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Intelligent Systems Reference Library 191

Natalia A. Serdyukova
Vladimir I. Serdyukov

Algebraic
Identification
of Smart
Systems
Theory аnd Practice
Intelligent Systems Reference Library

Volume 191

Series Editors
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Lakhmi C. Jain, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Centre for
Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia,
KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK;
Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8578

Natalia A. Serdyukova Vladimir I. Serdyukov
•

Algebraic Identification
of Smart Systems
Theory аnd Practice

123
Natalia A. Serdyukova Vladimir I. Serdyukov
Plekhanov Russian University Department of Applied Mathematics
of Economics Bauman Moscow State Technical University
Moscow, Russia Moscow, Russia

ISSN 1868-4394 ISSN 1868-4408 (electronic)

Intelligent Systems Reference Library
ISBN 978-3-030-54469-0 ISBN 978-3-030-54470-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54470-6
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Foreword

The book Algebraic Identification of Smart Systems. Theory and Practice continue
the book Algebraic Formalization of Smart Systems. Theory and Practice.
The following main results were obtained in it: a method for studying intelligent
systems using the new concept of a quasi-fractal algebraic system, a new concept of
a structurally stable quasi-fractal intellectual system, a theorem explaining the
occurrence of mutations, the concept of a quasi-fractal scale and level of measur-
ability. Two models of algebraic formalization of the knowledge system repre-
sentation are constructed: in the form of a free group of factors that determine the
knowledge system, and in the form of a semantic network, which is represented by
a finite Boolean algebra, the concept of parametric algebraic potential of a smart
system is introduced. The questions of randomness of the system structure, system
infrastructure, stability and integrity of the system are investigated. The concept of
probability-isomorphic groups is introduced. The concept of the Erdös–Renyi
algorithm on finite graphs and the concept of the Cayley graph of a group are used
for this purpose. It has been shown that the problem of smart system identification
is extremely important when studying mathematical objects. The concept of smart
infrastructure is considered from the point of view of tensor estimation. The concept
of structural stability of a closed associative smart system with feedback is intro-
duced and considered. Theorems on tensor estimates of structurally stable systems
are obtained.
The main tool is the notion of a quasi-fractal algebraic system and the theory of
P—purities of algebraic systems. In 1990s, the concept of purities by predicates
was introduced by one of the authors and later on authors found out some appli-
cations of the theory of purities by predicates to practice.
The main methodology is the methodology of the theory of algebraic systems, as
a synthesis of algebra and logic, discovered by A. I. Maltsev, and a generalization
of the concept of an algebraic system to the level of fractals—quasi-fractal algebraic
systems introduced in this book, based on the theory of fractals developed by Benoit
Mandelbrot.

v
vi Foreword

Basic methods are: fixed-point theorem, the use of well-known theorems of

group theory and the theory of Boolean algebras, Erdös–Renyi algorithms.
The book which is offering to you, The Algebraic Identification of Smart
Systems. Theory and Practice is an attempt to use the opportunity to investigate a
smart system in more detail, adding new factors to the model of factors determining
the system that describe previously indivisible elements of the initial model of
factors determining the system, that is an attempt to use zoom.
In view of the sufficient complexity of the issues under consideration, we dwell
briefly on the contents of the chapters.
In Chap. 1, the problem of identification of a smart system is considered from the
standpoint of compliance of the functioning of the system with its purpose of
functioning and evaluation of this compliance. Here, authors construct a structural
(by the structure of system attributes) analogue of the econometric method of
principal components.
Main idea of Chap. 2, concerning the problem of representation of a model of a
system, runs as follows: Authors would like to find such a form of a model for a
smart system that one can refine its properties. The quasi-fractal systems allow one
to use the concept of algebraic formalization of smart systems for a more in-depth
study of smart systems, using the possibilities of its study, being at different levels
of smart system’s detail.
In Chap. 3, authors describe system’s functions from the point of view of
quasi-fractal algebraic systems. Also, natural fractal (algebraic) systems are intro-
duced and authors show that they can be defined in the form of quasi-fractal
algebraic systems. Writing natural fractals in the form of a quasi-fractal algebraic
system allows one to represent the process of decomposition of the system when
moving from the upper levels of the quasi-fractal algebraic system to the lower ones
and, thus, allows to describe more clearly the functions of the system, that is to use
zoom.
In Chap. 4, measuring processes in complex systems modeled by quasi-fractal
algebraic systems are discussed. The notion of a quasi-fractal scale is defined that
allows to monitor and diagnostics in complex systems modeled by quasi-fractal
algebraic systems. The level of measurability by a quasi-fractal scale is determined
using the Brouwer fixed-point theorem.
In Chap. 5, authors consider the test system as a measurement system through
assessments of students’ knowledge. The main issues here are the question of
assessing the adequacy of the measurement results to the real level of knowledge,
skills of students. In this regard, two models of the algebraic formalization of the
representation of the knowledge system are considered: in the form of a free group
of factors that determine the knowledge system and in the form of a semantic
network, which is represented using finite Boolean algebra. These models allow one
to show that all binary tests, i.e., test involving answers in the form of either “yes”
or “no,” can be solved true, without knowing the specific nature of the proposed
questions.
Foreword vii

Analogues of physical concepts and, in particular, the concept of potential are

now used in various fields of knowledge related to the humanities, such as, for
example, economics, teaching theory, control theory and so on. In Chap. 6, authors
introduce the concept of parametric algebraic potential in line with the concept of
algebraic formalization of the system. Let us remind that the potential energy (in
our context is a measure of the transition of a system from one state to another is
determined by the mutual position of interacting bodies or parts of the same body
(subsystems in our context), that is, of the structure of the system. Here, the notions
of Borel function and Borel measure are used.
The main questions of Chap. 7 are: the randomness of the structure of the
system, the infrastructure of the system, its sustainability and the integrity of the
system. The following basic questions are considered—random graphs, analogues
of the Erdös–Renyi model for quasi-fractal graphs, quasi-fractal homomorphisms,
scales, measures (continuation of Chap. 4), monitoring the functioning of a system
represented by a quasi-fractal random graph, system structure randomness and
integrity, infrastructure, giant component, the notion of random quasi-fractal graph
(continuation of Chap. 4), random quasi-fractal scales (continuation of Chap. 4).
In Chap. 8, the concept of probability-isomorphic groups is introduced. To do
this, the concept Erdös–Renyi algorithm on finite graphs and the concept of a
Cayley graph of a group are used. Some notions of category theory are considered
here because many algebraic notions are in deep connection with it: Saunders Mac
Lane [Saunders Mac Lane “Categories for the Working Mathematicians, Second
Edition, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc, 1998, 315 pp.”] has shown that many
algebraic objects, such as a group, a monoid, a field of fractions of a domain of
integrity, etc., can be represented as a category. On the other hand, each category
can be considered as a graph. The study of these issues has shown that the problem
of identifying a system is extremely important in the study of mathematical objects.
In Chap. 9, the concept of smart infrastructure is examined from the standpoint
of tensor estimation. The main questions of Chap. 9 are the following ones—verbal
tensor estimates in the smart systems theory, methods to increase system reliability,
tensor estimation of system quality, the algorithm of tensor estimation of system
quality, formalization the approaches and the concept of system sustainability, the
algorithm of tensor estimation of system sustainability, sustainability of a
quasi-fractal system (a system modeled by a quasi-fractal algebraic system) and
system sustainability violation: violation of the system’s closeness property; mal-
function of one of the system’s factors, violation of feedback in the system;
factor-flexible quasi-fractal system, substitution of system’s functions; system’s
compensational possibilities, compensational functions of a factor-flexible
quasi-fractal system.
In Chap. 10, smart systems modeled by solvable groups and quasi-fractal sys-
tems which modeled by quasi-fractal solvable groups are considered. In this
chapter, the concept of structural sustainability of a closed associative system with a
feedback is introduced and considered. It is shown that closed innovation systems
viii Foreword

with commuting determining factors do not have the property of structural sus-
tainability and a closed associative system with a feedback modeled by a free
nonabelian group is structurally sustainable with a minimum regulation range.
Theorems about tensor estimates of structurally sustainable groups are obtained.
The book is intended for all interested in these issues.

Professor Vladimir A. Bubnov

Doctor of Technical Sciences
Institute of Digital Education
Moscow City University
Moscow, Russia

Seregina Svetlana
Professor
Doctor of Sciences in Economics
Deputy Head of Department of
Theoretical Economics
Faculty of Economic Sciences
National Research University Higher
School of Economics
Moscow, Russia
Preface

The book Algebraic Identification of Smart Systems. Theory and Practice is in fact
a second part of the book Algebraic Formalization of Smart Systems. Theory and
Practice.
We have considered in it the new concept of quasi-fractal algebraic system based
on the A. I. Maltsev’s theory of algebraic systems on the theory of fractals
developed by Benoit Mandelbrot to investigate a smart system in more detail,
adding new factors to the model of factors determining the system that describe
previously indivisible elements of the initial model of factors determining the
system.
This concept allows us to obtain the following main results: a method for
studying intelligent smart systems, a new concept of a structurally stable
quasi-fractal intellectual smart system, the concept of parametric algebraic potential
of a smart system, the concept of a quasi-fractal scale and level of measurability of a
smart system, an explanation the occurrence of mutations. Main kinds of algebraic
systems we used for it are groups and Boolean algebras. Also, methods of proba-
bility theory have been used. Randomness of the system structure, system infras-
tructure, stability and integrity of the smart system are investigated from this point
of view. The concept of the Erdös–Renyi algorithm on finite graphs and the concept
of the Cayley graph of a group are used. The concept of probability-isomorphic
groups is introduced. The book contains examples: application of the results
obtained to the knowledge system and to issues of economics and finance. Two
models of algebraic formalization of the knowledge system representation are
constructed: in the form of a free group of factors that determine the knowledge
system and in the form of a semantic network, which is represented by a finite
Boolean algebra. The notion of smart infrastructure is considered from the point of
view of tensor estimation. Structural stability of a closed associative smart system
with a feedback is introduced and considered. Theorems on tensor estimates of
structurally stable systems are obtained.

ix
x Preface

The main tool we used here, quasi-fractal algebraic systems, helps us to see a
smart system in more details by adding new factors to the model of factors deter-
mining the system to describe previously indivisible elements of the initial model
that is as to use scaling and zoom.
Basic methods are: fixed-point theorem, the use of well-known theorems of
group theory and the theory of Boolean algebras, Erdös–Renyi algorithms.
Here, we give brief content of the book to clear up book logic, all connections
between its chapters, main notions and results. The numeration coincides with the
one we use in the book.

