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SCIENCES
LABORATORY MANUAL
PREPARED BY
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Exp No List of Experiments Page No
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INTRODUCTION – PISTON ENGINE
Engine is a device which converts chemical energy of fuel into thermal and to
mechanical energy. A piston engine is a heat engine that uses one or more
reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. In most types, the
linear movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting
rod and a crankshaft mechanism.
In-line engine
V-type engine
Radial engine
Horizontally opposed engine
MAJOR COMPONENTS
CYLINDER
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine the space in
which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a
bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before
receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (lined with a harder
metal) or sleeveless
PISTON
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the
cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the
function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for
the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines,
the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder
wall.
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Material:
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys.
CRANK SHAFT
The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an
engine that translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert
the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or
"crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank,
to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach.
Material:
Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast
in ductile steel. With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro alloyed steels
CAM SHAFT
CONNECTIONG ROD
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VALVES
PROPELLERS
They are essential aircraft parts that provide the necessary thrust for
moving the aircraft. The propeller is connected to the engine by means of a shaft.
The propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades
are attached.
Engines and their components are designed and built to provide many
years of service. For an aircraft to remain in an airworthy condition the following
conditions have to be fulfilled.
Periodic inspection
Repairs
Overhauls and replacements.
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EXP NO:1 STRIPPING OF PISTON ENGINE
AIM:
To dismantle a piston engine and study its components.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
o
Special tools for notching crank shaft.
o
Universal socket for spark plug
o
Selected spanner no: 6-19
o
Ring spanner no: 6-22
o
Adjustable spanner
o
Plier, cutter and screwdriver
o
Value depression tool
o Crow foot spanner
PROCEDURE:
1. Remove controls completely with universal joints.
2. Remove air scoop, plug leads, distribution covers.
3. Remove induction system with carburetor.
4. Unscrew push rod ball socket from rockers.
5. Take out push rod and push rod covers.
6. Remove cylinder baffle plate.
7. Remove cylinder.
8. Remove piston rings.
9. Extract gudgeon pin, air clip.
10. Withdraw gudgeon pin and piston. Remove magnetos.
11. Remove gearbox with timing gear cover.
12. Turn the engine cover on its stand. Remove starter.
13. Remove adaptor, thrust bearing cover and top cover.
14. Detach big and bearing caps. Withdraw connecting rod.
15. Remove main, intermediate bearing caps.
16. Lift crankshaft. Unscrew idle gear hub bolt.
17. Draw off gear wheel. Remove magneto drivers.
18. Unscrew camshaft gagging the gear.
19. Remove camshaft rear bearing bush.
20. Withdraw camshaft. Remove tappet and guides.
21. The parts are kept for visual inspection.
RESULT:
Thus the stripping of piston engine is carried according to instructions in the
manufacturer’s maintenance manual.
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EXP NO: 2 PISTON ENGINE - CLEANING, VISUAL INSPECTION,
NDT CHECKS
AIM:
To perform cleaning, visual inspection and NDT checks for the following
piston engine components.
1.Cylinder head
2.Cylinder barrel
3.Crankshaft
4.Piston assembly
5.Connecting Rod
6.Cam shaft
TOOLS REQUIRED:
i. Dip Basket
ii. Stud removal tool
iii. Spark Plug insert tool
iv. Hand Brace with drill bit
v. Drifts
vi. Magnifying Glass
vii. Cleaning basket
viii. Surface plate
ix. Arbor
x. Tapered sleeve
PROCEDURE:
1) CYLINDER HEAD
Cleaning:
Clean the cylinder head with petroleum solvent and dip it in the petroleum
agent using the cleaning basket.
Visual Inspection:
1. Inspect the cylinder head visually using magnifying glass and a
powerful light source for loose, scored pitted or damaged valve seat.
2. Similarly ,inspect the cylinder head for
2 ) CYLINDER BARREL
Cleaning:
Clean the cylinder barrel with petroleum solvent and dip it in the
petroleum agent using the cleaning basket.
Visual Inspection:
Inspect the barrel visually for general flaws, cracks and conditions
1. Cooling fins-check for nicks and notches for needed profile with a
hand grinder or file
2. Barrel-check for cracks which may be a cause for rejection
5. Inside Barrel- inspect for scoring, corrosion etc. Honing can be done
for minor repairs
3) CRANKSHAFT
Visual Inspection:
8. Check crank pin for parallelism. Error allowed is 0.0016” per unit length.
9. Check if propeller shaft has a tapered end in the hub.
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10. Check propeller shaft for threads and keyways for burrs and beveling.
