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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature and studies which have a

bearing on the study and its conceptual framework.

The following literature shows specific discussion about the various factors

that can influence a student's ability to comprehend what they read. Likewise, the

impact of reading comprehension on academic performance across different

subjects will be elaborated. This section will analyze how well students understand

course materials that influences their performance in areas like reading

comprehension assessments, but also in other subjects like science and math.

Factor that Affects Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension complexities is one of the reasons of academic

underperformance of learners (Murphy & Unthiah, 2015). A study conducted

by Gavin Brooks, Jon Clenton, and Simon Fraser in the year 2021 titled by

“Exploring the importance of vocabulary for English as an additional language

learners’ reading comprehension” mentioned that several studies have

explored factors influencing learners' reading comprehension. These factors

encompass of vocabulary knowledge, decoding skills, oral reading fluency and

overall language proficiency. The related studies cited expound how the
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factors related to reading comprehension of learners and how each influence

their academic performance.

Vocabulary refers to the knowledge of words (vic.gov.au, 2021). Making

It a primary predictor of reading comprehension (Melby-Lervåg & Lervåg,

2014). Research have shown a strong correlation between vocabulary

knowledge and reading comprehension in English. This particular study

investigated this relationship among students at Azad University of Kerman in

Iran. The findings indicated a significant positive relationship, suggesting that

stronger vocabulary knowledge leads to better reading comprehension for

Iranian Learners (Anjomshoa, L., & Zamanian, M., 2014). Another research by

Cain and Oakhill suggests strong connection between reading comprehension

and vocabulary knowledge. Students with limited vocabulary struggle to grasp

the meaning of complex texts, hindering their ability to make inferences and

understand the overall flow of ideas. This can negatively impact critical

thinking skills and academic performance (Cain and Oakhill, 2014).

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Decoding: Proficiency in decoding, specifically segmenting and

blending letter sounds, supports automatic recognition of words (Larabee,

Burns, & McComas, 2014). Students can increase their decoding skills by

practicing using various strategies to increase their word fluency. In order to

become a fluent reader, students must read an appropriate rate and blend

sounds together without errors or interference while reading (Gregory &

Burkman, 2017). Gregory and Burkman describe fluency as being about

activating our brains to remember various words and being able to retrieve

them without effort (Gregory & Burkman, 2014). It is noted that this put

students with a disability in the study at a disadvantage, because they might

not all be able to automatically activate previous learned information easily,

due to delays in their processing speeds. In order to increase fluency while

reading, it is important to practice high frequency words and sounds until they

become automatic.

Teaching children to read fluently and comprehend a text is one of the

main goals of early childhood education, because of the primary aims of

reading which are to achieve one’s goals, develop one’s knowledge and

potential, and participate in society (OECD, 2014). Reading is also a

fundamental skill for school achievement (Hulme and Snowling, 2016), as also

shown by studies documenting the persistence of reading disorders across

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the life span (Shaywitz et al., 2019). Reading fluency and comprehension are

strictly inter-related, and also correlated with important aspects of academic

life, such as school outcomes (Álvarez-Cañizo et al., 2015), or training

success (Krumm et al., 2016). After primary school, teachers tend to focus on

reading comprehension, neglecting the fostering of students’ reading fluency,

the influence of which is believed to fade on school outcomes.

In the book "Planning Meaningful Instruction for English Language

Learners" by Gisela Ernst-Slavit and Joy Egbert, Overall language proficiency

refers to the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in its oral and

written forms in a variety of settings. The contribution of general language

ability, reading comprehension and working memory to mathematics

achievement among learners. The article highlights that understanding basic

language skills is crucial for improving how well learners understand what they

read. Students who are learning English in addition in their native language,

being good at things like knowing lots of words and understanding how

sentences are built directly helps them understand math problems written in

English. So, teaching these language skills better can really boost how well

these Students understand what they read, which in turn helps them do better

in math (Trakulphadetkrai, Et,al., 2017). In the article "The effect of linguistic

comprehension instruction on generalized language and reading

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comprehension skills: A systematic review." Published in Campbell

Systematic Reviews, volume 15, issue 4, 2019. The article aims to see if

teaching language skills in schools can help improve reading comprehension.

It explores how a lack of strong language skills might affect a child's ability to

understand what they read (Melby‐Lervåg, 2019)

Majority of studies that is discussed above focus on the effects of a

single factor on reading comprehension, studies also looked at the effects of

multiple factors wit regard to their effect on reading comprehension. Melby-

Lervåg & Lervåg (2014) conducted an analysis on 82 studies that found out

both language comprehension and decoding were factors as to why learners

that lacks language comprehension and decoding tends to get left behind.

Another analysis of 58 studies states that grammatical knowledge, vocabulary

knowledge, and word decoding skills were the three strongest factors that

affect reading comprehension (Jeon & Yamashita, 2014).

