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INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON VOTING BEHAVIOR OF BENIN RESIDENTS

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INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

BENIN RESIDENTS
BY
AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE MAT NO: ART1801664
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN BENIN CITY, NIGERIA
INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

BENIN RESIDENTS
AUGUST, 2023.
1
BY
AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE ART1801664
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, FACULTY OF ARTS,

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, BENIN
CITY, NIGERIA.
INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

BENIN RESIDENTS
BY
AUGUST, 2023.
2
AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE ART1801664
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS

COMINCATION, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, BENIN CITY, IN PARTIAL
FULIFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (B.A)
DEGREE IN MASS COMINCATION.
AUGUST, 2023.
3
DECLARATION
I, AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE declare that this work entitled
INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING
BEHAVIOR OF BENIN RESIDENTS was written by me and is as a result of my
research effort under the supervision of PROF. Ezekiel Asemah. I further wish to
declare that to the best of my knowledge and belief, this work has not been
previously presented in any form whatsoever for any application for a Bachelor of
Arts (B.A) degree in Mass Communication or the award of any other degree
elsewhere.
__________________________________ AKPODE, THERESA

OGHENERIONDE ART1801664
4
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research work was carried out by AKPODE
THERESA OGHENERIONDE in the department of Mass Communication,
Faculty of Arts, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria under the
supervision of PROF. E.S. Asemah.
__________________________ __________________________
Prof. E.S. Asemah Date
Project Supervisor
__________________________ __________________________
Dr. D.O. Ekhareafo Date
Head of Department
5
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty God for His grace and mercy
upon my life, also my parents (Mr. and Mrs. Christopher Akpode), My brothers
Joseph Akpode, Emmanuel Akpode and my heavenly brother Raymond Akpode
(may your gentle soul continue to rest in heaven) for supporting me financially and
emotionally throughout the course of this project and my friend Nwabueze
Excellent for her support.
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My profound gratitude goes to God for His provision, protection, support and
innumerable mercies received. He gave me the inspiration, courage and
determination in the pursuance and completion of this project work.
I am grateful to my project supervisor Prof E. S. Asemah for his time and
expertise in correcting my project work which in turn made me work harder and
brought out the best in my research work I also appreciate his patience, words of
encouragement, commendation and his fatherly advice; may the mercies of God
never depart from his life and family and may God bless and richly reward him.
My deep appreciation also goes to all those who contributed immensely to my
knowledge in the department of Mass Communication. I cannot forget the
knowledge impacted by all my Lecturers like Dr. F.P Olise, Dr. E.C. Obaje, Dr.
Daniel Ekhareafor the Head of Department, Prof. Ambrose Uchenunu, Dr.
Chukwunonso Nnabuife, Mr. Sunday Ekerikevwe among a host of others. To the
wonderful non-academic staffs in the department who work hard to ensure the
department runs smoothly I appreciate your effort.
7
I cannot forget the financial support and assistance from my beloved Parents
Mr. and Mrs. Christopher Akpode, and my siblings, your moral support and
encouragement was indeed a boost to the completion of this research work.
My course mates and close friends made my time in the University of Benin
Memorable, among them are; Awa Ezinne, Nze Esther, Unuafe Sonia, Nwabueze
Excellent and many others. You guys are the very best and I hope our friendship
doesn’t end after University.
Finally my special appreciate goes to my siblings Akpode Joseph, Blessing
and Emmanuel Akpode for their kindness and financial support. May God reward
you all for your kindness and prayers.
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -i
Declaration -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -ii
Certification - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -iii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -iv
Acknowledgements- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v
Table of Contents- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -vii
Abstract- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - - - - -1
1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - - - -4
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - -5
1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - - - - - - - -6
1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - - - -6
1.6 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - -7
1.7 Operational definitions of Terms - - - - - - - -

- -7 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
9
2.1 Historical Review- - - - - - - - - - - - 10
2..1.1 History of political campaigns in Nigeria - - - - - - - 10
2.2 Conceptual Review - - - - - - - - - - - - 12
2.2.1 Understanding Voting Behaviour - - - - - - - - - 12
2.2.2 Understanding Political Campaigns - - - - - - - - 13
2.3 Opinion Review - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
2.3.1 Relationship between the Mass Media and Political Campaign - - 14
2.3.2 Factors that influence voting behaviour - - - - - - - -20
2.4. Empirical Studies - - - - - - - - - - - - -21
2.5 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - - - - - -34
2.5.1 Social Judgement/Involvement Theory - - - - - - - -35
2.5.2. Yale’s Persuasive Theory - - - - - - - - - - -37
2.6. Summary of the Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - -38
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Preamble
3.1. Research Design - - - - - - - - - - - - -41

3.2. Population of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - -42
10
3.3. Sample Size - - - - - - - - - - - - - -42
3.4. Sampling Technique - - - - - - - - - - - -43
3.5. Research Instrument - - - - - - - - - - - -44
3.6. Validity of the Instrument - - - - - - - - - - -44
3.7. Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - - - - - -45
3.8. Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - - - -45
3.9. Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - - - -46
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Preamble
4.1. Data Presentation and Analysis - - - - - - - - - -47
4.2. Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - - - - -55

4.2.1. Research Question 1: What is the Level of Exposure of Benin Residents to
Political Campaigns - - - - - - -
- -55
4.2.2. Research Question 2: Through which Channels are Benin Residents

Exposed to Political Campaigns - - - - - - - - - -57
4.2.3. Research Question 3: To what Extent Does Political Campaign

Influence the Voting Behaviour of Benin Residents - - - - - - -58
4.2.4. Research question 4: What Kind of Influence does Political Campaign

have on Benin Residents -- - - - - - - - - - -60
11
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Summary- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -62
5.2. Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -63
5.3. Recommendations - - - - - - - - - - - - -64
5.4. Suggestions - - - - - - - - - - - - - -65
5.5. Contribution to Knowledge - - - - - - - - - - -66
5.6. Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - -67
References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -68
Appendix - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - -71 ABSTRACT
This research focuses on “The Influence of Political Campaign on the Voting