11. Check oil seal retainer and sealing for burrs and correct seating.
12. Carry out static and dynamic hardness tests.
4) PISTON ASSEMBLY :
Cleaning:
Check for completeness of the piston assembly and clean it by dipping in petroleum
solvent
Visual Inspection:
1. Examine the piston surface for excessive pitting, cavities or surface distortion
2. Check the piston rings, lands and piston grooves, piston pin holes and hole
bases for any damages.
5) CONNECTING ROD:
Visual Inspection
1. Check the connecting rod big end caps for cracks & surface defects by hot oil
& check method
2. Check the rods for notches & abrasions, general condition of big end bearing
and security of dowels.
3. Measure the small end diameter and compare it with external diameter
of gudgeon pin.
4. Check the NIP in the big end bearings and check the internal
dimensions with feeler gauge
5. Check the connecting rod for alignment and twist.
6. Check the CR bolts for elongation and the bolts & nuts for general
conditions of thread.
7. Check for hardness.
6 ) CAM SHAFT
Visual Inspection:
1. Check for cracks by contact current method.
2. Check for corrosion, pitting etc.
NDT CHECKS:
To find the crack or invincible defect in the components and internal defect
using various NDT Techniques
Requirements:
1. Dye Penetrant
2. Developer
3. Remover
Procedure:
This method is useful to identify the presence of defect over the surface only
Equipment Required:
Theory:
The Master timer triggers the signal pulse generator at required intervals. The signal
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generator sends a high frequency alternate voltage to the transducer. The transducer
generates pulse of ultra-sonic waves. When there is a discontinuity (crack) in the wave
path part of energy is reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflective pulse causes
the receiving transducer element to vibrate inducing alternating electrical voltage
across the transducer which can be seen in the CRT monitor in wave form of different
peaks.
PROCEDURE:
d= vt/2
RESULT:
Thus the inspection and NDT checks of the piston engine components are
carried out as per instructions given in manufacturer’s maintenance manual.
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EXP NO: 3 PISTON ENGINE COMPONENTS - DIMENSIONAL CHECKS
AIM:
To do dimensional checks for the following piston engine components.
1) Cylinder head
2) Cylinder barrel
3) Crankshaft
4) Piston assembly
5) Connecting Rod
6) Cam shaft
TOOLS REQUIRED:
Micrometer
Dial gauge and indicator
Vernier caliper
Telescopic gauge
Plug gauge
Magnifying glass
Screw Gauge
PROCEDURE
CYLINDER HEAD
1. Check internal dimensions of intake and exhaust valves.
2. Check diameter and roundness of guide bore with gauge.
3. Check wear and tear in rocker arm bush.
CYLINDER BARREL
CRANKSHAFT
PISTON ASSEMBLY
1. Check inside diameter of piston pinhole (0.03”-0.004”).
2. Check clearance between piston skit and cylinder and piston diameter top
and bottom (0.021”).
3. Check outside diameter of piston pin against inside diameter of hole
in piston (0.0002”-0.001”).
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4. Measure fit between piston and plug and checks outside
diameter of plugs (0.0002”-0.001”).
CONNECTING ROD
CAM SHAFT
RESULT:
Thus the Piston engine components are viewed and its dimensions are
checked with the manufacturers’ maintenance manual.
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EXP. NO. 04 REASSEMBLY OF PISTON ENGINE
AIM:
To re-assemble the piston engine after inspection and dimensional checks.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
a. Special universal socket for spark plug
b. Set spanners 6’-19’
c. Ring spanners 6’-22’
d. Adjustable spanner
e. Pliers and cutters
f. Screwdriver different sizes
g. Hammer
h. Value depression tool
i. Crow foot spanner
PROCEDURE:
a. Insert the tappet and the guides in the crank case.
b. Fix the camshaft after positioning bearing bush.
c. Fix the magneto drive gear.
d. Fix the idle gear and screw the hub bolt.
e. Fix the crankshaft and position the bearing caps.
f. Fix the connecting rod and the bearing caps.
g. Position the top crankcase and then tighten all bolts and nuts.
h. Fix the gearbox with timing gear cover.
i. Fix the magnetos.
j. Fix the position in the connecting rod.
k. Assemble the piston rings on the piston groove and insert the cylinder
over piston and tighten all cylinder large nuts.
l. Fix the cylinder baffle plates.
m. Position the push rod covers and push rods.
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n. Fix the rocker shafts.
o. Fix the induction system and carburetor.
p. Fix the air scoop, plug heads with distribution cover.
q. Fix the carburetor controls with universal rods.
r. Fix the starter and other accessories.
s. Fix the spark plug in cylinder head bush and tighten to connect torques and
connect the plug leads.
t. Fix the rocker covers.