Reading Comprehension and Academic Performance

Reading is a critical academic skill for students to master during the

early years of school (Halldorsdottir, 2015). During the early elementary years,

it is a major instructional objective and can be a predictor of overall school

success (National Early Literacy Panel, 2018). This is largely because by the
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upper elementary levels and beyond, reading helps students understand and

retain more complex material (Toste et al., 2017). Thus, if a student continues

to have reading deficits beyond the early elementary grades, he or she will

likely continue to struggle and make limited academic progress in secondary

school (Hernandez, 2017).

Individuals must make intentional and cognitive efforts in order to

comprehend what they read. Regarding reading intentions, one should be

cautious about what they read and the prior knowledge they possess. One

can reorganize intellectual development as a result of this cognitive effort.

Additionally, there are intriguing methods that combine social interactions with

higher order cognitive processes like synthesis and interpretation to enhance

reading comprehension (Dias, et al., 2015). Being a reader involves using

your mind selecting your reading materials thoughtfully and leveraging social

interactions along, with complex thinking to improve your understanding and

intelligence.

This study examined the links between the various components of

reading fluency (word recognition accuracy, automaticity, and prosody) and

their relationships with reading comprehension in fifth-grade pupils in Turkey.

The study included 119 fifth-grade primary students. According to the findings,

each component of reading fluency strongly influenced reading

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comprehension. Reading prosody was found to be the best predictor of

reading comprehension using basic regression analysis. Furthermore,

multilevel regression analysis showed that prosody had a greater impact on

reading comprehension than automaticity and correctness. Implications for

future study and education in Turkish students are highlighted. (Yildiz, M et

al., 2014). One additional idea to consider could be investigating the role of

cultural and linguistic factors in reading fluency and comprehension among

Turkish students. This could involve exploring how aspects such as language

structure, vocabulary richness, and cultural context impact the relationship

between reading fluency components and comprehension. Understanding

these factors could provide insights for tailored interventions and curriculum

development to enhance reading proficiency among Turkish students.

Reading is an interactive activity in which readers develop a meaningful

representation of a text by employing successful reading strategies. Effective

reading methods are seen as significant abilities, with a strong emphasis on

pupils' reading comprehension proficiency (Pourhosein Gilakjani, A., &

Sabouri, N. B,. 2016). The article discusses how reading is not just passive

consumption but an interactive process where readers use various strategies

to understand and interpret text. It highlights the importance of effective

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reading methods for improving reading comprehension skills, particularly

among students.

The purpose of this study was to combine previously published

evidence on the long-term impact of ADHD on information learnt (measured

by achievement tests) and school success (academic performance). A

thorough search from 1980-2012 found 176 papers on long-term (≥2 years)

academic outcomes with ADHD. Individuals with untreated ADHD performed

worse on achievement tests (79%) and academic performance (75%) than

non-ADHD controls, even after controlling for IQ difference (72% and 81%,

respectively). Improvement in both outcome groups was associated with

treatment, with achievement test scores (79%) outperforming academic

performance (42%), even when IQ was controlled (100% and 57%,

respectively). Multimodal treatment increased achievement test and academic

performance outcomes more (100% and 67%, respectively) than

pharmacological (75% and 33%) or non-pharmacological (75% and 50%)

treatment alone (Arnold, L. E et al., 2020). The long-term impact of ADHD on

academic performance. It found that untreated ADHD leads to poorer

performance on achievement tests and in overall academic success

compared to non-ADHD peers, even when IQ is taken into account. However,

treatment, especially multimodal approaches, significantly improves

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outcomes. Multimodal treatment combining different therapies showed the

most substantial improvement, followed by pharmacological treatment alone,

and then non-pharmacological interventions. These findings highlight the

importance of early intervention and comprehensive treatment strategies for

individuals with ADHD to enhance their academic success.

Despite a long-standing recognition of academic language as a

pedagogically significant research area, the concept of academic language

proficiency, defined as a more comprehensive set of skills than simply

academic vocabulary, has remained ambiguous. In this study, we look at a

more comprehensive operationalization of an academic-language competency

concept called core academic-language skills (CALS). CALS refers to a set of

high-utility language abilities that are thought to assist reading comprehension

across educational curriculum areas. Using the Core Academic Language

Skills Instrument (CALS-I), a theoretically founded and psychometrically

robust novel tool, we first assessed the diversity in students' CALS by grade,

English proficiency designation, and socioeconomic level (SES) (Uccelli, P., et

al., 2015). to redefine academic-language proficiency by introducing the

concept of core academic-language skills (CALS), which encompass various

language abilities crucial for understanding academic content across subjects.

Through the Core Academic Language Skills Instrument (CALS-I), the study
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investigates how CALS differs among students based on grade level, English

proficiency, and socioeconomic status.

It investigated how beginning readers approach e-books, with a focus

on reading speed, comprehension, and authoring content. This excellent

classroom action research was based on early observations, reading tests,

and student papers. The findings demonstrate that employing an online

library, devices for reading and writing English text and involving literacy

competitions based on technology have positive effects on socio-cognitive

development and pedagogical-cognitive literacy (Butarbutar, R. 2022). It

explores how using technology like e-books and Google Docs affects EFL

students. It finds that integrating these tools positively impacts reading speed,

comprehension, and writing skills. Through classroom research, shows that

using online libraries and tech-based literacy competitions aids both socio-

cognitive development and pedagogical-cognitive literacy.