Behaviour of Benin Residents”. This research anchored on the tenets of Social
Judgement Theory and Yale’s Persuasion Theory investigates the influence of
Political campaign on the voting behaviour of Benin residents. Political awareness
plays a crucial role in determining whether a credible candidate receives a vote or
not. Therefore, it is important to provide political communication to inform voters
about the electoral process. The research became necessary following the idea that
determining the kind of influence or if political campaign influences voting
behaviour of Benin residents it would transform the way political campaigns are
carried out through the use of the Mass media. Using the survey design,
questionnaire was used to gather data from 150 residents of three local government
areas in Benin. The research revealed that political campaign influences the voting
behaviour of Benin residents to a high extent and positively. This research findings
12
reveal that the media through the use of Political campaigns on the Internet played a
significant role in influencing the electorates voting behaviour in a positive way.
The media through the use of political campaigns created the undeniably important
and needed political education and awareness in the minds of the voters thereby
influencing the voting behaviour of Benin residents positively.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
For centuries, scholars have been worried about the impact political
campaigns may have on the shaping of public and voting opinions, and how this in
turn affects voter behavior, but there are many opposing and divergent views on the
subject. Many communication scholars, among them: Nwaoboli (2023), Egbulefu &
Nwaoboli (2023), Daramola (2013), McQuail (2010), Sambe and Nyitse (2007),
13
Adelphi (2006), Akinfeleye (2003), Nwosu (2003) and Aliede (2003) argue that the
Mass media and Politics in Nigeria are interwoven. For any democratic system to
thrive, adequate information on party policies must be provided by political parties
and candidates on party policies, clear-cut vision as well as their political agendas to
enable the electorate to choose their candidates based on full information provided
through political campaigns.
According to Nwaoboli (2023), during political campaigns, political parties
utilize mass media to achieve their goals. The media has a significant impact in
informing the public about current events and increasing awareness of various
societal issues, and it holds significant sway over the public's opinions and
perspectives.
The media is the primary means through which public opinion is shaped and
at times manipulated (CIHRS 2011). Simply put, for an election to be considered
free and fair or for a political party to push their agenda and get the desired result
they aim to achieve, the electorate must have adequate knowledge of the candidates,
political parties and election policies, this knowledge is supplied through political
campaigns which are tailored or aimed at influencing voting behavior.
14
According to Wikipedia, electoral voting behavior is a political behavior
displayed by voters, which is influenced by a multitude of factors including
emotions, ethnicity, and religion, leading to specific decisions being made. Several
factors, including gender, race, culture, and religion, significantly influence a voter's
behavior and the choice of a preferred candidate. However, key external factors
such as political campaigns goes a long way in influencing the way a voter behaves
and the decision making process of voters. Political campaigns influences voting
behaviors of individuals either positively or negative even though the primary
purpose of political campaign is to garner and influence voting behavior of people
positively to earn their support (Egbulefu & Nwaoboli, 2023).
In the past, election campaigns were primarily based on face-to-face
interaction and political gatherings. However, following Nigeria's shift from
military rule to a democratic system, the use of political campaigns as a means of
influencing voting behaviour has become more prevalent, likely due to the
recognition of media's impactful power. Therefore, political parties and candidates
globally allocate substantial financial resources towards political campaigns to
promote themselves as the favored choice among voters and invariably to influence
15
the voting decisions of voters (Nwaoboli, 2023). Notably, election discussions often
center around voting behavior, specifically why voters chose one candidate over
others and the implications of their decision.
Political campaign activity refers to efforts to support a candidate or stance in
an election at the local, state, or national level. This encompasses giving money,
time, or other resources, asking for contributions from others, trying to sway voters
or public opinion, displaying campaign signs or symbols, and publicly expressing
support
The 2020 gubernatorial elections conducted in Benin, Edo state witnessed
political parties and candidates load various forms of media with campaigns, all
struggling to influence the voting behaviour of voters with political campaigns. In
the end Mr Godwin Obaseki, who was the candidate of the People’s Democratic
Party (PDP), emerged as the governor of Edo state. Before the election, his political
campaigns dominated media outlets, including airwaves, social media, and
billboards, targeting all segments of the voting population. His catchy jingles were
broadcast on radio and TV stations, as well as social media platforms, while his
print and outdoor advertisements were filled with promises of delivery. Amid the
16
foregoing, this paper aims at studying how political campaigns influence voting
behavior of Benin residents.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The use of emotional appeals in political campaigns to increase support for a
candidate or decrease support for a challenger is a widely recognized practice and a
common element of any campaign strategy (Brader, T. 2006). Campaigns aim to
cultivate positive emotions like enthusiasm and optimism (Nwaoboli, Ogunyemi &
Ezegwu, 2022) towards their candidate to increase voter turnout and political
engagement, while simultaneously inciting fear and worry about the opposition.
Political campaigns has the power to make or mar the voter’s perception of the
political party or individual, political campaigns can be used to consciously or
subconsciously influence voting behavior of people as these political campaigns
come in all forms such as, radio or television jingles, billboard advertisements,
newspapers or magazine advertisements, flyers and stickers which voters come
across every day and this filters into their subconscious thereby influencing the
voting behavior of voters knowingly or unknowingly (Nwaoboli, 2023; Egbulefu &
Nwaoboli, 2023).
17
It is against this backdrop that this research was conducted to determine the
ways, extents and kind of influence political campaigns have on the voting
behaviour of Benin residents.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study were to:
1. Find out the level of exposure of Benin residents to political campaigns.

2. Determine the channels through which Benin residents are exposed to political
campaigns.
3. Find out the extent to which political campaigns influences voting behaviour
of Benin residents.
4. Determine the kind of influence political campaigns has on the voting
1.4. Research Questions
The following research questions were designed to guide the study:
1. What is the level of exposure of Benin residents to political campaigns?
2. Through which channels are Benin residents exposed to political campaigns?
3. To what extent does political campaign influence the voting behaviour of
18
Benin residents?
4. What kind of influence does political campaign have on Benin residents?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study will help shine a bright light on the influence of political
campaigns on the voting behavior of Benin Residents. The findings of this study
will be of immense benefit to anyone who comes across it as it bares the truth about
if political campaigns has any influence on the voting behaviour of Benin residents
and what kind of influence it has.
This research will also help the academic society, stakeholders and the
government understand the extents to which political campaigns influence voting
behaviour. It will help highlight the importance of good of healthy political
campaigns in helping voters make the right choice when it comes to voting.
Lastly, this study will not only contribute to knowledge but add to the existing
vast fountain of knowledge and scholarly materials on the influence of political
campaigns on the voting behavior of Benin Residents.
19
1.6. Scope of the Study
This research will analyze the influence of political campaigns on voting
behavior of Benin Residents, specifically focusing on its actual impact, positive or
negative, on voting behavior and the factors that shape a voter's behavior and
attitudes based on information obtained through political campaigns.
1.7. Operational Definition of Terms

Behaviour: This is the way an individual acts or conducts oneself in response to a
particular situation.
Influence: This is the ability to affect the character or behaviour of a person to act
in a particular way towards someone or something.
Mass Media: This refers to the channels through which Mass Communication are
carried out, they can include but are not limited to radio, television, newspapers,
internet, and traditional media like billboards. Door to door announcements,
distribution of Flyers.
Mass Communication: This is the process of communication that involves a
sender of a message and a receiver, it is the exchange of meaningful information
between people or group of persons.
20
Political Campaigns: Political Campaigns in this case refers to the efforts of a
political group or party or individual aspiring for a political position to influence the
decision making process of a group of people or citizens of a state to choose them
to vote them in political positions to head or handle their political affairs.
Political Party: This is an association or organization that coordinates candidates to
compete for a state or country’s elections for an opportunity to rule the
state/country.
Residents: This is someone or a group of people who live in, reside in, occupy or
claim origin of a particular geographical region or area for a long period of time.
Voting Behaviour: This has to do with the way or method people tend to vote
during elections.
Voting: This is the action of indicating a choice, opinion, decision through the
means of vote to indicate support for a particular political party or individual.
Voters: The people or group of people who are eligible to cast their votes in an
election.
21
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This is where review of relevant materials is done. This section seeks to
familiarize readers with existing knowledge and perspectives on the topic at hand.
The following are the fundamental concepts that will be covered in this chapter:
2.1. Historical Review
2.1.1. History of Political Campaign in Nigeria
Political campaigns have been a significant aspect of the democratic electoral
process in Nigeria since independence. Political parties and its candidates aim to
influence voting behavior or persuade voters to vote for them through the use of
political campaigns (Nwaoboli, 2023). Through the use of political campaigns,
candidates or political parties prepare and present their ideas, propositions on why
they are the best candidates to be elected.
22
In 1923, Herbert Macaulay founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party
(NNDP), which was the first notable political party. It was created to participate in
the political competition for seats in the Lagos Legislative Council through the
Clifford Constitution of 1923. The main goal of this party was to pursue nationalist
objectives and work towards securing independence for Nigeria
In the year 1959, prior to Nigeria's independence, political parties were
established with a stronger regional focus rather than a national one. The National
Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC), led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, represented the
eastern region of Nigeria, the Northern People's Congress (NPC), headed by
Tafawa Balewa, primarily consisted of Hausa-Fulani from the north, and the Action
Group (AG) was for the western region, led by Obafemi Awolowo.
Therefore, in 1960, after gaining independence from British rule, Nigeria
required its own autonomous government to manage its affairs. Since 1946, there
have been elections for regional representatives in the Eastern, Northern, Southern
and Western regions, but election campaigns did not start until after independence.
Before independence, elections were held for legislative and municipal councils, but
there were no specific campaign efforts used to promote the political candidates,
23
their platforms, or policies, despite the presence of political rallies and speeches,
and coverage in the press.
The first republic of Nigeria, starting in 1963, experienced significant growth
in political campaigning. The Action Group utilized helicopters for aerial
advertising by skywriting and distributing pamphlets and promotional materials to
the voting public
2.2. Conceptual Review
2.2.1. Understanding Voting Behaviour
Voting behavior refers to the actions or lack of actions by citizens in regards to
participating in elections for representatives of their local, regional, or national
governments (Egbulefu & Nwaoboli, 2023). The outcome of the behavior can either
be support for political candidates or parties or abstention from participating in the
voting process. The behaviour of voters can be traced to their perception of the
advantages or disadvantages to their quality of life they think voting will be a
consequence there of. Voting behaviour is the way that different people tend to vote
and what drives them to vote for the political parties or candidates they choose to
vote for (Nwaoboli, 2023).