Chapter 1. Smart Systems Identification Problem

Abstract.
The main issues here are:
In the first Chapter, the problem of identification of a smart system is considered
from the standpoint of compliance of the functioning of the system with its purpose
of functioning and evaluation of this compliance. The problem of identification of
smart systems is to answer the question: does the system satisfy the objective of its
operation at each moment in time, and if so, how much? Thus, the problem of
identification is divided into the following two tasks:
1. Does the system S satisfy the objective of its operation PðSÞ?
2. To assess how the system S satisfies the goals of its functioning PðSÞ?
Also, we construct a structural (by the structure of system attributes) analogue
of the econometric method of principal components, developed by the outstanding
Russian algebraist D. K. Faddeev.

Keywords: Identification problem  Smart system  Identification matrix

1.1 Introduction

Main idea of Chap. 1 concerning the problem of system identification runs as

follows:
The purpose of the functioning of the economic system is to become a smart
system.
The purpose of the functioning of the financial system is to become a smart
system.
The purpose of the functioning of the training system is to become a smart
system. We distinguish classes of systems whose purpose of functioning is to
become a smart system, or come to the final state of smart.
Preface xi

1.2 The Problem Statement. Problems of Identification

and Pattern Recognition: What is the Difference

1.2.1 Identification Problem Formalization

1.2.2 Possible Approaches to Solve Identification Problem.
System Identification up to Internal or External Attributes
The idea of solving the problem defined by the title of this section is to determine
the equivalence relation on the set of predicates and then use the analogy of the
introduced concepts with the notion of quasi-isomorphism of Abelian groups.
Here we define a probabilistic space of internal attributes of the system S, a
probabilistic space of external attributes of the system S.

1.3 System Description up to External Attributes.

(Systems Classification up to External Attributes)

1.3.1 Examples. Test System for Knowledge Control. Connection

of System Identification Problem with Classical Logic
Example 1 Test system for knowledge control.
Example 2 Connection of system identification problem with classical logic.

1.4 System’s Identification Matrix as an Analogue

of the Characteristic Function
Here we construct an analogue of the characteristic function—the system’s iden-
tification matrix.

1.5 Systems with Two Subsystems and Two Internal Attributes

1.5.1 Orthogonality. The Subsystem Sj Identifier in the System S. Structural

Analogue of the Method of Principal Components
In this section, we construct a structural (by the structure of system attributes)
analogue of the econometric method of principal components, developed by the
outstanding Russian algebraist D. K. Faddeev.

1.6 Decomposition of the System by its Basic Subsystems

and Property. Decomposition of Attributes of a System
by its Basic Attributes and a Subsystem

Here we introduce the definitions that allow one to decompose the system by the
selected property of the system and by its subsystems, and by its selected subsystem
and a fixed property.
xii Preface

1.7 Probability Identification Matrices

1.8 Examples of System Models with the Same Set

of Basis Subsystems and Defining

 Attributes,
the Same Matrix M ¼ jjFðQi Sj jj and Different Structures

Chapter 2. The Complexity of the Identification Problem.

Transition from by Element-wise Model
of the System to the Model of Factors Determining
the System. Quasi-fractal Algebraic Systems

Abstract. In Chap. 2 the following basic questions are considered:

– models’ presentation forms,
– statistics methods of system identification,
– algebraic methods of systems identification,
– transition from the element-wise model of the system to the model of factors
determining the system,
– fractal forms of model representation and systems identification methods,
– quasi-fractal algebraic systems.

Keywords: Identification problem  Quasi-fractal system  Contraction mapping 

Elementary theory

2.1 Introduction

Main idea of Chap. 2 concerning the problem of representation of a model of a

system, runs as follows: we would like to find such a form of a model for a smart
system that one can refine its properties. The quasi-fractal systems allow one to use
the concept of algebraic formalization of smart systems for a more in-depth study of
smart systems, using the possibilities of its study, being at different levels of smart
system’s detail.
Advantages of the algebraic quasi-fractal form of representation of models are as
follows.
The quasi-fractal form of representing the models of the system S in the alge-
braic formalization of systems allows us to consider major, initially distinguished
factors that determine the system, in the form of algebraic systems, that is, it allows,
in fact, to refine the model GS of factors determining the system S, onto any level
k ¼ 1; . . . n; . . .
Preface xiii

2.2 Models’ Presentation Forms

2.3 Statistics Methods of System Identification

2.4 Algebraic Methods of Systems Identification.

Transition from the Element-wise Model
of the System to the Model of Factors Determining
the System

2.5 Fractal Forms of Model Representation

and Systems Identification Methods

2.6 Quasi-Fractal Algebraic Systems

Definition 2.1 Let’s consider the algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i of the signature
X1 , such that every element aa ; a 2 K1 , of the main set A1 of the system A1 in turn
is an algebraic system of the signature X2 . That is aa ¼ Aa2 ¼ hAa2 ; X2 i; a 2 K1 s an
algebraic system of the second level. Continue this process by induction. If an
algebraic system Aak ¼ hAak ; Xk i; a 2 Kk is an algebraic system of the level k of the
fractal and every element aa ; a 2 Kk of the main set Aak of the system Aak is an
algebraic system aa ¼ Aak þ 1 ¼ hAak þ 1 ; Xk þ 1 i of the signature Xk þ 1 , of the level
k þ 1, a 2 Kk þ 1 , of the fractal, then the algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i is called a
quasi-fractal algebraic system. If all signatures Xk ; k ¼ 1; . . .n; . . .; are equal to each
other and all the systems hAak ; Xk i; a 2 Kk , are isomorphic to each other then the
algebraic system A1 ¼ A1 ; X1 is called a fractal algebraic of the signature X1 .
We should explain that in this notation A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i plays the role of a uni-
versal variable to denote a quasi-fractal algebraic system.
Let’s note that an ordinary algebraic system is a quasi-fractal system of the first
level.
2.6.1 Contraction Mappings of a Quasi-fractal Algebraic System
Fractal mathematical models are characterized by compression processes. In fact, in
algebraic quasi-fractals there is a process of “qualitative compression” when
moving across the fractal levels from top to bottom. At the same time, one can also
build contraction quasi-fractal mappings and compress quasi-fractal levels in dif-
ferent ways. Here we consider some examples.
xiv Preface

2.6.2 Metric Spaces. Contraction Mappings Examples

Key point here is
Brouwer’s Fixed-Point Theorem
If f : X ! X is a continuous map of a convex compact X into itself, then there exists
a fixed point of the map f :
The main theorem here is the following one.
Main Theorem
Let the system S be modeled by a quasi-fractal algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i.
Then the system S has a finite level of forecasting (predictability).

2.7 Algebraic Fractals

In this section, we consider questions about how, using an algebraic fractal system,
that is, using an algebraic quasi-fractal, one can write the following well-known
constructions of algebra and category theory:
– free product,
– Cartesian product,
– direct sum.
2.7.1 Product and Coproduct Record of Category Theory in the Form of a
Quasi-fractal Algebraic System
2.7.2 Record (Cartesian) Product of a Countable Number of Algebraic Systems
in the Form of a Quasi-fractal Algebraic System (in the Form of an Algebraic
Fractal)
2.7.3 Record Coproduct of a Countable Number of Algebraic Systems in the
Form of a Quasi-fractal Algebraic System (in the Form of an Algebraic Fractal)
2.7.4 Special Case. Quasi-fractal Groups

2.8 Quasi-fractal Graphs

Dn o
Definition 2.11 Let’s consider the graph C1 ¼ Va11 ja1 2 K1 ;
n oE n o
u1a1 ;b1 ja1 ; b1 2 K1 , where Va11 ja1 2 K1 is the set of vertices of the graph C1 ,
n o
u1a1 ;b1 ja1 ; b1 2 K1 is the set of edges of the graph C1 .
Let’s call the graph C1 a graph of the first level. Let, in turn, Va11 be the graph
Dn o n oE n o
C2 ¼ Va22 ja2 2 K2 ; u2a2 ;b2 ja2 ; b2 2 K2 , where Va22 ja2 2 K2 is the set of
n o
vertices of the graph C2 , u2a2 ;b2 ja2 ; b2 2 K2 is the set of edges of the graph C2 .
Preface xv

Let’s call the graph C2 a graph of the second level. Let’s continue this process by
induction. Dn o n oE
If the graph Ck ¼ Vakk jak 2 Kk ; ukak ;bk jak ; bk 2 Kk , where
n o n o
Vakk jak 2 Kk is the set of vertices of the graph Ck , ukak ;bk jak ; bk 2 Kk is the set
of edges of the graph—Ck , is the graph of the level k, then let Vakk ; ak 2 Kk , be a
Dn o n oE
graph Ck þ 1 ¼ Vakkþþ 11 jak þ 1 2 Kk þ 1 ; ukakþþ 11 ;bk þ 1 jak þ 1 ; bk þ 1 2 Kk þ 1 , where
n o
Vakkþþ 11 jak þ 1 2 Kk þ 1 is a set of vertices of the graph Ck þ 1 ,
n o
ukakþþ 11 ;bk þ 1 jak þ 1 ; bk þ 1 2 Kk þ 1 is the set of edges of the graph Ck þ 1 . The graph
Ck þ 1 is called a graph of the level k þ 1. In this case the graph C1 ¼
Dn o n oE
Va11 ja1 2 K1 ; u1a1 ;b1 ja1 ; b1 2 K1 is called a quasi-fractal graph. If all the
Dn o n oE
graphs Ck ¼ Vakk jak 2 Kk ; ukak ;bk jak ; bk 2 Kk ; r ¼ 1; . . .; n; . . . are isomor-
Dn o n oE
phic to each other, then the graph C1 ¼ Va11 ja1 2 K1 ; u1a1 ;b1 ja1 ; b1 2 K1 is
Dn o n oE
called a fractal graph. The graph Ck ¼ Vakk jak 2 Kk ; ukak ;bk jak ; bk 2 Kk ,
n o n o
where Vakk jak 2 Kk is the set of vertices of the graph Ck , ukak ;bk jak ; bk 2 Kk is
the set of edges of the graph Ck , is called a quasi-fractal graph of the level k.
The notion of a quasi-fractal graph is a generalization of the notion of a graph,
since an ordinary graph is a quasi-fractal graph of the first level.
Examples An example of a fractal graph without edges is the Dirichlet function:

1; x 2 Q
Dð xÞ ¼
0; x 2 RnQ

It is well known that Dð xÞ ¼ lim lim cos2n ðm!pxÞ. The Dirichlet function is
m!1 n!1
periodic one with a period equal to any rational number:
Dð xÞ ¼ Dðx þ qÞ for any q 2 Q.
2.8.1 Decomposition and Synthesis Based on Quasi-fractal System Models
2.8.2 Appendix. Quasi-fractal Systems Recognition Methods. Monitoring
Learning Outcomes Through Testing

2.9 Example. The Control Algorithm of a Complex System Based

on a Quasi-fractal Model

2.9.1 Elementary Controlled Systems

The question arises: Can an algorithm to achieve the goal of the system be built?
xvi Preface

Definition 2.13 A system S is called elementary controllable if the elementary

theory of its model GS is solvable.
Examples
1. Semantic networks represented by finite Boolean algebras.
2. Systems modeled by Abelian groups. In particular, the system from point 2.8,
example, (which is a fractal cyclic group Z2 ¼ hZ2 j þ ; ; 0i) is elementary
controllable.