RESULT:
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EXP NO: 5 PROPELLER PITCH SETTING
AIM:
TOOLS REQUIRED:
Surface table
Degree marked protractor with mounting stand
PROCEDURE:
1. Attach the propeller on the hub stand and place it on the surface table.
2. Now position the protractor head near the propeller hub station with surface table.
3. Now check the angle of the blade near to the hub station.
4. The propeller stations are at a distance from the hub and tip varies from propeller
to propeller.
5. The blade angle is checked from the hub to the tip by moving the protractor in all
directions of the blade stations and also referred the maintenance manual for the
particular airplane adjustment.
6. The propeller track also checked with the help of weight gauge on the surface table.
RESULT:
Thus the propeller pitch is checked at various stations and compared with
values in maintenance manual.
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EX.NO:5.(b) FIXED PITCH PROPELLER BALANCING
AIM:
TOOLS REQUIRED:
PROCEDURE:
RESULT:
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INTRODUCTION TO JET ENGINE
The major components of a jet engine are similar across the major different types of
engines, although not all engine types have all components. The major parts include:
COLD SECTION:
Air intake (Inlet) — the standard reference frame for a jet engine is the aircraft
itself. For subsonic aircraft, the air intake to a jet engine presents no special difficulties,
and consists essentially of an opening which is designed to minimize drag, as with any
other aircraft component. However, the air reaching the compressor of a normal jet
engine must be travelling below the speed of sound, even for supersonic aircraft, to
sustain the flow mechanics of the compressor and turbine blades. At supersonic flight
speeds, shockwaves form in the intake system and reduce the recovered pressure at inlet
to the compressor. So some supersonic intakes use devices, such as a cone or ramp, to
increase pressure recovery, by making more efficient use of the shock wave system.
Bypass ducts much of the thrust of essentially all modern jet engines comes from air
from the front compressor that bypasses the combustion chamber and gas turbine section
that leads directly to the nozzle or afterburner (where fitted).
Common shaft — the shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs
most of the length of the engine. There may be as many as three concentric shafts,
rotating at independent speeds, with as many sets of turbines and compressors. Other
services, like a bleed of cool air, may also run down the shaft.
HOT SECTION:
Turbine — The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a windmill, gaining
energy from the hot gases leaving the combustor. Some of this energy is used to drive the
compressor, and in some turbine engines (i.e. turboprop, turbo shaft or turbofan engines),
energy is extracted by additional turbine discs and used to drive devices such as propellers,
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bypass fans or helicopter rotors. One type, a free turbine, is configured such that the turbine
disc driving the compressor rotates independently of the discs that power the external
components. Relatively cool air, bled from the compressor, may be used to cool the turbine
blades and vanes, to prevent them from melting.
Exhaust or Nozzle — hot gases leaving the engine exhaust to atmospheric pressure via
a nozzle, the objective being to produce a high velocity jet. In most cases, the nozzle is
convergent and of fixed flow area.
The various components named above have constraints on how they are put together to
generate the most efficiency or performance. The performance and efficiency of an engine can
never be taken in isolation; for example fuel/distance efficiency of a supersonic jet engine
maximizes at about Mach 2, whereas the drag for the vehicle carrying it is increasing as a square
law and has much extra drag in the transonic region. The highest fuel efficiency for the overall
vehicle is thus typically at Mach ~0.85.
For the engine optimization for its intended use, important here is air intake design, overall size,
number of compressor stages (sets of blades), fuel type, number of exhaust stages, metallurgy of
components, amount of bypass air used, where the bypass air is introduced, and many other
factors. For instance, let us consider design of the air intake
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EX.NO:6 STRIPPING OF JET ENGINE
AIM:
TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Loosen the fine nuts using appropriate spanner and remove the inlet case from
the accessory case.
2. Loosen the 10 nuts using no 10-11 set of ring spanner and detach air casing from
compressor case.
3. Remove 15 bolts using no 8-9 set spanners. Detach compressor casing from diffuser.
4. Loosen retaining nut with C-spanner and remove centrifugal impeller.
5. Remove front roller bearing and the sleeve.
6. Remove 2 ignition connection and fuel turners from the combustion chamber outer
case.
7. Now take out the turbine along with the shaft from the rear side.
8. Take out the combustion chamber.
9. Loosen the bolts and nuts from the exhaust pipe flange and detach the exhaust
pipe from the combustion chamber.
10. Loosen the clamps of the propelling nozzle and disconnect the nozzle from the
exhaust pipe.
11. Keep all the removed parts separately in the cleaned tray in sequence so that
there is no possibility of mixing with each other.
12. Wherever blanking is required, blank it and place identification slips.
RESULT:
Thus the turbojet engine in dismantled and the components are studied.