24
Voting is the main form of participation by the citizens or people of a state in
choosing who their representatives at the governmental levels should be in a
democratically system of government. The way a voter acts during an election is
connected to their general behavior. This involves deciding which political option
they believe is the most appropriate or desirable to select.
2.2.2. Understanding Political campaigns
A political campaign aims to sway the decision-making process of a particular
group through an organized effort. In democratic systems, political campaigns
typically involve electoral campaigns that determine the selection of representatives
or the outcome of referendums (Nwaoboli, 2023). Today, the most prominent
political campaigns center on general elections, with a focus on candidates vying for
the position of head of state or head of government, often in the form of a president
or prime minister.
The team responsible for running a campaign, ranging from an individual with
a passion for the cause to a well-funded group of experts, must contemplate various
aspects such as conveying the campaign's message, attracting volunteers, and
securing funds. Politainment is a blend of techniques from various fields including
25
commercial advertising, propaganda, public relations, and entertainment, which are
utilized in campaign advertising. The ability of political campaigns to disseminate
their messages is constrained by legal restrictions, available resources, and the
creativity of the campaign's participants.
Political parties or political candidates use various techniques to carry out
effective political campaign through the media, these include but are not limited to
the use of paid media like newspapers, magazines, television and radio air time to
promote their messages and influence the voting decisions of electorates. The
internet is also used as an element of modern political campaigns, e-mail, websites,
podcasts, and other communication technologies have facilitated various forms of
political campaign activism by enabling quicker communication among political
movements and allowing them to disseminate their message to a wider audience.
2.3. Opinion Review
2.3.1. Relationship between the Mass Media and Political Campaign
We cannot talk about the relationship between mass media and Political
Campaigns without talking about what Communication actually entails. The
26
definitions of communication are many and varied. Some are general in nature
while others are specific. The term communication has its roots in the Latin word,
“commune”, that is, “to make known”. Communication implies sharing, interaction,
dialogue and understanding. The basis of communication is the sharing of meaning.
Therefore, Ella and Onwochei (2005) cited in Asemah (2011) describe
communication as the act or process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas or
feelings between persons, using appropriate means. According to them, the process
involves the transmission and transfer of meaningful information and messages
between a sender and a receiver in such a way that the receiver understands the
message and reacts appropriately by giving the right response.
Communication according to Asemah (2009), is the process of sharing
information, ideas and attitudes. To share means to give or receive a part of
something or to assume something in common. It means that the sender and the
receiver are actively working together for common understanding. More so,
communicating is a process and as a process, it entails action, reaction and
interaction. Action is the step taken by someone to share ideas with another person;
27
reaction is the response of the receiver. If the receiver reacts positively, they begin
to interact.
Accordingly, communication can be described as the process through which
individuals or groups of individuals exchange ideas, information, messages, feelings
and notions through previously agreed symbols in order to influence each other
(Asemah & Nwaoboli, 2023). It is the process of passing understandable messages
between people using previously agreed symbols, signs or codes. Effective
communication according to Unogu, cited in Ella and Onwochei (2005), cited by
Asemah (2011) is the transfer of understandable information.
It is however worthy to note that the whole essence of communication is
persuasive. That is, the purpose of communication is to affect the behavior of the
receiver. Thus, communication has just one purpose. Although, communication has
so many functions, everything boils down to affecting the behavior of the receiver.
Whether you are communicating to entertain, inform, socialize or educate, it boils
down to changing the behaviour of the receiver as relating to this study involving
the influence of political campaigns on voting behavior. In this sense, political
campaigns according to Wikipedia is an organized effort which seeks to influence
28
the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political
campaigns often refer to electoral campaigns by which representatives are chosen or
referendums are decided (Nwaoboli, 2023). In modern politics, political campaigns
are focused on general elections and candidates for head of state or government
(Egbulefu & Nwaoboli, 2023). From the above definition it can be deduced that
political campaigns are used by political parties or candidates to influence the
voting behavior of the electorates residing in a particular area, a specific group of
people or individuals .
From the foregoing, we can conclude that political institution is a social
institution that moves toward winning the minds of the citizens or influencing
voting behaviour to make people vote for their candidate so that they can win an
election thereby, controlling the affairs of a country for a defined period of time
through the use of Political campaigns to communicate their aspirations, agenda or
plans for the electorate after emerging into a political position. The mass media are
this an integral part of political campaigns and political life.
The media, whether electronic or print, are saddled with so many
responsibilities in our society. Although, many may argue that the media have not
29
really performed well in the society, but the fact remains that the media contribute
so much to the society (Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2021; 2023). Mass media are the
channels through which messages travel from the source to the receiver. When we
talk of Mass Communication, we need channels to carry these messages. Dominic
(2007), as cited by Asemah (2011) sees the media as the channels that are used for
mass communication. The definition of mass communication or mass media does
not only include the mechanical devices used for relaying messages to the entire
public, like radio, television, magazine, newspapers, etc, but, it also covers all the
institutions that these machines use to transmit messages. A media vehicle is a
single component of the mass media such as newspaper, magazine, television, radio,
film, flyer, book, sound recording and the internet.
Mass Media are different from face to face communication. Mass Media have
a large and heterogeneous audience; messages are received simultaneously that is,
for electronic media but the interpersonal communication does not have all these
features (Nwaoboli, 2022a).
Generally, the media are agents of information dissemination (Nwaoboli,
2022b). Political institutions use the mass media to carry out their political activities
30
such as political campaigns so as to make the members of the public to be
acquainted with their candidates before and during elections. The electorates appear
to acquire new information during political campaigns about the issues, parties and
personalities involved, but attitudes to these things vary much less. Any change in
voting behavior or attitudes are proportional to the extent of exposure to campaign
materials in the media.
According to Asemah (2008), the media need the politicians because the
politicians can provide the media with news items, especially during elections,
political campaigns, manifestos, etc. The politicians however need the Media
because the media is persuasive in nature and they can reach a large audience.
Political candidates engage public relations agencies to carry out campaigns
for them (Asemah, kente and Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2021). During campaigns, the press
makes it easier for politicians to reach a large crowd than interpersonal
communication. Radio, Television and other mass media can reach a very large
audience that cannot ordinarily be reached by face-to-face mode of communication.
During the 2020 governorship election held in Edo state, all the registered political
parties used the mass media to carry out their political campaigns in Benin. The
31
People’s Democratic Party (PDP) went round the 18 local government area in Benin
City campaigning for its candidate, Governor Godwin Obaseki. The campaigns
were shown on television, listened to on radio, advertised on Billboards all over
Benin, printed on flyers and distributed all over Benin.
Political parties have used the media a great deal to achieve their aims and
objectives through political campaigns carried out through the mass mediums. Thus,
political parties need the media for their survival because of the many but,
invaluable roles of watchdog, agenda setting, transmission of cultural heritage or
values etc.
Of all the relationships or institutional linkages, the one between mass
communication and the political institution is one of the most noteworthy.
Communication is a political instrument all over the world and the relationship
between politics and communication is an indissoluble one. Golding (1977), as cited
by Asemah (2011) observes that in the advanced industrial societies, the mass media
are actually an integral part of political life, serving as the major or only link with
government and provides them the information which they require to make political
judgments and on which they base their attitudes.
32
2.3.2. Factors that Influence Voting behaviour
When predicting and making assumptions about a person's voting decision,
certain elements such as gender, race, cultural background, and religion must be
taken into account as factors that might affect voting behaviour.
Additionally, electoral behavior can be analyzed from a more theoretical
perspective by considering factors such as wealth and geographic region, as these
can influence a voter's choices.
Public key factors that shape voting behavior include emotions, political
socialization, tolerance of diverse political opinions, and media. The impact of these
factors can be explained by theories on attitude formation, belief formation, schema
development, knowledge structure formation, and information processing practices.
Furthermore, the influence of family and friends, which results in social
influence and peer effects, is also a significant factor in elections and how people
vote. The extent to which voting decisions are influenced by both internal processes
and external factors impacts the integrity of democratic decision-making.
33
2.4. Empirical Studies
In the study of Ojekwe (2016) on “Political Advert Campaign and Voting
Behavior: Akinwunmi Ambode’s 2015 Election Campaign in Lagos State” a study
motivated by the researcher’s interest to analyze the effectiveness of political ad
campaigns in shaping the voting behavior of Nigerian voters. Specifically, the study
examined political ad campaigns of the All Progressive Congress gubernatorial
candidate in Lagos State, Akinwunmi Ambode. A field survey of eligible voters in
Lagos State was carried out to further ascertain the efficacy of political ad
campaigns on the electorate, the study used a survey questionnaire with a simple
randomized selection of the sample.
A random sample means every member of the population has an equal
opportunity to be chosen because the study was an assessment of Akinwunmi
Ambode’s ad campaigns in the 2015 Lagos State gubernatorial elections. The
sample was drawn from all eligible voters in the state, bulk emails were sent to
people aged 18 and older, who were eligible voters, inviting them to participate.
The research instrument was a 12-item questionnaire which was distributed
online using Google Forms, an easy-to-use online survey platform. From the online
34
survey, 180 respondents correctly filled and submitted the questionnaire.
Demographic information such as age, sex, religion, and educational status was also
collected so as to have an insight into the socio-economic and demographic
characteristics of the respondents. The aims and objectives of the study was to
ascertain to what extent were the electorates influenced by Ambode’s Ad
Campaigns.
From the field survey, results were collated, analysed and summarised using
frequency tables. Findings from the study showed that political ad campaigns do not
have a strong effect on the electorate’s voting behaviour but still play a role in the
electoral process.
In addition political ad campaigns remain pervasive, which means they are
still useful in the election campaign process; radio and television remain the most
effective means of advertising. The study concluded that political candidates and
parties should concentrate on other election campaign strategies.
In the study of Uwalaka and Nwala (2022) on “Political advertisement and
voter behaviour during the 2019 Presidential Election in South-South Region of
Nigeria”. The study was carried out to attempt to investigate the impact of political
35
advertisements (campaign) on voters behaviour during the 2019 general election in
the south-south region of Nigeria. The study attempts to answer the following
research questions:
1. To what extent did the issues outlined in the newspaper advertisements by APC
and PDP influence voters’ decision in the 2019 president election in
South-South region of Nigeria?