2.10 Conclusion. Connection of Quasi-fractals with Synergetics

Chapter 3. General System Function

Large-scale invariance, or its self-similarity of

fractal structure, is its
characteristic property
F. A. Tzitsin, Fractal Universe,
Home page http://www.delphis.ru/journal/article/fraktalnaya-
vselennaya

Abstract. In Chap. 3 the following basic questions are considered:

– natural fractal algebraic systems through series of examples from mathematics,
natural sciences, telecommunications,
– the concept of quasi-fractal homomorphism and target quasi-fractal of a system,
system target functions,
– regulation of a quasi-fractal system. Regulatory functions of the system.
Theorems explaining the appearance of mutations.

Keywords: Testing  Binary tests  System efficiency  Knowledge system 

Semantic network  Probability measure

3.1 Introduction

In Chap. 3 we shall approach the description of system functions from the point of
view of quasi-fractal algebraic systems introduced in Chap. 2. Before doing this, we
define natural fractal (algebraic) systems and show that they can be defined in the
form of quasi-fractal algebraic systems. Writing natural fractals in the form of a
quasi-fractal algebraic system allows one to represent the process of decomposition
of the system when moving from the upper levels of the quasi-fractal algebraic
system to the lower ones, and, thus, allows to describe more clearly the functions
of the system.
Preface xvii

3.2 Natural Fractal Algebraic Systems

We begin with preliminary remarks and some examples of natural fractals.

Definition 3.1 A quasi-fractal is called natural if each of its elements is a sub-
system of the original system under study.
In the common case it is not so, see Chap. 2, Definition 2.1.
Definition 2.1, Chap. 2 Let’s consider the algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i of the
signature X1 , such that every element aa ; a 2 K1 , of the main set A1 of the system
A1 in turn is an algebraic system of the signature X2 . That is
aa ¼ Aa2 ¼ hAa2 ; X2 i; a 2 K1 is an algebraic system of the second level. Continue
this process by induction. If an algebraic system Aak ¼ hAak ; Xk i; a 2 Kk is an
algebraic system of the level k of the fractal and every element aa ; a 2 Kk of the
main set Aak of the system Aak is an algebraic system aa ¼ Aak þ 1 ¼ hAak þ 1 ; Xk þ 1 i
of the signature Xk þ 1 , of the level k þ 1, a 2 Kk þ 1 , of the fractal, then the algebraic
system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i is called a quasi-fractal algebraic system. If all signatures
Xk ; k ¼ 1; . . .n; . . .; are equal to each other and all the systems hAak ; Xk i; a 2 Kk , are
isomorphic to each other then the algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i is called a fractal
algebraic of the signature X1 .
We should explain that in this notation A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i plays the role of a uni-
versal variable to denote a quasi-fractal algebraic system.
Let's note that an ordinary algebraic system is a quasi-fractal system of the first
level.

3.3 The Concept of Quasi-fractal Homomorphism.

Target Quasi-fractal of a System. System Target Functions

Definition 3.2 Let A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i; B1 ¼ hB1 ; X1 i be quasi-fractal algebraic systems

such that for each level of a quasi-fractal systems the systems Aak ¼ hAak ; Xk i and
Bak ¼ hBak ; Xk i have one the same signature Xk . A mapping f : A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i !
B1 ¼ hB1 ; X1 i is called a quasi-fractal homomorphism from a system A1 ¼
hA1 ; X1 i into a system B1 ¼ hB1 ; X1 i, if the following two conditions are fulfilled:
(1) For every a 2 Kk the equality f ða/ Þ ¼ f ðb/ Þ holds for some b/ 2 Kk , that is f
maps the elements of the quasi-fractal algebraic system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i of the
level k þ 1 into elements of the same level k þ 1 of the quasi-fractal algebraic
system B1 ¼ hB1 ; X1 i;
(2) f saves all operations and
predicates of  the signature Xk . for all levels k of the
quasi-fractal. That is: f ðFn x1 ; . . .; xmn Þ ¼ ðf ðFn ÞÞðf ðx1 Þ; . . .; f ðxmn ÞÞ for every



operation Fn 2 Xk and every x1 ; . . .; xmn 2 Aak and Pg x1 ; . . .; xng ,



f Pg ðf ðx1 Þ; . . .; f ðxng ÞÞ for every predicate Pg 2 Xk and every
x1 ; . . .; xng 2 Aak .
xviii Preface

3.3.1 Algorithm of Construction a Level of a System Predictability

1. Next, according to the algorithm described in Chap. 2, Examples 1, 2, 3, we
construct a contraction map of a quasi-fractal algebraic system Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ .
After that we define the metric d on the quasi-fractal Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ in accor-
dance with Example 4, Chap. 2.
We embed the metric quasi-fractal Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ in the completion by this
metric, which is a metric compact with metric d. According to [Danilov V.I.,
Lectures on fixed points. Russian Economic School, Moscow, 2006—30 p.],
this complete metric compactum, when its dimension equals to n, is homeo-
morphic to the unit ball Dn in Rn , where Dn ¼ fx 2 Rn jj xj  1g and

1
j xj ¼ jx1 ; . . .; xn j ¼ x21 ; . . .; x2n 2 .
2. Then, according to Brouwer’s theorem, we obtain a fixed point of the com-
pressive map from Example 4, Chap. 2, which defines the predictability level
of the system S. In our
case, the fixed point of the compressing map is a group of
homomorphisms Hom Gak þ 1 ; Gak þ 1 of a group Gak þ 1 of some group of the
level
k of a quasi-fractal GS ¼ hGS ; ; h1 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i. We shall call
Hom Gak þ 1 ; Gak þ 1 a fixed or invariant semigroup of homomorphisms of a
quasi-fractal Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ.


Remark The fixed semigroup of homomorphisms Hom Gak þ 1 ; Gak þ 1 of a
quasi-fractal Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ defines the target functions of the system S.

3.4 Regulating Quasi-fractal of a System. Regulatory

Functions of the System. Some Theorems Explaining
the Appearance of Mutations

In this section we study the regulation function of the system S from the point of
view that the regulation function can be represented as the reaction function of the
system S onto the environmental impact on the functioning of the system, deter-
mined by its target functions.
3.4.1 Geometric Examples of Quasi-fractal Groups
In this section we consider quasi-fractal systems modeled by quasi-fractal groups
and prove the following theorem
Theorem 3.5 Let the system S be modeled by a quasi-fractal group of permuta-
tions of the third degree S3 ¼ hS3 ; ; h1 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i. At any level of the
quasi-fractal representing this system it is not possible to regulate exactly:

– one factor representing the system,

– two factors representing the system,
– four factors representing the system.
Preface xix

When regulating precisely:

– one factor representing the system,
– two factors representing the system,
– four factors representing the system,
system S will change its structure.
So, Theorem 3.5 explains the changes in the structure of the studied system, so
one can say that it explains the appearance of mutations.
Theorem 3.6 Let the system S be modeled by a quasi-fractal the alternating group
of permutations of the fourth degree A4 ¼ hA4 ; ; h1 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i. At no
level of the quasi-fractal representing this system it is possible to regulate exactly:
the six factors that represent the system. When exactly six factors representing the
system are regulated, system S will change its structure.
3.4.2 The Control Function of the Smart System as a Feedback of the Smart
System and the External Environment
In this section we formalize the responses (reactions) of the smart system S to the
tests T ¼ fTi ji 2 Ig, using the following definition.
Definition 3.8 Let fi : C ! C be a homomorphism of a graph C into itself, which
corresponds to a control function. Then the image fi ðCÞ is the response of the
system Sa ; a 2 K to the test Ti ; the image fa ðfW ðTi Þji 2 IgÞ is the response system
of the subsystem Sa ; a 2 K on the test system T ¼ fTi ji 2 Ig.
3.4.3 Appendix. Quasi-fractal Systems Recognition Methods. Monitoring
Testing Outcomes of Smart Model

Chapter 4. Smart Systems’ Scales for Measuring

Abstract. In Chap. 4 the following basic questions are considered:

– complex systems’ problems of measuring,
– generalizations of classical scales. Multidimensional, matrix and lattice scales,
examples.
– coding as a tool to measure students’ level of knowledge,
– quasi-fractals and synergistic effects. Scales fixing the synergistic effect and the
time (level) series determined by them,
– measurement scales for quasi-fractal algebraic systems.
– quasi-fractal scale measurability level.

Keywords: Testing  Binary tests  System efficiency  Knowledge system 

Semantic network  Probability measure
xx Preface

4.1 Introduction

The issues of measuring processes that occur in complex systems modeled by

quasi-fractal algebraic systems are discusses in this chapter. The concept of a
quasi-fractal scale is defined that allows monitoring and diagnostics in complex
systems modeled using quasi-fractal algebraic systems. The level of measurability
by a quasi-fractal scale is determined using the Brouwer fixed-point theorem.

