaken when considering
scaffolding materials?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
`

27 Do you think the number of stories determine choice for scaffolding material?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________