2. What is the degree of voter exposure to the issues raised in the newspaper
advertisement campaigns of APC and PDP during 2019 presidential election in
South-South region of Nigeria?
For this study, a survey was conducted among voters in the South-South
region of Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling method was employed, as the study
population was large. This approach involved dividing the state into districts,
regions, or zip code areas and selecting groups of people from each area using a
cluster sampling technique.
For the purpose of this survey, Bayelsa and Rivers States were specifically
chosen. These states have a total of six senatorial districts and 31 local government
areas, and four senatorial districts and nine local government areas were selected
36
from these states. Specifically, three local government areas from Bayelsa State
(Kolokkuma/Opokoma, Yenagoa and Ekeremor) and six local government areas
from Rivers State (Obio/Akpor, Ikwerre, Etche, Omuma, Tai, Eleme and Oyibo)
were chosen. The sample selection was determined by the distribution of the
population in the study area, which consists of nine Local Government Areas and a
total of 268 Wards. Out of these, 108 Wards were selected and they contain a total
of 1,523 Units. Further selection was made from these units, and 200 of them were
chosen. As it was not feasible to determine the exact population of the units, the
sample size of 400 was divided by the 200 selected units across various Local
Government Areas. This gave the researchers a sample of two persons per Unit.
The survey method was questionnaire, it required 20 mins to complete and
consisted of 40 mandatory questions. The study uncovered that a substantial number
of voters in south-south region of Nigeria were exposed to Newspapers political
advertisements during the 2019 presidential elections in Nigeria. Majority of the
issues in the newspaper political advertisements during the 2019 presidential
elections motivated voters and were consequential to voters’ voting decision and
preference of candidates during the 2019 presidential election. This means that the
37
exposure to information advertised in the newspapers during elections contributed
among others factors to influence voter behavior during the election
Data further demonstrate that voters who reported to have been motivated to
vote due to issues advertised in the newspapers by the two political parties (PDP
and APC) were married, civil servants and those who factored the advertised issues
in their preference for a political candidate. The study concludes that the media
played an agenda setting role during the 2019 presidential election campaigns.
In the study of Obani and Odalonu on “Election and Voting Behavior in
Nigeria”. The study was carried out by the researchers to interrogate election and
voting behavior in the society. The study attempts to answer the following
questions: Are there reasons for participating in election as a voter in Nigeria? Are
there factors that influence voting behavior during election in Nigeria? The study is
a qualitative and quantitative research that relied on primary and secondary sources
of data collection. The collected data was analyzed through descriptive statistics to
demonstrate the influence of voting behavior on elections in Nigeria. The research
discovered that several factors play a role in determining how individuals cast their
votes during election periods.
38
People vote for various reasons, including religious and ethnic interests as
well as immediate personal economic needs. Despite being aware that certain
politicians may not be trustworthy, voters still accept bribes from them in exchange
for their vote. The study suggests a complete revamp of the election process, an
increase in public education and awareness among Nigerian citizens, and reducing
the appeal and financial benefits of holding elective office. This will help curb the
negative factors that sway voting behavior in Nigeria.
In the study of Pang, Zheng and Scott on “Does women’s knowledge of voting
rights affect their voting behavior in Village Elections? Evidence from A
Randomized Controlled Trial in China”. The Researchers, in this study, examine the
impact of voter training on women’s voting behavior in village elections in a
random sampling of villages across Fujian and Liaoning provinces in China. The
methodology the researchers used for the study was that they randomly chose 10
women and recruited 3 village leaders from each of 72 randomly selected villages in
Fujian and Liaoning provinces in China, which held village elections in 2009 or
2010. The final sample included 654 women and 131 village leaders (24 women)
from 70 villages. In this study, the authors examine the impact of voter training on
39
women’s voting behavior in village elections in a random sampling of villages
across Fujian and Liaoning provinces in China. Researchers captured changes in
women’s voting knowledge and actual voting participation after voter training was
offered to both women and village leaders, to women only, or to village leaders only
compared to when no training was offered.
In the study of Faraon, Stenberg and Kaipainen 2014 on “Political
Campaigning 2.0: The Influence of Online News and Social Networking Sites on
Attitudes and Behaviour”. The researchers aim for this study was to examine
differences in influence between online news (e.g New York Times) and Social
Networking Sites (e.g Facebook and Twitter) on attitudes in political campaigns.
The method used by the researchers to get participants was by sending an invitation
to participate in a web-based experiment which was distributed by a mailing list to
politically interested online users, the number of people who agreed participate
were a total number of 139 participants, the participants completed the entire
experiment online using a computer which was the method of data collection. In
this experiment, campaign polls and elections between two fictitious candidates
were simulated. Participants’ explicit and implicit attitudes as well as voting
40
behavior were assessed using self-report items and the Implicit Association Test
(IAT). The results reveal that information emanating from online news had a
significant influence on explicit and implicit attitudes while that of social
networking sites did not. Negative information from either type of media was more
likely to change participants’ explicit attitudes in a negative direction and as a
consequence also change their vote.
In the study of Etika, Nyong, Opusunju and Agbor (2018): “Forms of Political
Campaign by Electioneering Candidates in Nigeria: A study of 2019 Governorship
Election in Cross River State”. The Researchers objective for carrying out this
research was to determine if political campaign is instrumental to all political
aspirants who are vying for different political positions. For the 2019 gubernatorial
election in Cross River State, various media such as radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, billboards, posters, and more will be utilized by political parties and
their candidates to promote their campaigns. The ultimate goal behind such political
actions is to woo the electorates so as to enhance victory. The study employed
survey method and the questionnaire serves as the statutory instruments. The paper
used cultivation analysis theory to buttress the study.
41
The results showed that candidates running for office in Nigeria utilized
campaigns during elections. The conclusion of the study was that political
campaigns are considered sacred by election candidates in Nigeria, and all political
actors at various levels engage in some form of campaign. During the elections in
Cross River State, the majority of candidates utilized radio and television for their
campaigns, while a minority utilized social media, billboards, and
posters/pamphlets. The study recommended that political candidates should be
circumspect when campaigning for elections because it is a platform that gives
them the opportunity to seek votes from the electorates.
In the study of Iwenofu 2011: “The Internet, Political Advertising and
Promotions in Nigeria: A Case Study Of Goodluck Jonathan’s 2011 Presidential
Campaign”, the study was carried out to ascertain the way internet is used as a
Media tool in political Advertising and promotions in Nigeria. The researcher
adopted a survey research design considering the nature of the study. The researcher
drew a sample size of 150 from the population of the University of Benin (Ekehuan
Campus). The sampling technique adopted was the purposive sampling. This study
42
sought to analyze the access and use of the internet in political advertising and the
effect which this has had on the users, especially the citizens of Nigeria, the reaction
to its various materials both on the personal life and the society at large. Among
other findings, majority of internet users access the net through mobile phones.
There is optimism among youths on internet as a new medium, which result in its
wholesome reception by its audience and the intrusion of multiple messages from
the net via social networks modifies the audience reaction to political process or
campaigns. Based on the findings by the researcher, the work recommended among
other things, that the internet service providers should increase their coverage range
and political candidates should emulate Goodluck Jonathan and the use of the
internet in their political campaigns.
In the study of Augustine, 2014: “An Appraisal of Political Campaign in the
Media and the Electorates Votes in 2012 Edo Governorship Election”. The
researcher explores how political campaigns through the use of the media affects the
electorates. This study connotes that the decision to vote any credible candidate
depends on the level of the political awareness of a people at a given time; hence,
the need of political communication to enlighten voters on the electoral process is
43
important. The mass media remains one of the irreplaceable tool for political
information dissemination, entertainment, mobilization and education. This study
shows that the Media has the capability of presenting political matters to the people
and shaping their choice of candidates. The findings of this study also reveal that
the media in Edo State played a very significant role in the 2012 gubernatorial
election. The media created the needed political education and awareness in the
minds of the electorates who were now able to decide in a massive turn out who
gets their votes, based in on their score cards, charisma, political part’s reputation
and personality.
In the study of Uzonwanna, Ezenekwe and Iregbenu 2016 research on:
“Electioneering Campaign and the Nigerian Economy”. The researchers aim
through this study was to determine the impact whether positive or negative the
huge funds political candidates use to fund electioneering campaigns has on the
Nigerian Economy as made more manifest by the general elections of 2015 in
Nigeria. This study therefore described electioneering campaigns in Nigeria and it’s
impact on Nigeria’s Economy. The theory that forms the framework of study is
economic shock theory. The study used survey method. Descriptive statistics was
44
used to analyze the data. The findings showed that electioneering campaigns have
caused a serious shock to the Nigerian economy. Therefore, the conclusion from
these findings suggests that if Nigeria persists with their approach to election
campaigns, the economy will worsen further.
As a result, the study suggests that the federal government should bolster the
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) by giving it the authority to
enforce electoral laws with regards to the financial regulations set for elections, in
order to mitigate its negative effect on the nation's development.
In the study of Aleyomi, Ajakaiye, Paul and Akanu’s 2018 research on: “Mass
Media and Political Campaigns during the Nigerian 2015 Presidential Election”.
The researchers aim on carrying out this research was to determine the influence of
print media organizations on Nigeria’s national unity during the 2015 presidential
elections. The researcher adopts secondary sources as a method for data collection,
which included national newspapers (The Nation, Guardian and Nigerian Tribune),
journal articles and book publications. The main dataset contained 1,063 campaign
related news and 297 campaign advertisements, rigorously cleaned and filtered to
remove extra content in order to avoid complications for the sake of perspective and
45
scope. The study found that the media contributed to the already divided and
conflicting nation by spreading false information and hate speech. To further the
cause of democratization and national unity, the paper emphasizes the need to
counteract and record instances of fake news and hate speech. The research
concludes that there must be more sense of professionalism among Nigerian
journalists and media outlets, based on the principle of Political-Morality.
2.5. Theoretical Framework
According to Asemah et al (2011, p.131), "A theory is simply seen as an
attempt at synthesizing and integrating empirical data for maximum clarification
and unification". While doing researches, theories are quite important. They are
important in testing and analysing of hypotheses. According to McQuail, cited in
Asemah et al (2011), theories are set of ideas of varied status and origin, which may
explain or interpret some phenomena". Thus, it can be exerted that theories are
important in the prediction of phenomena related to any conducted research.
Theories according to Osuala cited in Asemeh ( 2017) defines a theory as an
attempt at selecting and putting together , Information that has been scientifically
tested( empirical data ) so that it can clarify and unify all happenings in the society.
46
In addition, Asemeh (2017) defines theory as a set of assumptions, propositions or
accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or rational explanation of cause
and effect (causal) relationships among a group of observed phenomenon.
For these study which looks at political campaign and Voting behavior of
residents, the theories of mass communication suited for the study are the "Agenda
setting theory “and "Yale Persuasion Theory".
2.5.1. Social Judgement/ Involvement Theory
Social judgement theory seeks to explain how an audience processes
messages. The new information is compared to existing beliefs and a decision to
accept or reject the informs made; it states that you have a statement or message and
you accept it or reject it based on your cognitive map (Nwaoboli, 2022b; Asemah,
Edegoh & Ogwo, 2013; Asemah & Nwammuo, 2017; Asemah & Osife-murex,
2018). The beginning of social judgement theory can be traced to early experiments
on attitude and persuasion in social psychology, but it was first given its foundation
with the work of Muzafer Sherif, Carolyn Sherif and Carl Hovland in 1961. Thus, it
can be said that the theory was developed by Muzafer Sherif, Carolyn Sherif and
47
Carl Hovland in 1961. The theory says that audience-members interpret and judge a
message and take a position (Anaheim, Oladele and Asemah , 2022).
The theory focuses on the internal processes of an individual’s judgement with
relation to a communicated message. Attitude change is a fundamental objective of
persuasive communication, thus, social judgement theory seeks to specify the
conditions under which this change takes place and predicts the direction and extent
of the attitude change. The key point of the social judgment theory is that attitude
change is mediated by judgmental processes and effects.
Social judgement theory proposes that people make evaluations (judgements)
about the content of messages based on their anchors or stance, on a particular
message (Sherif and Hovland, 1961; Sherif, 1965). In addition to an individual’s
anchor, each person’s attitudes can be placed into three categories. First, there is the
latitude of acceptance, which includes all those ideas that a person finds acceptable.
Second, there is the latitude of rejection, which includes all those ideas that a person
finds unacceptable. Finally, there is the latitude of non-commitment, which includes
ideas for which a person have no opinion; you neither accept nor reject these ideas
(Asemah, Nwammuo and Nkwam-Uwaoma 2022). The way we form opinions and
48
thoughts on certain issues depends on our anchor point which is the altitude on
which we process whatever messages we received and our ego which is always at
play whenever we are to take a decision on any issue (Abah, Okoduwa and Asemah,
2021; Edesiri and Asemah, 2021; Umoro and Asemah, 2021).