4.2 Complex Systems’ Problems of Measuring

The problems of mapping and unity of measure can be clarified as follows, [Home
page https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement]:
1. The problem of presentation. An empirical system A with relationships is given.
Is there a numerical system with relations B, into which one can map homo-
morphically system A?
2. The problem of uniqueness. Describe the set f f g of all homomorphic mappings
of the empirical system to the number system.
3. The direct problem of adequacy. Which rules of statistical inference are ade-
quate in a scale with a group of admissible transformations U?
4. The inverse problem of adequacy. Statistical inference rule is given. In what
scales (that is, under what groups of transformations U) is it adequate?
The concept of measurement scales is given in [Pfantsagl I., Theory of mea-
surements, trans. from English, M., 1976; Stevens, S. S. (7 June 1946). ‘On the
Theory of Scales of Measurement’. Science. 103 (2684): 677–680,
Serdyukova NA, Optimization of the tax system of Russia, 2002], in terms of
homomorphisms of algebraic systems.
4.2.1 Generalizations of Classical Scales. Multidimensional, Matrix and Lattice
Scales
4.2.2 Example. Coding as a Tool to Measure Students’ Level of Knowledge

4.3 Quasi-fractals and Synergistic Effects. Scales Fixing

the Synergistic Effect and the Time (Level) Series
Determined by Them

4.3.1 Explanation of the Choice as an Indicator of the Time (Level) Series

Modeling the System of the Number of Synergetic Effects of the Algebraic
System of the kth Level of a QUASI-Fractal for Each k
So, one obtains a measurement scale in the form of a fractal time series of syner-
getic effects of a quasi-fractal system. One can obtain a measurement scale in the
form of a fractal time series of synergetic effects of a quasi-fractal system, in
Preface xxi

another way: to consider the Euclidean metric and mapping inverse to the home-
omorphism obtained in the Brouwer fixed- point theorem. Here we use a technic
from [Starchenko, N.V., Fractality Index and Logical analysis of chaotic time
series, 05.13.18—Mathematical modeling, numerical methods and program com-
plexes 01.01.03—mathematical physics, dissertation for the degree of Ph.D.
(physical and mathematical sciences)].

4.4 Measurement Scales for Quasi-fractal Algebraic Systems.

Quasi-fractal Scale Measurability Level

The approach based on modern ideas about the formation of a complex system as a
dynamic structure that allows you to associate the structural and other qualitative
parameters of the system with its quantitative parameters and the form of presen-
tation of information through the fractality category will solve the problems of
traditional methods for assessing the properties of the system under study. In
[Bavykin, O.B., Fractal multidimensional scale, designed to control the regime of
dimensional ECHO and evaluate its output data, Engineering Bulletin, FSBEI HPE
MSTU named after N.E. Bauman, 77-48211/596038, No. 07 July 2013], for
example, a fractal scale is designed to control the dimensional ECHO mode. To
determine the quasi-fractal scale of measurement, we need the definition of a
quasi-fractal algebraic model.
Definition 4.4 A quasi-fractal model is a quasi-fractal algebraic system whose
signature at all levels of a fractal consists of predicates.
We shall need the Definition 3.1 of the quasi-fractal homomorphism introduced
in Chap. 3, and Definition 3.2 of the quasi-fractal semigroup of homomorphisms
Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i of the quasi-fractal group GS ¼ hGS ; ; h1 i of
factors that determine the systemS which is modelling by the group
GS ¼ hGS ; ; h1 i. Semigroup operation in Hom1 ðGS ; GS Þ ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i is
composition of homomorphisms. Let’s remind the definition.
Definition 4.5 Let A ¼ hA; Xi ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i be a quasi-fractal model and
B ¼ hB; X0 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i, where BR, be a quasi-fractal numerical model. We
remind that in this notation A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i plays a role of a variable to denote a
quasi-fractal algebraic system. An ordered triple hA; B; f i ¼ C1 ¼ hC1 ; X1 i, in
which hf ¼ f1 ; f2 i is a quasi-homomorphism from A ¼ hA; Xi ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i into
B ¼ hB; X0 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i, is called a quasi-fractal scale.
From Definition 4.5 it follows that a quasi-fractal scale can be constructed in
such a way that it would contain all the scales corresponding to the classification of
scales and their generalizations—multidimensional, matrix, and lattice scales,
(Table 4.1, Chap. 4, this book).
Definition 4.6 A homomorphism u : R ¼ hR; X0 ;  i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i ! R ¼
hR; X0 ;  i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i, where  is the relation “less or equal” on the
xxii Preface

quasi-fractal R, (that is on the each level of a quasi-fractal) is called an admissible

scale transformation of a scale hA; B; f i, if for an arbitrary fixed homomorphism
f0 : A ¼ hA; Xi ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i ! B ¼ hB; X0 i ¼ A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i the following
diagram

is commutative, that is uif0 ¼ if :

where i ¼ hi1 ; i2 i is a natural embedding of hB; X0 i into hR; X0 ;  i, that is i1 :

B ! R is a natural embedding and i2 : X0 ! X0 [ f  g is a natural embedding (that
is the diagram is a commutative one at the each level of all quasi-fractals involved
in it).
The set of all admissible transformations of a quasi-fractal scale hA; B; f i ¼
C1 ¼ hC1 ; X1 i forms a semigroup hU;  i, where  is composition operation. An
admissible transformation u 2 U of a quasi-fractal scale hA; B; f i transfer
quasi-fractal scale hA; B; f i into quasi-fractal scale hA; B; u f i equivalent to it.
Theorem 4.7 For each quasi-fractal scale, there is a level of measurability of a
complex system on this scale.
4.4.1 Examples of Predicting Numerical Characteristics of Processes
Occurring in Complex System
Example. Oil Price Forecasting Methods Here we consider examples related to
predicting the numerical characteristics of processes occurring in complex systems
and illustrate Theorem 4.7 with these examples.
Preface xxiii

Chapter 5. Testing Problems. Testing as a Coding of Knowledge

System

Abstract. In Chap. 5 the following basic questions are considered: The test system
is a measurement system through assessments of students’ knowledge. The main
issues here are:
– the question of assessing the adequacy of the results of measuring the real level
of knowledge and skills of students,
the question of a comprehensive assessment of the level of assimilation of the
system of knowledge that connects quantitative and qualitative indicators.
In this regard we shall consider two models of the algebraic formalization of the
representation of the knowledge system—in the form of a free group of factors that
determine the knowledge system, and in the form of a semantic network, which we
represent using finite Boolean algebra. These models allow us to show that all
binary tests i.e. tests involving answers in the form of either “yes” or “no”, can be
solved true, not knowing the specific nature of the proposed questions. Then we
shall show that probability measure can be used as a measure of the level of
assimilation of the knowledge system represented by the semantic network

Keywords: Testing  Binary tests  System efficiency  Knowledge system 

Semantic network  Probability measure

5.1 Introduction. Main Measurement Problems in Test Field

Many researches claim that tests are a measure of the level of mastery of a
knowledge system. However, there are no adequate enough quantitative assess-
ments of the level of mastery of the knowledge system. Under rather strict
restrictions, we shall construct such an estimate. It is shown that the tensor esti-
mation of the system efficiency defined in [Serdyukova, N. A., Serdyukov, V. I.,
Algebraic formalization of smart systems. Theory and Practice, 2018, Chap. 6],
including over a field of two elements, can be considered as encoding current state
of a system. We shall construct a tensor estimate of the effectiveness of the func-
tioning of the system as a homomorphism of a group of factors , determining the
system into a group GL (n, R) of linear homogeneous transformations of the vector
space Rn .
The main measurement problems in the field of testing, see also [Program for the
Development and Improvement of State Educational Standards and Testing (First
Stage) Final Report. Appendix 4. Foreign construction experience and current
problems of the development of educational testing], are listed.
xxiv Preface

5.2 Testing as a Coding of a Knowledge System

Algebraic formalization of smart systems, and, in particular, system identification

matrices (in our case, knowledge systems and test systems) allow one to consider
testing as a coding of a knowledge system [Solovieva FI, Introduction to Coding
Theory, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, 2006].

5.3 Coding as a Measure Students’ Knowledge Tool

Here we proved the main theorem.

Theorem 5.1 There exists an algorithm that allows one to solve all binary tests
of the knowledge system S not knowing the specific essence of the proposed
questions.

5.4 Binary Tensor Estimation of System Efficiency as Encoding

the Current State of the System

Here we shall show that a tensor estimate of the effectiveness of a system can be
considered as encoding the system’s current state. Also, we shall consider a tensor
estimate of the effectiveness of a system constructed over a field of two elements
generalize this concept as follows.
Definition 5.2 A tensor estimate of the effectiveness of a system S over a field F is
a mapping of the group of factors GS , that determine the system S, into a complete
linear group GL(n, F) of the order n, that is the group of all invertible matrices of
order n, or the group of invertible linear operators of the space F n .
Definition 5.3 A binary tensor estimate of the effectiveness of a system S is its
tensor estimate over a field of two elements Z2 , that is a mapping of the group of
factors GS , that determine the system S, into a complete linear group GL(n, Z2 )
of the order n, that is the group of all invertible matrices of the ordern , or the group
of invertible linear operators of the space Z2n .
So, one obtains from Definition 5.3 that the binary tensor estimate of the
effectiveness of the system S is the encoding of the current state of the system S.
We represent the tensor estimate as a homomorphism GSi ! GLðn; RÞ, where
GSi is a group of factors defining the system Si , GLðn; RÞ is a group of linear
homogeneous transformations of a vector space Rn , n—the number of quantitative
indicators that assess the quality of the subsystem GSi of the system S.
Preface xxv

5.5 Representation of the Semantic Model

of the Knowledge System (Semantic Network
of the Knowledge System) in the Form
of a Finite Boolean Algebra

Definition 5.4 An algebra B ¼ hhF1 ; . . .; Fn i; ^; _; e ; 0; 1i, where ^ is a con-

junction, _ is a disjunction, e is a negation, 0 is “false”, 1 is “true”, is called the
closure of the semantic network ffF1 ; . . .; Fn g; ^; _; e; 0; 1g.
5.5.1 Probabilities on Semantic Networks. Probability Measure as a Measure
of the Level of Assimilation of the Knowledge System Represented by the
Semantic Network
Here we construct the probability measure p as a measure of the level of assimi-
lation of the knowledge system represented by the semantic network
ffF1 ; . . .; Fn g; ; ^; _; e; 0; 1g.
5.5.2 Homomorphisms that Define Measures
Theorem 5.7 There exists a measure l on the closure of a finite semantic network
B ¼ hhF1 ; . . .; Fn i; ^; _; e ; 0; 1i which is not a homomorphism of the finite semi-
group F; [ into the semigroup R þ [ f1g [ f0g=Z þ [ f1g [ f0g:
The proof follows from the fact that lðA [ BÞ 6¼ lð AÞ þ lðBÞ, if A \ B 6¼ ;.
Theorem 5.8 Any homomorphism l : F ! R þ [ f1g [ f0g=Z þ [ f1g [ f0g
of the closure of a finite semantic network is a measure on the closure of a finite
semantic network.
Remark Normalizing l, we get a probability measure, p ¼ lð1XÞ l; X ¼
fF1 ; . . .; Fn g—is the set of all elementary events of Boolean algebra 2fF1 ;...;Fn g .
5.5.3 Quasi-fractal Measure as a Quasi-fractal Homomorphism
Definition 5.9 Let A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 ibe a quasi-fractal algebraic system.
A quasi-fractal measure on a quasi-fractal system A1 ¼ hA1 ; X1 i is a quasi-fractal
function l : K ¼ hK; [ ; \ ; ni ¼ hA1 ; X1 i ! R þ ¼ hA1 ; X1 i defined on some
quasi-fractal ring of sets K ¼ hK; [ ; \ ; ni ¼ hA1 ; X1 i on Xk ; k is a level of a
quasi-fractal ring K ¼ hK;