There was significant diversity in the characteristics that predicted

engagement in various reading activities. Although intrinsic reading motivation

predicted recreational book reading, age predicted interaction with digital texts

more accurately. Furthermore, certain characteristics of motivation predicted

engagement in various reading activities; being motivated to read difficult texts

predicted recreational book reading, whereas being motivated to earn good

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marks predicted schoolbook reading. On the other hand, sociological causes

predicted magazine and comic book readership. The implications for

education are examined, as well as the relationship between child features

and reading activity preferences (McGeown, S. P., et al., 2016). This reveals

that motivations and demographics significantly influence reading

engagement. Intrinsic motivation drives recreational book reading, while age

influences digital text engagement. Challenged content drives schoolbook

reading, while social reasons influence magazines and comics. The findings

have implications for education and individual reading preferences.

According to (Gilakjani, A. P., & Sabouri, N. B. 2016) listening is one of

the most important components of English language learning. Students have

a harder time listening to English. Students have significant challenges with

listening comprehension because colleges and institutions focus more on

writing, reading, and vocabulary. Listening is not emphasized in many course

texts, and most professors do not address this crucial ability in their

classrooms. In this work, the researchers examined the terms listening,

hearing comprehension, listening comprehension strategies, and listening

challenges. The examination of research suggested that when teachers are

aware of their students' learning issues, they can assist them build effective

listening methods and eventually solve their difficulties in listening and

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increase their listening comprehension abilities. This article highlights the

significance of listening skills in English language learning, emphasizing that

students often encounter challenges in listening comprehension. It points out

that educational institutions prioritize writing, reading, and vocabulary over

listening, neglecting its importance. Consequently, course materials and

teachers often overlook this vital skill. The researchers review terms such as

listening, listening comprehension, strategies, and difficulties to underscore

the need for teachers to understand students' learning obstacles. By doing so,

teachers can assist students in developing effective listening strategies,

ultimately enhancing their listening comprehension abilities.

Based on data from the 2009 Program for International Student

Assessment, this research investigates how various characteristics of the

home literacy environment, school climate, and students' reading engagement

connect to reading performance. The first section provides a profile of Hong

Kong students' three reading engagement indexes - reading enjoyment,

reading diversity, and internet reading - in comparison to other East Asian

societies. The relative effects of several family- and classroom-level factors on

Hong Kong students' reading engagement are then investigated using

hierarchical linear modeling. The assessment of the proportional influence of

the three engagement indicators on reading performance reveals that reading

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enjoyment is the strongest predictor. Home-school collaboration in cultivating

a positive reading climate, nurturing a good reading habit for all students, and

improving the classroom and teaching climate appear to be promising

avenues for improving students' reading engagement and performance, which

may be important in shaping future policy and practice (Ho, E. S. C., & Lau, K.

L. 2018). This article examines how home literacy environment, school

climate, and reading engagement affect students' reading performance using

data from the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment. It focuses

on Hong Kong students and finds that reading enjoyment is the strongest

predictor of performance. The study suggests that fostering a positive reading

climate at home and school could improve students' reading engagement and

performance.

Synthesis

Exploring factors that affect reading comprehension and its impact on

academic performance, Various studies analyze factors such as vocabulary

knowledge, decoding skills, oral fluency, and overall language proficiency to

understand their influence on learners’ comprehension abilities. Additionally,

the influence between reading fluency, comprehension, and academic

achievement underscores the importance of addressing these factors

collectively.
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Across multiple studies, a unity of idea emerges regarding the critical

role of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension. Research

consistently highlights the strong correlation between vocabulary depth and

the ability to comprehend complex texts. Similarly, the significance of

decoding skills, particularly in segmenting and blending letter sounds,

resonates throughout the literature. Both vocabulary and decoding proficiency

serve as foundational pillars supporting effective reading comprehension.

While vocabulary and decoding skills emerge as common threads,

differences arise in the emphasis placed on various factors influencing

reading comprehension. Some studies underscore the importance of overall

language proficiency, encompassing both oral and written language abilities,

in facilitating comprehension. Others investigate the components of reading

fluency, such as word recognition accuracy, automaticity, and prosody,

revealing their distinct impacts on comprehension. Moreover, the role of socio-

cultural factors and technological interventions adds further complexity to the

discussion,highlighting the diverse approaches to enhancing reading

comprehension.
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In conclusion, understanding reading comprehension requires a

comprehensive approach that acknowledges the interconnectedness of

various factors. While vocabulary knowledge and decoding skills lay the

groundwork, considerations of overall language proficiency and reading

fluency deepen our comprehension of learners’ abilities. Recognizing both the

similarities and differences among studies enriches our understanding of how

to effectively support learners in developing strong reading comprehension

skills. Ultimately, integrating insights from diverse research strands can inform

tailored interventions and educational practices aimed at promoting reading

proficiency and academic success.