The theory is applicable to all areas of persuasion studies. That is, all areas of
communication research that concern Persuasion of the audience; this includes but
not limited to political advertising, political public relations, product advertising,
personal selling, direct marketing and sales promotion.
2.5.2. Yale’s Persuasive Theory
Yale's attitude change theory is the social psychology study of the conditions
under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to
Persuasive messages. This approach to Persuasive communication was first studied
by Carl Hovland and his colleagues at Yale University in the 1940s and 1950s and
thus, was later known as the Yale attitude change approach (Anonymous, 2016)
This theory in relation to the media, use their sources and message to
influence its surrounding. The theory states that there are several factors that will
affect how likely a change of attitude through persuasion can be; after all , behavior
49
change cannot happen without attitude change also having to take place. The
prominent factors are; the source, the message and the audience.
Cited in Asemeh ( 2017), The theory also includes six step process to
changing people's attitude concerning an issue ; the steps are : Presentation ,
attention , comprehension , yielding , retention and behavior.
The idea of the psychological theorists was to fundamentally test the variables
that might influence comprehension, acceptance and retention of persuasive
messages. For example, when a persuasive message is presented by an
untrustworthy source, it tends to be discounted by the audience so that immediately
after the exposure, there is little or no attitude change, and then after several weeks,
the source is no longer associated with the issue in the mind of the audience and this
hampers positive behaviour change (Hovland et al., 1953; Osatuyi et al., 2022).
2.6. Summary of the Chapter
The chapter examined the relevant literature in relation to the research work,
surveying the methodologies utilized in related studies, the underlying theoretical
framework, and the objectives and outcomes of the reviewed materials. The
findings drawn from the relevant literature helped to preserve the accuracy of the
50
topic's viewpoint, providing readers with an understanding of the perspectives of
other researchers on the various concepts being examined. This, the chapter covers a
conceptual review of the relationship between the ads media and political
campaigns, understanding voting behavior, factors that influence voting behavior,
models of voting behavior, empirical studies and theoretical framework. The
appreciation of relevant and previous work in this study served two purposes. This
chapter encompasses all of the above as the literature review has served as a
foundation for understanding the subject matter, providing a platform for the current
research to build upon.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter discuss the method, techniques and procedure adopted in this
research with the aim of generating viable data that assisted in bringing about the
realization of the research objective. It is contained and explained under the
following subheading;
• Research Design
• Population of the Study
• Sample Size
• Sampling Technique
• Research Instrument
• Validity of Instrument
• Reliability of Instrument
• Methods of Data Collection
• Method of Data Analysis
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3.1 Research Design
The research design adopted for this research is the Survey method. The
word research is actually derived from the French word, “recherche” which simply
means to search for knowledge again and again. Research basically involves fact
finding and it is enquiry that utilizes the scientific method to study a phenomenon,
situation or society (Ogbemi 2018). The term “survey “means the process of
looking at something in it's entirety, Asemah (2017). A survey is an empirical study
that uses questionnaire or interview to discover descriptive characters of a
phenomenon. Survey research method focuses on people, the vital facts of people,
their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivation and behavior (Nwaoboli, 2022b;
Asemah & Nwaoboli, 2022). The survey method has certain advantage such as;
there is no limitations in terms of area of coverage and the survey approach enables
the researcher to get as much information as possible, from different variables
(Asemah 2017). This research involves the influence of political campaign on the
voting behavior of Benin Residents, the survey approach is very much suitable for
data collection as it entails the views on Benin residents.
53
3.2. Population of the Study
The population of the study was drawn from three local government (Oredo,
Egor and Ovia North-East) from the existing 18 local governments in Benin. Due to
the impracticality of studying the entire population of political campaign influence
on voting behaviour Benin, only a representative of the element is needed and the
sample size will be used to gather information for the population or universe. The
population for this study is, Egor with a total of 339,899, Oredo with a total of
374,671 and Ovia North-East with a total of 153,849, these figures added together
give a total of 868,418 as the population drawn from the residents of Benin City in
Edo State.
3.3. Sample Size
The Sample size for this study is 150. The figure was gotten by using the
Cochran Sample size determination formula. Since the population is greater than
5%.
Formula: N= estimated sample/ (1+estimated sample /population)
N = 150/(1+150/ 868,418)
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N = 149.97
Approximately 150.
Therefore, the sample size will be 150.
3.4. Sampling Technique
This research made use of the multi-stage sampling technique to select the
samples. The procedure was appropriate for this research because the respondents
were chosen in two stages using the simple random sampling and Purposive random
sampling. The first stage involved a random sample of three local government
within Benin (Oredo, Egor and Ovia north-east) from the existing 18 local
governments in Benin, Edo state. The existing local government are: Akoko-Edo,
Egor, Esan Central, Esan North-East, Esan South-East, Esan West, Etsako Central,
Etsako East, Etsako West, Igueben, Ikpoba-Okha, Oredo, Orhionmwon, Ovia
North-East, Ovia South-West, Owan East, Owan West and Uhunmwonde.
In the second stage, purposive sampling is used to purposively select Ovia
North-East from the three local government initially chosen. In the third stage the
researcher selected the respondents through accidental sampling method and
55
distributed the questionnaire based on the local government she is a resident in
(Ovia North-East) to people immediately available.
3.5. Research Instrument
The research instrument used for this research is the questionnaire. According
to Asemah (2009), a questionnaire is a set of questions designed to investigate a
given subject matter. It is a list of questions designed to elicit information from
respondents by filling in the answers in the space provided for the purpose. The
questionnaire was self-administered by the researcher. The questionnaire contained
both demographic and psychographic content. The demographic section was used to
elicit information about the bio-data of the respondents while the psychographic
section focused on the research questions with a view to solving them.
3.6 Validity of the Instruments
The instrument (questionnaire) used in this research work is valid because
after constructing and carefully studying the questionnaire, it was passed to the
researcher's supervisor for critical examination. The instruments used in this work
56
are valid because it was vetted by the researcher’s supervisor after carefully
constructing and examining the questionnaire for critical examination and total
scrutiny of all aspects of the questionnaire.
3.7. Reliability of the Instrument
Reliability is defined by Mehren and Lehmann as cited in Asemah (2017) as
the degree of consistency between two measures of the same thing. Reliability
therefore, is the accuracy or precision of a measuring instrument.
The data collection tool (questionnaire) was used as the research instrument
for this research, the instrument was used to determine the Influence of political
campaigns on the voting behavior of Benin Residents". The research instrument was
highly reliable because it helped in providing answers to the research questions. A
pilot study or pilot experiment was carried out in order to test the validity of the
research instrument and improve the research design. In the course of the pilot
study, 15 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and the research
instrument was deemed feasible after critical examination of the questionnaires.
57
3.8. Method of Data Collection
The quantitative research method of data collection was applied in this study
to ensure results can be better summarized, analyzed and compared. For this
research, the primary and secondary source of data collection were used for the
study. For the primary source of data, 150 copies of the questionnaire were
administered face to face to the respondents
The questionnaire contained relevant questions which was a combination of
questions on personal data and close ended questions with options provided for the
respondents to choose the option they deem most appropriate to answer the question
asked. The secondary source of data was collected through research in available
general textbooks, relevant works done by past research and articles and notes from
different websites and library.
3.9 Method of Data Analysis
The analysis presentation and interpretation of data were based on the data
collected using the questionnaire formulated.
The data collected were analysed in simple percentage and table presentation,
while necessary explanations were given underneath each table for simple
58
understanding. The simple percentage method was the analytical tool used for this
research and a sample size of 150 was represented by 100% to ensure easy analysis
of the data.
59
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents and analyses the data collected through the
questionnaire. The data collected were analysed using the simple percentage
method. A total of 150 questionnaires was distributed through google forms and all
were properly answered making them all viable. 150 respondents therefore
represent 100 percent of the sample size being studied. The details of the
questionnaire are analysed below using frequencies, percentages and tables for the
presentation of data.
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis Table 1: Distribution of