[ ; \ ; ni ¼ hA1 ; X1 i and satisfying the additivity con-
dition on each level k : 8A; B 2 Kl ðA \ B ¼ ; ) lk ðA [ BÞ ¼ lk ð AÞ þ lk ðBÞÞ.
An ordered quasi-fractal triple hX; K; li ¼ hA1 ; X1 i, where l : K ! R þ is a
quasi-fractal measure, is called a measure quasi-fractal space; quasi-fractal sets from
K are called l-measurable. A quasi-fractal space with measure can also be con-
sidered as a pair hX; li ¼ hA1 ; X1 i, assuming lk -measurable sets to be already
xxvi Preface

defined and giving a ring of sets on Xk . Any measure lk : Kk :! R þ on X has the

following properties:
1. lð;Þ ¼ 0.
2. ð8A; B 2 Kk ÞðAB ) lk ð AÞ  lk ðBÞÞ (monotony of measure).
3. If Kk an algebra of sets on Xk , then lk ðXk Þ is the largest value of the measure lk .
Theorem 5.10 There exists a quasi-fractal measure l on the closure of a
quasi-fractal finite semantic network B ¼ hhF1 ; . . .; Fn i; ^; _; e ; 0; 1i which is not a
homomorphism of the finite quasi-fractal semigroup hF; [ i ¼ hA1 ; X1 i into the
quasi-fractal semigroup R þ [ f1g [ f0gnZ þ [ f1g [ f0g ¼ hA1 ; X1 i:
The proof follows from the fact that for each level k lk ðA [ BÞ 6¼ lk ð AÞ þ lk ðBÞ,
if A \ B 6¼ ;.
Theorem 5.11 Any quasi-fractal homomorphism l : F ¼ hA1 ; X1 i !
R þ [ f1g [ f0gnZ þ [ f1g [ f0g of the quasi-fractal closure of a quasi-fractal
finite semantic network is a measure on the closure of a quasi-fractal finite
semantic network.
Remark Normalizing lk on each level of a quasi-fractal, we get a probability
measure, pk ¼ lð1XÞ lk ; Xk ¼ fFk1 ; . . .; Fkn g—is the set of all elementary events of
Boolean algebra 2fFk1 ;...;Fkn g .

Chapter 6. Smart System’s Potential

Abstract. In this Chapter, we introduce the concept of parametric algebraic

potential in line with the algebraic formalization of the system.

Keywords: Potential  Algebraic formalization of the system

6.1 Introduction

In various fields of knowledge related to the humanities, such as, for example,
economics, teaching theory, control theory, analogues of physical concepts are
used, and, in particular, the concept of potential. In this Chapter, we introduce the
concept of parametric algebraic potential in line with the algebraic formalization
of the system.
Let’s remind that the potential energy (in our context is a measure of the tran-
sition of motion and interaction of systems or chaos) of a system from one form to
another is determined by the mutual position of interacting bodies or parts of the
same body, that is, of the structure of the system.
Here we shall use the notions of Borel function and Borel measure.
Preface xxvii

Definition 6.3 By the algebraization of potential energy or the potential measure

of the transition of motion and interaction or the potential property of a system, we
call the possibilities determined by the (algebraic) structure of the system.
To count the potential of a system one should construct a flat graph of the lattice
of subgroups of the group GS , then construct an analog of a distance between two
vertices of the lattice graph of subgroups of the group GS , and then use Lagrange
theorem to pull on the curve on the vertices of the lattice graph of subgroups of the
group GS .
Definition 6.4 By the algebraization of kinetic energy, or the kinetic measure of the
transition of motion and interaction, or the kinetic property of a system, we call the
strength of the system’s bonds, determined by its (algebraic) structure.

6.2 Main Construction

6.2.1 The Concept of System Potential

We need the following definitions from [Serdyukova, N.A., Serdyukov, V. I.,
Algebraic formalization of Smart Systems, Theory and Practice, Springer, Smart
Innovation, Systems and Technologies, Volume 91, 2018].
Definition 6.5 Let S be a system and GS be a group of factors that determined the
system S. The measure PC(GS ) of the system S links strength is the number of
possible different synergetic effects of the system S, that is the number of possible
different final states of the system S, which are calculated by the model GS , or,
which is the same, the number of pairwise nonisomorphic groups of order |GS |.
Definition 6.6 Let S be a system and GS be a group of factors that determined the
system S. Let ∅ 6¼ M  G. The measure PC(M) of the set M links strength is the
number of possible different synergetic effects of the system 〈G\M〉, where 〈G\M〉 is
a subgroup of the group GS , generated by the set G\M.
1. Let’s construct a flat graph of the lattice of subgroups of the group GS . We
arrange ordered pairs at the vertices of the graph ðxV ; yV Þ, where xV is a
reciprocal of the number of synergistic effects of a subgroup of a group GV ,
corresponding to vertex V, that is pcðGV Þ ¼ PCð1GV Þ, and yV is a communication
level i.e. maximum strength between GV and subgroups of the group GS ,
incident to the vertex V in the lattice of subgroups of the group GS , which is
defined as follows:
xxviii Preface

2. We now assume in Definition 6.6 one by one M ¼ GV [ GVi , where

i ¼ 1; . . .; k, select the maximum value pcðM Þ ¼ PC1ðM Þ.
x ¼ pcðGV Þ, y ¼ pcðM Þ; where M ¼ GV [ GVi ; i ¼ 1; . . .; k:
The difference x  y—analog of a distance between x и y. It can be done in
accordance with the Definition 2.2, Chap. 2.
Now from Definitions 6.5 and 6.6 from [Serdyukova, N.A., Serdyukov, V. I.,
Algebraic formalization of Smart Systems, Theory and Practice, Springer, Smart
Innovation, Systems and Technologies, Volume 91, 2018] we get
Definition 6.7 Using the Lagrange

theorem,
 we pull on the surface (curve) l in the
domain C to the points f xV; yV jV runs over the set of vertices ofthe lattice
graph of subgroups ofthe group GS g and consider the integral.

h
Z dlð yÞ
C
j x  yj
h ð yÞ
The integral R dl
jxyj will be called the algebraization of the potential of the system
C
S according to the model GS .
6.2.2 The Concept of Quasi-fractal System Potential
Now let’s introduce the concept of quasi-fractal system algebraic potential as a limit
of the algebraic potential of a system of the level k of a quasi-fractal algebraic
system at k ! 1.
Definition 6.8 Let GS ¼ hA1 ¼ A1 ; X1 i be a quasi-fractal group of factors that
determine the system S.
Let’s construct a flat graph of the lattice of subgroups at each level GSk with the
number kof a quasi-fractal GS ¼ hA1 ¼ A1 ; X1 i. We arrange ordered pairs at the
vertices of the graph ðxV ; yV Þ, where xV is a reciprocal of the number of synergistic
effects of a subgroup of a group GVk , corresponding to vertex V, that is
pcðGVk Þ ¼ PCð1GVk Þ, and yVk is a communication level i.e. maximum strength
between GV and subgroups of the group GSk incident to the vertex Vk in the lattice
of subgroups of the group GSk which is defined as follows:
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 Take of—Compound Powdered Chalk with Opium, ten grains;
Oil of Dill, five drops;
Simple Syrup, three drachms;
Water, nine drachms:

Make a Mixture.[177] Half a teaspoonful to be given to an infant of six months

and under, and one teaspoonful to a child above that age, every four hours—
first shaking the bottle.
The baby ought, for a few days, to be kept entirely to the breast.
The mother should be most particular in her own diet.
What NOT to do.—The mother must neither take greens, nor
cabbage, nor raw fruit, nor pastry, nor beer; indeed, while the
diarrhœa of her babe continues, she had better abstain from wine, as
well as from fermented liquors. The child, if at the breast, ought not,
while the diarrhœa continues, to have any artificial food. He must
neither be dosed with gray powder (a favorite but highly improper
remedy in these cases), nor with any quack medicines, such as
Dalby’s Carminative or Godfrey’s Cordial.
103. What are the symptoms of Dysentery?
Dysentery frequently arises from a neglected diarrhœa. It is more
dangerous than diarrhœa, as it is of an inflammatory character; and
as, unfortunately, it frequently attacks a delicate child, requires
skillful handling: hence the care and experience required in treating
a case of dysentery.
Well, then, what are the symptoms? The infant, in all probability,
has had an attack of diarrhœa—bowel complaint as it is called—for
several days; he having had a dozen or two of motions, many of them
slimy and frothy, like “frog-spawn,” during the twenty-four hours.
Suddenly the character of the motion changes,—from being
principally stool, it becomes almost entirely blood and mucus; he is
dreadfully griped, which causes him to strain violently, as though his
inside would come away every time he has a motion,—screaming and
twisting about, evidently being in the greatest pain, drawing his legs
up to his belly and writhing in agony. Sickness and vomiting are
always present, which still more robs him of his little remaining
strength, and prevents the repair of his system. Now, look at his face!
It is the very picture of distress. Suppose he has been a plump,
healthy little fellow, you will see his face, in a few days, become old-
looking, care-worn, haggard, and pinched. Day and night the enemy
tracks him (unless proper remedies be administered); no sleep, or, if
he sleep, he is every few minutes roused. It is heart-rending to have
to attend a bad case of dysentery in a child,—the writhing, the
screaming, the frequent vomiting, the pitiful look, the rapid wasting
and exhaustion, make it more distressing to witness than almost any
other disease a doctor attends.
104. Can anything be done to relieve such a case?
Yes. A judicious medical man will do a great deal. But, suppose
that you are not able to procure one, I will tell you what to do and
what NOT to do.
What to do.—If the child be at the breast, keep him to it, and let
him have nothing else, for dysentery is frequently caused by
improper feeding. If your milk be not good, or it be scanty, instantly
procure a healthy wet-nurse. Lose not a moment; for in dysentery
moments are precious. But, suppose that you have no milk, and that
no wet-nurse can be procured: what then? Feed him entirely on
cow’s milk—the milk of one healthy cow; let the milk be unboiled,
and be fresh from the cow. Give it in small quantities at a time, and
frequently, so that it may be retained on the stomach. If a
tablespoonful of the milk make him sick, give him a dessertspoonful;
if a dessertspoonful cause sickness, let him only have a teaspoonful
at a time, and let it be repeated every quarter of an hour. But
remember, in such a case the breast-milk—the breast milk alone—is
incomparably superior to any other milk or to any other food
whatever.
If he be a year old and weaned, then feed him, as above
recommended, on the cow’s milk. If there be extreme exhaustion and
debility, let fifteen drops of brandy be added to each tablespoonful of
new milk, and let it be given every half hour.
Now with regard to medicine. I approach this part of the treatment
with some degree of reluctance—for dysentery is a case requiring
opium, and opium I never like a mother of her own accord to
administer. But suppose a medical man cannot be procured in time,
the mother must then prescribe or the child will die! What then is to
be done? Sir Charles Locock considers “that in severe dysentery,
especially where there is sickness, there is no remedy equal to pure
calomel, in a full dose, without opium.”[178] Therefore, at the very
onset of the disease, let from three to five grains (according to the
age of the patient) of calomel, mixed with an equal quantity of
powdered white sugar, be put dry on the tongue. In three hours after
let the following mixture be administered:
Take of—Compound Ipecacuanha Powder, five grains;
Ipecacuanha Wine, half a drachm;
Simple Syrup, three drachms;
Cinnamon Water, nine drachms:

To make a Mixture.[179] A teaspoonful to be given every three or four hours, first

well shaking the bottle.
Supposing he cannot retain the mixture—the stomach rejecting it
as soon as swallowed—what then? Give the opium, mixed with small
doses of mercury with chalk and sugar, in the form of powder, and
put one of the powders dry on the tongue every three hours:
Take of—Powdered Opium, half a grain;
Mercury with Chalk, nine grains;
Sugar of Milk, twenty-four grains:

Mix well in a mortar, and divide into twelve powders.

Now, suppose the dysentery has for several days persisted, and
that, during that time, nothing but mucus and blood—that no real
stool—has come from the bowels, then a combination of castor oil
and opium[180] ought, instead of the medicine recommended above,
to be given.
Take of—Mixture of Acacia, three drachms;
Simple Syrup, three drachms;
Tincture of Opium, ten drops (not minims);
Castor Oil, two drachms;
Cinnamon Water, four drachms:

Make a Mixture. A teaspoonful to be taken every four hours, first well shaking
the bottle.
A warm bath, at the commencement of the disease, is very
efficacious; but it must be given at the commencement. If he has had
dysentery for a day or two, he will be too weak to have a warm bath;
then, instead of the bath, try the following: Wrap him in a blanket
which has been previously wrung out of hot water, over which
envelop him in a dry blanket. Keep him in this hot, damp blanket for
half an hour; then take him out, put on his night-gown and place him
in bed, which has been, if it be winter time, previously warmed. The
above “blanket treatment” will frequently give great relief, and will
sometimes cause him to fall into a sweet sleep. A flannel bag filled
with hot powdered table salt, made hot in the oven, applied to the
bowels, will afford much comfort.
What NOT to do.—Do not give aperients, unless it be, as before
advised, the castor oil guarded with the opium; do not stuff him with
artificial food; do not fail to send for a judicious and an experienced
medical man; for, remember, it requires a skillful doctor to treat a
case of dysentery, more especially in a child.
105. What are the symptoms, the causes, and the treatment of
Nettle-rash?
Nettle-rash consists of several irregular raised wheals, red at the
base and white on the summit, on different parts of the body; but it
seldom attacks the face. It is not contagious, and it may occur at all
ages and many times. It comes and goes, remaining only a short time
in a place. It puts on very much the appearance of the child having
been stung by nettles—hence its name. It produces great heat,
itching, and irritation, sometimes to such a degree as to make him
feverish, sick, and fretful. He is generally worse when he is warm in
bed, or when the surface of his body is suddenly exposed to the air.
Rubbing the skin, too, always aggravates the itching and the tingling,
and brings out a fresh crop.
The cause of nettle-rash may commonly be traced to improper
feeding; although, occasionally, it proceeds from teething.
What to do.—It is a complaint of no danger, and readily gives way
to a mild aperient, and to attention to diet. There is nothing better to
relieve the irritation of the skin than a warm bath. If it be a severe
attack of nettle-rash, by all means call in a medical man.
What NOT to do.—Do not apply cold applications to his skin, and
do not wash him (while the rash is out) in quite cold water. Do not
allow him to be in a draught, but let him be in a well-ventilated
room. If he be old enough to eat meat, keep it from him for a few
days, and let him live on milk and farinaceous diet. Avoid strong
purgatives, and calomel, and gray powder.
 106. What are the symptoms and the treatment of Red-gum?
Red-gum, tooth-rash, red-gown, is usually owing to irritation from
teething; not always from the cutting, but from the evolution, the
“breeding,” of the teeth. It is also sometimes owing to unhealthy
stools irritating the bowels, and showing itself, by sympathy, on the
skin. Red-gum consists of several small papulæ, or pimples, about
the size of pins’ heads, and may be known from measles—the only
disease for which it is at all likely to be mistaken—by its being
unattended by symptoms of cold, such as sneezing, running, and
redness of the eyes, etc., and by the patches not assuming a
crescentic, half-moon shape; red-gum, in short, may readily be
known by the child’s health being unaffected, unless, indeed, there
be a great crop of pimples; then there will be slight feverishness.
What to do.—Little need be done. If there be a good deal of
irritation, a mild aperient should be given. The child ought to be kept
moderately but not very warm.
What NOT to do.—Draughts of air, or cold, should be carefully
avoided; as, by sending the eruption suddenly in, either convulsions
or disordered bowels might be produced. Do not dose him with gray
powder.
107. How would you prevent “Stuffing of the nose” in a new-born
babe?
Rubbing a little tallow on the bridge of the nose is the old-
fashioned remedy, and answers the purpose. It ought to be applied
every evening just before putting him to bed.
If the “stuffing” be severe, dip a sponge in hot water, as hot as he
can comfortably bear; ascertain that it be not too hot, by previously
applying it to your own face, and then put it for a few minutes to the
bridge of his nose. As soon as the hard mucus is within reach, it
should be carefully removed.
108. Do you consider sickness injurious to an infant?
Many thriving babies are, after taking the breast, frequently sick;
still we cannot look upon sickness otherwise than as an index of
either a disordered or of an overloaded stomach. If the child be sick,
and yet be thriving, it is a proof that he overloads his stomach. A
mother, then, must not allow him to suck so much at a time. She
should, until he retains all he takes, lessen the quantity of milk. If he
be sick and does not thrive, the mother should notice if the milk he
throws up has a sour smell; if it has, she must first of all look to her
own health; she ought to ascertain if her own stomach be out of
order; for if such be the case, it is impossible for her to make good
milk. She should observe whether, in the morning, her own tongue
be furred and dry; whether she have a disagreeable taste in her
mouth, or pains at her stomach, or heartburn, or flatulence. If she
have all, or any of these symptoms, the mystery is explained why he
is sick and does not thrive. She ought then to seek advice, and a
medical man will soon put her stomach into good order; and, by so
doing, will, at the same time, benefit the child.
But if the mother be in the enjoyment of good health, she must
then look to the babe herself, and ascertain if he be cutting his teeth;
if the gums require lancing; if the secretions from the bowels be
proper both in quantity and in quality; and, if he have had artificial
food—it being absolutely necessary to give such food—whether it
agree with him.
What to do.—In the first place, if the gums are red, hot, and
swollen, let them be lanced; in the second, if the secretions from the
bowels are either unhealthy or scanty, give him a dose of aperient
medicine, such as castor oil, or the following: Take two or three
grains of powdered Turkey rhubarb, three grains of pure carbonate
of magnesia, and one grain of aromatic powder. Mix. The powder to
be taken at bedtime, mixed in a teaspoonful of sugar and water, and
which should, if necessary, be repeated the following night. In the
third place, if the food he be taking does not agree with him, change
it (vide answer to question 33). Give it in smaller quantities at a time,
and not so frequently; or, what will be better still, if it be possible,
keep him, for awhile, entirely to the breast.
What NOT to do.—Do not let him overload his stomach either with
breast-milk or with artificial food. Let the mother avoid, until his
sickness be relieved, greens, cabbage, and all other green vegetables.
109. What are the causes, the symptoms, the prevention, and the
cure of Thrush?
The thrush is a frequent disease of an infant, and is often brought
on either by stuffing him or by giving him improper food. A child
brought up entirely, for the first three or four months, on the breast,
seldom suffers from this complaint. The thrush consists of several
irregular, roundish, white specks on the lips, the tongue, the inside
and the angles of the mouth, giving the parts affected the appearance
of curds and whey having been smeared upon them. The mouth is
hot and painful, and he is afraid to suck: the moment the nipple is
put into his mouth he begins to cry. The thrush sometimes, although
but rarely, runs through the whole of the alimentary canal. It should
be borne in mind that nearly every child who is sucking has his or
her tongue white or “frosted” as it is sometimes called. The thrush
may be mild or very severe.
Now with regard to What to do.—As the thrush is generally owing
to improper and to artificial feeding, if the child be at the breast,
keep him, for a time, entirely to it. Do not let him be always sucking,
as that will not only fret his mouth, but will likewise irritate and
make sore the mother’s nipple.
If he be not at the breast, but has been weaned, then keep him for
a few days entirely to a milk diet—to the milk of ONE cow—either
boiled, if it be hot weather, to keep it sweet; or unboiled, in cool
weather—fresh as it comes from the cow.
The best medicine is the old-fashioned one of borax, a
combination of powdered lump sugar and borax being a good one for
the purpose: the powdered lump sugar increases the efficacy and the
cleansing properties of the borax; it tends, moreover, to make it more
palatable:
Take of—Biborate of Soda, half a drachm;
Lump sugar, two scruples:

To be well mixed together, and made into twelve powders. One of the powders to
be put dry on the tongue every four hours.
The best local remedy is honey of borax, which ought to be
smeared frequently, by means of the finger, on the parts affected.
Thorough ventilation of the apartment must be observed; and
great cleanliness of the vessels containing the milk should be insisted
upon.
In a bad case of thrush, change of air to the country is most
desirable; the effect is sometimes, in such cases, truly magical.
If the thrush be brought on either by too much or by improper
food, in the first case, of course, a mother must lessen the quantity;
and, in the second, she should be more careful in her selection.
What NOT to do.—Do not use either a calf’s teat or wash-leather for
the feeding-bottle; fortunately, since the invention of india-rubber
teats, they are now nearly exploded; they were, in olden times,
fruitful causes of thrush. Do not mind the trouble of ascertaining that
the cooking-vessels connected with the baby’s food are perfectly
clean and sweet. Do not leave the purity and the goodness of the
cow’s milk (it being absolutely necessary to feed him on artificial
food) to be judged either by the milkman or by the nurse, but taste
and prove it yourself. Do not keep the milk in a warm place, but
either in the dairy or in the cellar; and, if it be summer time, let the
jug holding the milk be put in a crock containing lumps of ice. Do not
use milk that has been milked longer than twelve hours, but, if
practicable, have it milked direct from the cow, and use it
immediately—let it be really and truly fresh and genuine milk.
When the disease is severe, it may require more active treatment—
such as a dose of calomel; which medicine must never be given,
unless it be either under the direction of a medical man, or unless it
be in an extreme case,—such as dysentery;[181] therefore, the mother
had better seek advice.
In a severe case of thrush, where the complaint has been brought
on by artificial feeding—the babe not having the advantage of the
mother’s milk—it is really surprising how rapidly a wet-nurse—if the
case has not been too long deferred—will effect a cure, where all
other means have been tried and have failed. The effect has been
truly magical! In a severe case of thrush, pure air and thorough
ventilation are essential to recovery.
110. Is anything to be learned from the cry of an infant?
There is a language in the cry of an infant which a thoughtful
medical man can well interpret. The cry of hunger, for instance, is
very characteristic,—it is unaccompanied with tears, and is a wailing
cry; the cry of teething, is a fretful cry; the cry of earache is short,
sharp, piercing, and decisive, the head being moved about from side
to side, and the little hand being often put up to the affected side of
the head; the cry of bowelache is also expressive,—the cry is not so
piercing as from earache, and is an interrupted, straining cry,
accompanied with a drawing up of the legs to the belly; the cry of
bronchitis is a gruff and phlegmatic cry; the cry of inflammation of
the lungs is more a moan than a cry; the cry of croup is hoarse, and
rough, and ringing, and is so characteristic that it may truly be called
“the croupy cry,” moreover, he breathes as though he breathed
through muslin; the cry of inflammation of the membranes of the
brain is a piercing shriek—a danger signal—most painful to hear; the
cry of a child recovering from a severe illness is a cross, and
wayward, and tearful cry; he may truly be said to be in a quarrelsome
mood; he bursts out without rhyme or reason into a passionate flood
of tears; tears are always, in a severe illness, to be looked upon as a
good omen, as a sign of amendment: tears, when a child is
dangerously ill, are rarely if ever seen; a cry at night, for light—a
frequent cause of a babe crying—is a restless cry:
“An infant crying in the night:
An infant crying for the light:
And with no language but a cry.”[182]

111. If an infant be delicate, have you any objection to his having

either veal or mutton broth to strengthen him?
Broths seldom agree with a babe at the breast. I have known them
produce sickness, disorder the bowels, and create fever. I
recommend you, therefore, not to make the attempt.
Although broth and beef-tea, when taken by the mouth, will
seldom agree with an infant at the breast, yet, when used as an
enema, and in small quantities, so that they may be retained, I have
frequently found them to be of great benefit: they have, in some
instances, appeared to have snatched delicate children from the
brink of the grave.
112. My babe’s ankles are very weak: what do you advise to
strengthen them?
If his ankles be weak, let them every morning be bathed, after the
completion of his morning’s ablution, for five minutes each time,
with bay salt and water, a small handful of bay salt dissolved in a
quart of rain water (with the chill of the water taken off in the winter,
and of its proper temperature in the summer time); then let them be
dried; after the drying, let the ankles be well rubbed with the
following liniment:
Take of—Oil of Rosemary, three drachms;
 Liniment of Camphor, thirteen drachms:

To make a Liniment.
Do not let him be put on his feet early; but allow him to crawl, and
sprawl, and kick about the floor, until his ankles become strong.
Do not, on any account, without having competent advice on the
subject, use iron instruments or mechanical supports of any kind:
the ankles are generally, by such artificial supports, made worse, in
consequence of the pressure causing a further dwindling away and
enfeebling of the ligaments of the ankles, already wasted and
weakened.
Let him wear shoes, with straps over the insteps to keep them on,
and not boots: boots will only, by wasting the ligaments, increase the
weakness of the ankles.
113. Sometimes there is a difficulty in restraining the bleeding of
leech-bites. What is the best method?
The difficulty in these cases generally arises from the improper
method of performing it. For example—a mother endeavors to stop
the hemorrhage by loading the part with rag; the more the bites
discharge, the more rag she applies. At the same time, the child
probably is in a room with a large fire, with two or three candles,
with the doors closed, and with perhaps a dozen people in the
apartment, whom the mother has, in her fright, sent for. This
practice is strongly reprehensible.
If the bleeding cannot be stopped,—in the first place, the fire must
be extinguished, the door and windows should be thrown open, and
the room ought to be cleared of persons, with the exception of one,
or, at the most, two; and every rag should be removed. “Stopping of
leech-bites.—The simplest and most certain way, till the proper
assistance is obtained, is the pressure of the finger, with nothing
intervening. It cannot bleed through that.”[183]
Many babies have lost their lives by excessive loss of blood from
leech-bites, from a mother not knowing how to act, and also from the
medical man either living at a distance, or not being at hand.
Fortunately for the infantile community, leeches are now very
seldom ordered by doctors.
 114. Supposing a baby to be poorly, have you any advice to give
to his mother as to her own management?
She must endeavor to calm her feelings, or her milk will be
disordered, and she will thus materially increase his illness. If he be
laboring under any inflammatory disorder, she ought to refrain from
the taking of beer, wine, and spirits, and from all stimulating food;
otherwise, she will feed his disease.
Before concluding the first part of my subject—the Management of
Infancy—let me again urge upon you the importance—the
paramount importance—if you wish your babe to be strong and
hearty,—of giving him as little opening physic as possible. The best
physic for him is Nature’s physic—fresh air and exercise and
simplicity of living. A mother who is herself always drugging her
child, can only do good to two persons—the doctor and the druggist!
If an infant from his birth be properly managed,—if he has an
abundance of fresh air for his lungs,—if he has plenty of exercise for
his muscles (by allowing him to kick and sprawl on the floor),—if he
has a good swilling and sousing of water for his skin,—if, during the
early months of his life, he has nothing but the mother’s milk for his
stomach,—he will require very little medicine—the less the better! He
does not want his stomach to be made into a doctor’s shop! The
grand thing is not to take every opportunity of administering physic,
but of using every means of withholding it! And if physic be
necessary, not to doctor him yourself, unless it be in extreme and
urgent cases (which in preceding and succeeding Conversations I
either have or will indicate), but to employ an experienced medical
man. A babe who is always, without rhyme or reason, being
physicked, is sure to be puny, delicate, and unhealthy, and is ready,
at any moment, to drop into an untimely grave!

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON INFANCY.

115. In concluding the first part of our subject—Infancy—I beg to

remark. There are four things essentially necessary to an infant’s
well-doing, namely, (1) plenty of water for the skin; (2) plenty of milk
for the stomach; (3) plenty of fresh air for the lungs; (4) plenty of
sleep for the brain: these are the four grand essentials for a babe;
without an abundance of each and all of them, perfect health is
utterly impossible!
 PART II.
CHILDHOOD.

Household treasures! household treasures!

Are they jewels rich and rare;
Or gems of rarest workmanship;
Or gold and silver ware?
Ask the mother as she gazes
On her little ones at play:
Household treasures! household treasures!
Happy children—ye are they.
J. E. Carpenter.

ABLUTION.

116. At twelve months old, do you still recommend a child to be

PUT IN HIS TUB to be washed?
Certainly I do, as I have previously recommended at page 16, in
order that his skin may be well and thoroughly cleansed. If it be
summer time, the water should be used cold; if it be winter, a dash of
warm must be added, so that it may be of the temperature of new
milk; but do not, on any account, use very warm water. The head
must be washed (but not dried) before he be placed in his tub; then,
putting him in the tub (containing the necessary quantity of water,
and washing him as previously recommended),[184] a large sponge
should be filled with the water and squeezed over the head, so that
the water may stream over the whole surface of the body. A jugful of
cold water should, just before taking him out of his bath, be poured
over and down his loins; all this ought rapidly to be done, and he
must be quickly dried with soft towels, and then expeditiously
dressed. For the washing of your child I would recommend you to
use Castile soap in preference to any other: it is more pure, and less
irritating, and hence does not injure the texture of the skin. Take care
that the soap does not get into his eyes, or it might produce irritation
and smarting.
117. Some mothers object to a child’s STANDING in the water.
If the head be wetted before he be placed in the tub, and if he be
washed as above directed, there can be no valid objection to it. He
must not be allowed to remain in the tub more than five minutes.
118. Does not washing the child’s head, every morning, make him
more liable to catch cold, and does it not tend to weaken his sight?
It does neither the one nor the other; on the contrary, it prevents
cold, and strengthens the sight; it cleanses the scalp, prevents scurf,
and, by that means, causes a more beautiful head of hair. The head,
after each washing, ought to be well brushed with a soft brush, but
should not be combed. The brushing causes a healthy circulation of
the scalp.
119. If the head, notwithstanding the washing, be scurfy, what
should be done?
After the head has been well dried, let a little cocoanut oil be well
rubbed, for five minutes each time, into the roots of the hair, and,
afterward, let the head be well brushed, but not combed. The fine-
tooth comb will cause a greater accumulation of scurf, and will
scratch and injure the scalp.
120. Do you recommend a child to be washed IN HIS TUB every
night and morning?
No; once a day is quite sufficient; in the morning in preference to
the evening; unless he be poorly, then, evening instead of morning;
as, immediately after he has been washed and dried, he can be put to
bed.
121. Ought a child to be placed in his tub while he is in a state of
perspiration?
Not while he is perspiring violently, or the perspiration might be
checked suddenly, and ill consequences would ensue; nor ought he
to be put in his tub when he is cold, or his blood would be chilled,
and would be sent from the skin to some internal vital part, and thus
would be likely to light up inflammation—probably of the lungs. His
skin, when he is placed in his bath, ought to be moderately and
comfortably warm; neither too hot nor too cold.
 122. When the child is a year old, do you recommend cold or
warm water to be used?
If it be winter, a little warm water ought to be added, so as to raise
the temperature to that of new milk. As the summer advances, less
and less warm water is required, so that, at length, none is needed.
123. If a child be delicate, do you recommend anything to be
added to the water which may tend to brace and strengthen him?
Either a handful of table salt or half a handful of bay salt should be
previously dissolved in a quart jug—of cold water; then, just before
taking the child out of his morning bath, let the above be poured over
and down the back and loins of the child—holding the jug, while
pouring its contents on the back, twelve inches from the child, in
order that it might act as a kind of douche bath.
124. Do you recommend the child, after he has been dried with the
towel, to be rubbed with the hand?
I do; as friction encourages the cutaneous circulation, and causes
the skin to perform its functions properly, thus preventing the
perspiration (which is one of the impurities of the body) from being
sent inwardly either to the lungs or to other parts. The back, the
chest, the bowels, and the limbs are the parts that ought to be well
rubbed.