Respondents by Gender
Gender Percentage No. of Respondents.
Male 32.7% 49
Female 67.3% 101
Total 100% 150
Table 1 above shows that the study is composed of both males and female.
However, female responders were more available to participate in the study.
60
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents by Age
Age Percentage No. of Respondents
18 - 25 83.3% 125
26 - 35 14% 21
36 – 45 2.7% 4
46 above 0% 0
Total 100% 150
Table 2 shows that the study was composed of respondents within various age
distribution. It indicates that a greater proportion of the respondents are within the
age of 18 – 25 years and no respondents within the age 46 above.
Table 3: Distribution of Respondents by Educational Qualification

Edu. Qualification Percentage No. of Respondents
Pry. Sch. Certificate 1.35% 2
SSCE/WAEC 50% 75
B.Sc/B.A 47.3% 71
Master’s degree 1.35% 2
Total 100% 150
Table 3 shows that the respondents were drawn from various educational
qualifications. However, respondents with SSCE/WAEC Certificates were more
actively involved in the study.
61
Table 4: Distribution of Respondents by Religion
Religion Percentage No. of Respondents
Christianity 96.7% 145
Islam 3.3% 5
Total 100% 150

Table 4 Shows that the respondents were drawn from respective Religious
background. However, respondents who are Christians were more actively involved
in the study.
Table 5: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status

Marital Status Percentage No. Of Respondents
Single 93.3% 140
Married 6% 9
Divorced 0.7% 1
Widowed 0% 0
Total 100% 150

Table 5 depicts that the study was composed of respondents of different
marital status. However, single respondents were more actively involved in the
study and no widowed respondents participated in the study.
Table 6: Distribution of Respondents by Occupation
62
Occupation Percentage No. of Respondents.
Student 76% 114
Employed 5.67% 10
Unemployed 1.37% 2
Self Employed 9.3% 14
Business owner/Entrepreneur 6.7% 10
Total 100% 150
Table 6 shows that the study involved respondents from various occupations.
However, students were more actively involved in the study.
Table 7: Exposure to Political Campaigns

Variable Percentage No. of Respondents
Strongly Agree 36.7% 55
Agree 51.3% 77
Strongly Disagree 1.35% 2
Disagree 3.95% 6
Undecided 6.7% 10
Total 100% 150
Table 7 indicates that a large proportion of the respondents 77 (51.3%) are
aware of political campaigns and agree that they have been exposed to political
campaigns, while others share different opinions on their exposure.
Table 8: Extent of Exposure to Political campaigns

63
Very High 26% 39
High 46.7% 70
Very Low 6% 9
Low 12% 18
Can’t Tell 9.3% 14
Total 100% 150
Table 8 reveals numerous variables used to determine the extent of
respondents exposure to political campaigns. A majority of the respondents believe
that the extent to which they have been exposed to political campaigns is high. This
shows that the respondents are exposed to political campaigns is high by (46.7%).
Table 9: Mass Media Channels as the Medium on Which You Come Across
Political Campaigns
Agree 52% 78
Disagree 1.35% 2
Undecided 0.675% 1
Total 100% 150
Table 9 reveals numerous variables used to determine if the respondents came
across political campaigns on mass media channels. The table shows that a majority
of the respondents agree by (52%) to have come across political campaigns on mass
media channels.
64
Table 10: Channels/Medium on Which you Came Across Political Campaigns
Radio 2.045% 3
Television 24.7% 37
Newspapers 2.045% 3
Billboards 3.81% 6
Flyers 2.7% 4
Internet/Social Media 64.7% 97
Total 100% 150
Table 10 indicates that the internet/social media is the medium through which
most respondents come across political campaigns. Therefore, the internet/social
media is a strong medium for accessing political campaigns.
Table 11: How Often Do You Come Across Political Campaigns

Daily 65.3% 98
Weekly 17.3% 26
Monthly 2.7% 4
Yearly 4.7% 7
Every Few Years 10% 15
Total 100% 150
Table 11 indicates that although some respondents come across political
campaigns weekly, monthly, yearly and every few years, a greater percentage of the
respondents agreed that they come across political campaigns daily. This shows that
respondents regularly access political campaigns.
65
Table 12: Does Political Campaigns Influence Your Voting Behaviour
Variable Percentage No. of
Respondents

Agree 48% 72
Disagree 13.3% 20 Undecided 6.7% 10
Total 100% 150
Table 12 shows that a greater percentage of the respondents of the sample size
(48%) agree that political campaigns influenced their voting behavior.
Table 13: To What Extent Does Political Campaigns Influence Your Voting
Behaviour
Very high 23.3% 35
High 40.7% 61
Very Low 10% 15
Low 16.7% 25
Can’t Tell 9.3% 14
Total 100% 150
Table 13 shows that a greater ratio of the respondents of the sample size
(40.7%) agree that the extent to which political campaigns influenced their voting
behaviour is high.
66
TABLE 14: Does Political Campaign Influence Your Voting Behaviour
Positively
Strongly Agree 26% 39
Agree 44.7% 67
Disagree 11.3% 17
Undecided 15.3% 23
Total 100% 150
Table 14 depicts that a greater number of the respondents (44.7%) agree that
political campaigns does influence their voting behaviour positively.
TABLE 15: Does Political Campaign Influence Your Voting Behaviour

Negatively
Agree 23.3% 35
Strongly Disagree 6% 9
Disagree 41.3% 62
Undecided 20.7% 31
Total 100% 150
Table 15 depicts that majority of the respondents (41.3%) disagree that
political campaigns influences their voting behaviour negatively.
4.2 Discussion of Findings
The findings are elaborately discussed according to the research questions
raised in chapter one.

67
4.2.1 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE: What is the Level of Exposure of Benin
Residents to Political Campaigns?
In answering the research question, data presented in Table seven and Table
eight will be used.
In trying to determine or know the level of exposure of Benin Residents to
political campaigns, a few questions were asked in Table Seven and Eight of the
questionnaire. Table Seven sought to know if Benin residents have any prior
exposure to political campaigns. The data presented in Table Seven revealed that 77
respondents (51.3%) Agreed that they have been exposed to political campaigns, 55
of the respondents (36.7%) Strongly agreed that they have been exposed to political
campaigns, 10 respondents (6.7%) were undecided, 6 respondents (3.95%)
disagreed while 2 respondents (1.35%) Strongly disagreed to have any prior
exposure to political campaigns. This shows that the number of respondents
exposed to political campaigns is high compared to the ratio of respondents not
exposed.
More so, Data presented in Table Eight revealed that 70 respondents (46.7%)
believes that the extent to which they have been exposed to Political Campaigns is
high, 39 respondents (26%) agree that the extent to which they have been exposed
68
to political campaigns is very high, 18 respondents (12%) believes that the extent of
exposure is low, 9 respondents (6%) agree that the extent of exposure to political
campaign is very low while 14 respondents (9.3%) couldn’t tell. This affirms how
exposed the respondents are to political campaigns in Benin and this supports the
Social Judgement Theory as respondents (who are the consumers in this instance)
know about political campaigns, the Social Judgement theory seeks to weigh and
predict the direction and extent of attitude change.
This is in line with Uwalaka and Nwala’s work which concluded that political
advertisement campaigns do not have a strong effect on the electorate’s voting
behaviour but still plays a role in the electoral process.
4.2.2 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO: Through which Channels are Benin

Residents Exposed to Political Campaigns?
In answering this research question, data presented in Table Nine, Ten and
Eleven will be used.
Table Nine revealed that 78 respondents (52%) agree to have come across
political campaigns on Mass Media channels, 68 respondents (45.3%) strongly
agreed, 2 respondents (1.35%) disagree, 1 respondent (0.675%) strongly disagreed
69
while 1 respondent (0.675%) was undecided about coming across political
campaigns on Mass Media channels. Table Ten revealed that 97 respondents
(64.7%) got exposed to political campaigns through the internet/social media
channel, 37 respondents (24.7%) were exposed through television medium, 3
respondents (2.045%) were exposed through the radio medium, 3 respondents
(2.045%) were exposed through newspapers, 6 respondents (3.81%) were exposed
via billboards while 4 respondents (2.7%) were exposed to political campaigns
through flyers.
This is in line with Iwenofu’s research which concluded that the Internet
played a major role in exposing the youth to political campaign since majority of
the youth encountered political campaign messages through the use of the internet
accessed from their mobile phones.
The regularity at which the respondents came were exposed to political
campaigns on Mass Mediums are presented in Table Eleven which showed that 98
respondents (65.3%) came across political campaigns on Mass Media channels
daily, 26 respondents (17.3%) saw it weekly, 4 respondents (2.7%) came across it
monthly, 7 respondents (4.7%) came across it yearly while 15 respondents (10%)
70
came across political campaigns on Mass Media channels every few years. This
finding is in line with the Social Judgement Theory as the channel through which an
audience receive persuasive messages plays a role in how the audience interprets
and judges the message before taking a position, to know if an audience accepts a
message we must first know if they accept the medium through which they are
receiving this message.
4.2.3 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE: To what Extent does Political

Campaign Influence the Voting Behaviour of Benin Residents?
Table twelve and thirteen will be used to answer this research question.
According to the data gathered in twelve, it can be deduced that Benin
residents agreed that political campaigns influenced their voting behaviour as it
revealed that 72 respondents (48%) agreed that political campaigns influenced their
voting behaviour, 37 respondents (24.7%) strongly agreed, 11 respondents (7.3%)
strongly disagreed, h20 respondents (13.3%) disagreed while 10 respondents (6.7%)
were undecided about if political campaigns influenced their voting behaviour.
The next table shows to what extent political campaign influenced the voting
behaviour of Benin residents. Table thirteen revealed that 61 respondents (40.7%)
expressed that the extent to which political campaign influenced their voting
71
behaviour is high, 35 respondents (23.3%) expressed it was very high, 15
respondents (10%) expressed it was very low, 25 respondents (16.7%) expressed it
was low while 14 respondents (9.3%) couldn’t tell the extent to which political
campaigns influenced their voting behaviour. This makes it evident that political
campaigns influence the voting behaviour of Benin residents to a high extent.
This is in line with Alonge’s study which concluded that political campaigns
through the use of the media affects electorates voting decision. The research also
revealed that the decision to vote any credible candidate depends on the level of the
political awareness of a people at a given time; hence, the need for political
communication to enlighten voters on the electoral process is important.
4.2.4 RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR: What Kind of Influence does Political

Campaign have on Benin Residents?
Data presented in table fourteen and fifteen will be used to answer this
research question.
From the data gathered in table fourteen, it revealed that 67 respondents
(44.7%) expressed that they agree political campaigns influenced their voting
behaviour positively, 39 respondents (26%) strongly agree, 4 respondents (2.7%)
strongly disagree, 17 respondents (11.3%) disagree while 23 respondents (15.3%)

72
were undecided as to whether political campaign had a positive influence on their
voting behaviour.
Table fifteen reveals that political campaigns did not influence the voting
behaviour of respondents as 62 respondents (41.3%) disagreed that political
campaigns had a negative influence on their voting behaviour, 35 respondents
(23.3%) agreed political campaigns had a negative influence on their voting
behaviour, 13 respondents (8.7%) strongly agreed, 9 respondents (6%) strongly
disagreed while 31 respondents (20.7%) were undecided about if political
campaigns had a negative influence on their voting behaviour. This answers the
research question that political campaigns have a positive influence on the larger
number of Benin residents. This is in line with Yale’s Persuasion Theory which
explores how persuasive messages succeeds at changing a listener’s attitude. Since
the data gathered shows that political campaigns clearly has a positive influence on
voting behaviour of Benin residents and since political campaign is a form of
communication it aligns with Yale’s Persuasion Theory (with its ultimate goal being
persuasive discourse) which says every communication is aimed at positively
affecting the behaviour of the receiver or audience.