CLOTHING.

125. Have you any remarks to make on the clothing of a child?

Children—boys and girls—especially if they be delicate, ought
always to wear high dresses up to their necks. The exposure of the
upper part of the chest (if the child be weakly) is dangerous. It is in
the upper part of the lungs, in the region of the collar bones, that
consumption first shows itself. The clothing of a child, more
especially about the chest, should be large and full in every part, and
be free from tight strings, so that the circulation of the blood may not
be impeded, and that there may be plenty of room for the full
development of the rapidly growing body.
His frock or tunic ought to be of woolen material—warm, light, and
porous, in order that the perspiration may rapidly evaporate. The
practice of some mothers in allowing their children to wear tight
bands round their waists, and tight clothes, is truly reprehensible.
Tight bands or tight belts around the waist of a child are very
injurious to health; they crib in the chest, and thus interfere with the
rising and the falling of the ribs—so essential to breathing. Tight hats
ought never to be worn; by interfering with the circulation they cause
headaches. Nature delights in freedom, and resents interference!
126. What parts of the body in particular ought to be kept warm?
The chest, the bowels, and the feet should be kept comfortably
warm. We must guard against an opposite extreme, and not keep
them too hot. The head alone should be kept cool, on which account I
do not approve either of night or of day caps.
127. What are the best kinds of hat for a child?
The best covering for the head, when he is out and about, is a
loose-fitting straw hat, which will allow the perspiration to escape. It
should have a broad brim, to screen the eyes. A sunshade, that is to
say, a sea-side hat—a hat made of cotton, with a wide brim to keep
off the sun—is also an excellent hat for a child; it is very light, and
allows a free escape of the perspiration. It can be bought, ready
made, at a baby-linen warehouse.
A knitted or crocheted woolen hat, with woolen rosettes to keep
the ears warm, and which may be procured at any baby-linen
warehouse, makes a nice and comfortable winter’s hat for a child. It
is also a good hat for him to wear while performing a long journey.
The color chosen is generally scarlet and white, which, in cold
weather, gives it a warm and comfortable appearance.
It is an abominable practice to cover a child’s head either with
beaver or with felt, or with any thick, impervious material. It is a
well-ascertained fact, that both beaver and silk hats cause men to
suffer from headache, and to lose their hair—the reason being that
the perspiration cannot possibly escape through them. Now, if the
perspiration cannot escape, dangerous, or at all events injurious,
consequences must ensue, as it is well known that the skin is a
breathing apparatus, and that it will not with impunity bear
interference.
Neither a child nor any one else should be permitted to be in the
glare of the sun without his hat. If he be allowed, he is likely to have a
sun-stroke, which might either at once kill him, or might make him
an idiot for the remainder of his life, which latter would be the worse
alternative of the two.
128. Have you any remarks to make on keeping a child’s hands
and legs warm when, in the winter time, he is carried out?
When a child either walks or is carried out in wintry weather, be
sure and see that both his hands and legs are well protected from the
cold. There is nothing for this purpose like woolen gloves, and
woolen stockings coming up over the knees.
129. Do you approve of a child wearing a flannel night-gown?
He frequently throws the clothes off him, and has occasion to be
taken up in the night, and if he has not a flannel gown on is likely to
catch cold; on which account I recommend it to be worn. The usual
calico night-gown should be worn under it.
130. Do you advise a child to be LIGHTLY clad, in order that he may
be hardened thereby?
I should fear that such a plan, instead of hardening, would be
likely to produce a contrary effect. It is an ascertained fact that more
children of the poor, who are thus lightly clad, die, than of those who
are properly defended from the cold. Again, what holds good with a
young plant is equally applicable to a young child; and we all know
that it is ridiculous to think of unnecessarily exposing a tender plant
to harden it. If it were thus exposed, it would wither and die!
131. If a child be delicate, if he has a cold body or a languid
circulation, or if he be predisposed to inflammation of the lungs, do
you approve of his wearing flannel instead of linen shirts?
I do; as flannel tends to keep the body at an equal temperature,
thus obviating the effects of the sudden changes of the weather, and
promotes, by gentle friction, the cutaneous circulation, thus warming
the cold body, and giving an impetus to the languid circulation, and
preventing an undue quantity of blood from being sent to the lungs,
either to light up or to feed inflammation. Fine flannel, of course,
ought to be worn, which should be changed as frequently as the usual
shirts.
If a child has had an attack either of bronchitis or of inflammation
of the lungs, or if he has just recovered from scarlet fever, by all
means, if he has not previously worn flannel, instantly let him begin
to do so, and let him, next to the skin, wear a flannel waistcoat. This
is important advice, and ought not to be disregarded.
Scarlet flannel is now much used instead of white flannel; and as
scarlet flannel has a more comfortable appearance, and does not
shrink so much in washing, it may for the white be substituted.
132. Have you any remarks to make on the shoes and stockings of
a child? and on the right way of cutting the toe-nails?
He ought, during the winter, to wear lambs’ wool stockings that
will reach above the knees, and thick calico drawers that will reach a
few inches below the knees; as it is of the utmost importance to keep
the lower extremities comfortably warm. It is really painful to see
how many mothers expose the bare legs of their little ones to the
frosty air, even in the depths of winter. “Tender little children are
exposed to the bitterest weather, with their legs bared in a manner
that would inevitably injure the health of strong adults.”[185]
Garters ought not to be worn, as they impede the circulation, waste
the muscles, and interfere with walking. The stocking may be secured
in its place by means of a loop and tape, which should be fastened to
a part of the dress.
Let me urge upon you the importance of not allowing your child to
wear tight shoes; they cripple the feet, causing the joints of the toes,
which ought to have free play, and which should assist in walking, to
be, in a manner, useless; they produce corns and bunions, and
interfere with the proper circulation of the foot. A shoe ought to be
made according to the shape of the foot—rights and lefts are
therefore desirable. The toe-part of the shoe must be made broad, so
as to allow plenty of room for the toes to expand, and that one toe
cannot overlap another. Be sure, then, that there be no pinching and
no pressure. In the article of shoes you ought to be particular and
liberal; pay attention to having nicely fitting ones, and let them be
made of soft leather, and throw them on one side the moment they
are too small. It is poor economy, indeed, because a pair of shoes be
not worn out, to run the risk of incurring the above evil
consequences.
Shoes are far preferable to boots; boots weaken instead of
strengthen the ankle. The ankle and instep require free play, and
ought not to be hampered by boots. Moreover, boots, by undue
pressure, decidedly waste away the ligaments of the ankle. Boots act
on the ankles in a similar way that stays do on the waist—they do
mischief by pressure. Boots waste away the ligaments of the ankle;
stays waste away the muscles of the back and chest: and thus, in both
cases, do irreparable mischief.
A shoe for a child ought to be made with a narrow strap over the
instep, and with button and button-hole: if it be not made in this
way, the shoe will not keep on the foot.
It is a grievous state of things that in this nineteenth century there
are very few shoemakers in England who know how to make a shoe!
The shoe is made not to fit the real foot, but a fashionable imaginary
one!
Let me strongly urge you to be particular that the sock or stocking
fits nicely—that it is neither too small nor too large; if it be too small,
it binds up the toes unmercifully, and makes one toe to ride over the
other, and thus renders the toes perfectly useless in walking; if it be
too large, it is necessary to lap a portion of the sock or stocking either
under or over the toes, which thus presses unduly upon them, and
gives pain and annoyance. It should be borne in mind that if the toes
have full play, they, as it were, grasp the ground, and greatly assist in
locomotion—which, of course, if they are cramped up, they cannot
possibly do. Be careful too, that the toe-part of the sock or stocking
be not pointed; let it be made square, in order to give room to the
toes. “At this helpless period of life the delicately feeble,
outspreading toes, are wedged into a narrow-toed stocking, often so
short as to double in the toes, diminishing the length of the rapidly-
growing foot! It is next, perhaps, tightly laced into a boot of less
interior dimensions than itself; when the poor little creature is left to
sprawl about with a limping, stumping gait, thus learning to walk as
it best can, under circumstances the most cruel and torturing
imaginable.”[186]
It is impossible for either a stocking or a shoe to fit nicely, unless
the toe-nails be kept in proper order. Now, in cutting the toe-nails
there is, as in everything else, a right and a wrong way. The right way
of cutting a toe-nail is to cut it straight—in a straight line. The wrong
way is to cut the corners of the nail—to round the nail, as it is called.
This cutting the corners of the nails often makes work for the
surgeon, as I myself can testify; it frequently produces “growing-in”
of the nail, which sometimes necessitates the removal of either the
nail or of a portion of it.
133. At what time of the year should a child leave off his winter
clothing?
A mother ought not to leave off her children’s winter clothing until
the spring be far advanced: it is far better to be on the safe side, and
to allow the winter clothes to be worn until the end of May. The old
adage is very good, and should be borne in mind:
“Button to chin
Till May be in;
Ne’er cast a clout
Till May be out.”

134. Have you any general remarks to make on the present

fashion of dressing children?
The present fashion is absurd. Children are frequently dressed like
mountebanks, with feathers and furbelows and finery: the boys go
bare-legged; the little girls are dressed like women, with their stuck-
out petticoats, crinolines, and low dresses! Their poor little waists are
drawn in tight, so that they can scarcely breathe; their dresses are
very low and short, the consequence is, that a great part of the chest
is exposed to our variable climate; their legs are bare down to their
thin socks, or, if they be clothed, they are only covered with gossamer
drawers; while their feet are incased in tight shoes of paper
thickness! Dress! dress! dress! is made with them at a tender age,
and, when first impressions are the strongest, a most important
consideration. They are thus rendered vain and frivolous, and are
taught to consider dress “as the one thing needful.” And if they live to
be women—which the present fashion is likely frequently to prevent
—what are they? Silly, simpering, delicate, lackadaisical nonentities,
—dress being their amusement, their occupation, their conversation,
their everything, their thoughts by day and their dreams by night!
Let children be dressed as children, not as men and women. Let
them be taught that dress is quite a secondary consideration. Let
health, and not fashion, be the first, and we shall have, with God’s
blessing, blooming children, who will, in time, be the pride and
strength of dear old England! Oh that the time may come, and may
not be far distant, “That our sons may grow up as the young plants,