73
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
This chapter summarizes the details of what the study is about, the method
used in collecting data and the finding of the collected data. The study was carried
out to determine the influence of political campaigns on the voting behaviour of
Benin residents. It was carried out using the survey research method. The survey
research method for gathering data for this study made use of questionnaire as the
74
research instrument to gather data from the respondents which helped in providing
the findings of the study.
From the responses gathered from the respondents through the questionnaire,
the following were the findings of the study:
Benin residents have been exposed to political campaigns and their level of
exposure high.
A high number of Benin residents have been exposed to political campaigns
through the internet/social medium and they come across political campaigns
regularly (daily and weekly).
Majority of Benin residents agree that political campaigns does influence their
voting behaviour and that it influenced their voting behaviour to a high extent.
Political campaigns generally have a positive influence on the voting
Political campaigns do not influence the voting behaviour of Benin residents
negatively.
75
5.2 Conclusion
The outcome of the study reveals that the level of exposure of Benin residents
to political campaigns is high and that the channel through which Benin residents
were exposed to political campaigns was mainly through the internet or social
media as this serves as a quick and easy platform for Benin residents to get
exposure to political campaigns as this medium is the favoured mass media channel
for Benin residents. The study further revealed that political campaigns influenced
the voting behaviour of Benin residents to a high extent, this shows political
campaigns played a major role in influencing their voting behaviour. From the
analysis of the data gathered for this study, the obvious conclusion from the study is
that political campaigns influenced the voting behaviour of Benin residents
positively and not negatively.
5.3 Recommendations
Arising from the findings, the study recommends the following:
The internet/social media is an effective mass medium for disseminating
information and thereby a very effective medium for political campaigns. Therefore,
76
political candidates and political parties alike should engage in utilizing the internet
for their political campaign activities.
Political candidates and/or parties in Benin should acknowledge the fact that
the society has gone digital, therefore, the use of the internet/social media as a tool
for reaching audiences should be explored further to maximize voting behaviour
change in Benin residents.
To promote healthy political influence on Benin residents and to avoid
political influence stemming from selfish desires or intentions of political
candidates or parties, mass media channels through the use of the internet/social
media should as a matter of fact carry out deliberate voters education to sensitize
voters on the manipulative tactics of political parties or individuals. Viable voters
orientation programmes should be increased alongside political campaigns.
To promote continuous positive influence of political campaigns on voters, the
media through the internet should continue to put out and promote good political
campaign practices and ethics so as to continue to foster good and healthy political
influence on voters.
77
The internet/social media should be continuously used to promote political
campaigns amongst other contents as it has been seen to be effective in reaching a
large audience than traditional media like newspapers, flyers, radio or television is
known to do.
5.4 Suggestions
Suggestions for further studies include:
While it is known that the media exercise over-ruling influence in shaping
voting behaviour through the messages it puts out for consumption by the masses,
further studies should be carried out to find out if the political campaign messages
being disseminated by political parties and candidates through the media are not just
manipulative ways to influence voters behaviour so as to achieve a political
candidate’s selfish goals.
More extensive studies should be carried out to access or evaluate the negative
influence and dysfunctional roles the political campaign messages in the media has
on the voting behaviour of Benin residents.
78
Further studies should be carried out on the power of the internet/social media
and its effectiveness in reaching a large audience and how it affects and influences
behavioral change.
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge
This study has contributed to knowledge in the following ways:
This research has contributed to knowledge in the sense that it helped
determine the kind of influence political campaigns has on Benin residents. This
study will serve as a continuous reference for future studies to be based upon. This
research will contribute to academic knowledge as its findings can be used for
academic purposes in time to come. This research will help the academic
community as a background to look upon and base other studies on. This research
will help the Mass Communication department of the University of Benin and the
communication community at large to determine the effectiveness of the mass
media in influencing attitude and behavioral change through news and information
dissemination.
79
5.6. Limitations of the Study
During the course of carrying out this research the researcher encountered
some challenges such as: Lack of access to adequate materials on previous studies
to guide the researcher, Finance like the cost of printing and binding. The researcher
also encountered other challenges like lack of adequate power supply. Similarly,
respondents were very reluctant to fill the questionnaire because they were skeptical
and suspicious of the intentions of the researcher even after repeated explanation
from the researcher stating the study was only to be used for academic purposes
only.
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Models of Communication (second edition) Jos: University Press.
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84
APPENDIX
Department of Mass Communication,

University of Benin,
Benin City, Nigeria
October, 2021.
Dear Respondent,
REQUEST FOR COMPLETION OF ITEMS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a final year student of the above named department/institution. I am
conducting a research on, “INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON
VOTING BEHAVIOR OF BENIN RESIDENTS”.

This research is in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a
Bachelor of Arts degree in Mass Communication.
I will be very grateful, if you assist me with useful answers by completing the
questionnaire below. I assure you that your responses will be treated with
confidentiality and the information given will be used strictly for the purpose of this
academic work.
Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.
Yours faithfully,
Akpode Theresa Oghenerionde

Researcher.
85
QUESTIONNAIRE
Instruction: Please kindly tick (√) the appropriate option below
SECTION A: Demographics
1. What is your gender? (a) Male (b) female
2. What age bracket do you belong to?(a)18 - 25 (b) 26 - 35 (c)36 - 45 (d) 46 -
above
3. What is your Educational Qualification? Pry. Sch. Certificate( )
SSCE/WAEC( ) First Degree( ) Masters( )
4. What Religion do you identify with? Christianity ( ) Islam( )
Traditional( )
5. Marital Status? Single ( ) Married( ) Divorced/Separated( )
Widowed( )
6. Occupation? Student ( ) Employed( ) Unemployed( ) Self
Employed( ) Entrepreneur ( )
SECTION B: PSYCHOGRAPHICS
1. Exposure to political campaigns? (a) Strongly agree (b) Agree (c) Strongly
disagree (d) Disagree (e) undecided
86
2. Extent of exposure to political campaigns? (a) Very high (b) High (c) Low (d)
Very low (e) Can’t tell
3. Did you come across political campaigns on Mass Media Channels? (a)
Strongly agree (b) Agree (c) Strongly disagree (d) Disagree (e) undecided
4. Through what channels/medium did you come across political campaigns? (a)
Radio (b) Television (c) Newspapers (d) Billboards (e) Flyers
5. How often do you come across political campaigns? (a) Daily (b) Weekly (c)
Bi-weekly (d) Monthly (e) Yearly
6. Does political campaigns influence your voting behaviour? (a) Strongly agree
(b)
Agree (c) Disagree (d) Strongly disagree (e) Undecided
87
7. To what extent does political campaign influence your voting behaviour? (a)
Very high (b) High (c) Low (d) Very Low (e) Can’t tell
8. Does political campaigns influence your voting behaviour positively? (a) Strongly
agree (b) Agree (c) Strongly disagree (d) Disagree (e) Undecided
9. Does political campaigns influence your voting behaviour negatively? (a)
Strongly agree (b) Agree (c) Strongly disagree (d) disagree (e) Undecided.
89
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INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON VOTING BEHAVIOR OF BENIN RESIDENTS

Theresa OGHENERIONDE Akpode

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE MAT NO: ART1801664

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN BENIN CITY, NIGERIA

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE ART1801664

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, FACULTY OF ARTS,

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING BEHAVIOR OF

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS

I, AKPODE, THERESA OGHENERIONDE declare that this work entitled

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN ON THE VOTING

BEHAVIOR OF BENIN RESIDENTS was written by me and is as a result of my

__________________________________ AKPODE, THERESA

THERESA OGHENERIONDE in the department of Mass Communication,

supervision of PROF. E.S. Asemah.

Joseph Akpode, Emmanuel Akpode and my heavenly brother Raymond Akpode

emotionally throughout the course of this project and my friend Nwabueze

Excellent for her support.

innumerable mercies received. He gave me the inspiration, courage and

determination in the pursuance and completion of this project work.

I am grateful to my project supervisor Prof E. S. Asemah for his time and

My deep appreciation also goes to all those who contributed immensely to my

knowledge in the department of Mass Communication. I cannot forget the

Daniel Ekhareafor the Head of Department, Prof. Ambrose Uchenunu, Dr.

Chukwunonso Nnabuife, Mr. Sunday Ekerikevwe among a host of others. To the

department runs smoothly I appreciate your effort.

encouragement was indeed a boost to the completion of this research work.

doesn’t end after University.

Finally my special appreciate goes to my siblings Akpode Joseph, Blessing

you all for your kindness and prayers.

Table of Contents- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - - - - -1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - - - -4

1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - -5

1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - - - - - - - -6

1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - - - -6

1.6 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - -7

1.7 Operational definitions of Terms - - - - - - - -

2..1.1 History of political campaigns in Nigeria - - - - - - - 10

2.2 Conceptual Review - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

2.2.1 Understanding Voting Behaviour - - - - - - - - - 12

2.2.2 Understanding Political Campaigns - - - - - - - - 13

2.3 Opinion Review - - - - - - - - - - - - 14

2.3.1 Relationship between the Mass Media and Political Campaign - - 14

2.3.2 Factors that influence voting behaviour - - - - - - - -20

2.4. Empirical Studies - - - - - - - - - - - - -21

2.5 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - - - - - -34

2.5.1 Social Judgement/Involvement Theory - - - - - - - -35

2.5.2. Yale’s Persuasive Theory - - - - - - - - - - -37

2.6. Summary of the Chapter - - - - - - - - - - - -38

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research Design - - - - - - - - - - - - -41

3.4. Sampling Technique - - - - - - - - - - - -43

3.5. Research Instrument - - - - - - - - - - - -44