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EX.NO:7 JET ENGINE – IDENTIFICATION OF COMPONENTS AND
DEFECTS
AIM:
To identify the Jet engine components and its defects
TOOLS REQUIRED:
¾ *1/4 BS or 12-13 set spanner
10-11 set of ring spanner
8-9 set of ring spanner
C-spanner
Common screw driver
Ball peen spanner
plier and side cutter
PROCEDURE:
1. Loosen all the nuts and bolts, clamps of jet engine components.
2. Identify each and every component of the Jet engine such as
Reduction gear box
Compressor Intake
Compressor Vanes
Combustion Chamber and Casing
Turbine
Nozzle
Exhaust Duct
3. Keep all the removed parts separately in the cleaned tray in sequence so that there is no
possibility of mixing with each other.
4. Clean all the components using solvents such as Stoddard solvent to remove the dirt or
grease or oil.
5. Check the components for defects by doing visual inspection.
COMPONENTS DEFECTS
Reduction-gearbox Remove and inspect oil
strainer for foreign matter
Compressor –inlet Remove air inlet screen , inspect
compressor inlet areas for dirt deposits,
corrosion , erosion and cracks
Compressor -turbine,; Cracks, distortion ,erosion and metal
disk and blade buildup, blade thickness
assembly
Compressor-turbine Any amount of coating loss is acceptable
vane ring and shroud provided burning of parent metal has not
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housing occurred, vane corrosion
RESULT:
Thus the jet engine components are identified and defects are found.
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EX NO: 8 JET ENGINE – NDT CHECKS AND DIMENSIONAL CHECKS
AIM:
To do NDT Checks for the defective jet engine components and dimensional checks
A fiberscope is a flexible fiber-optic bundle with an eyepiece on one end and a lens on the
other that is used to examine and inspect small, difficult-to-reach places such as the insides
of machines, locks, and the human body.
WORKING:
Fiberscopes work by utilizing the science of fiber-optic bundles, which consist of numerous
fiber-optic cables. Fiber-optic cables are made of optically pure glass and are as thin as a
human’s hair. The three main components of a fiber-optic cable are:
COMPONENTS:
Eyepiece – Magnifies the image carried back by the imaging bundle so the human eye can
view it.
Imaging bundle – Continuous strand of flexible glass fibers that transmit the image to the
eyepiece.
Distal lens – The combination of micro lenses that take images and focus them into the small
imaging bundle.
Illumination system- A Fiber optic light guide that relays light from the source to the target
area
Articulation system- The ability of the user to control the movement of the bending section of
the fiberscope that is directly attached to the distal lens.
Fiberscope body – The control section that is designed to help aide one hand operation.
Insertion tube – Most of the length of the fiberscope, made to be durable and flexible. This
protects the optical fiber bundle and the articulation cables.
Bending section – The most flexible part of the fiberscope, it connects the insertion tube to
the distal viewing section.
Distal section – Where the ending points of both the illumination and imaging fiber bundle
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EDDY CURRENT METHOD
REQUIREMENT:
THEORY:
The changing current in the coil creates an alternating magnetic field. The varying magnetic
field in the crack creates electrical Eddy current in the material. Discontinuities in the
crack will alter the magnitude and direction of Eddy Current and direction of Eddy
Current and this can be seen in the analog meter.
PROCEDURE:
DIMENSIONAL CHECKS:
TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Vernier Caliper
2. Screw Gauge
3. Ruler
4. Micrometer
COMPRESSOR INTAKE:
1. Check the inner and outer diameter , bore diameter using Vernier caliper
2. Measure the flange thickness using screw gauge
3. Find the length of the compressor
GEAR BOX:
1. Measure the outside diameter , shaft diameter and gear bore diameter using vernier
caliper
2. Find the height of the gear box
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COMPRESSOR INTAKE:
TAIL RACE
1. Find out the outside , inside and hole diameter of the tail race.
TURBINE
1. Find the length of the Nozzle and exhaust cone length using Vernier caliper.
2. Check the thickness of the flange.
RESULT:
Thus the inspection and NDT checks of the piston engine components are carried out as
per instructions given in manufacturer’s maintenance manual.
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EX.NO:9 JET ENGINES – REASSEMBLY
AIM:
To assemble a turbojet engine in a proper sequence.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
¾ *1/4 BS or 12-13 set spanner
10-11 set of ring spanner
8-9 set of ring spanner
C-spanner
Common screwdriver
Ball peen spanner
plier and side cutter
PROCEDURE:
RESULT:
Thus the turbojet engine is assembled as per the maintenance manual instructions
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EX.NO: 10 ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURE
AIM:
To study the starting problem of engine
4. For turbine engine a/c strong tail wind could result increased jet pipe temp
(JPT) during start.
5. In a turbo prop engine if wind rotates propeller in opposite direction of
rotation then do not start the engine.
6. During cold condition before starting piston engine 2 or 3 rotation of propeller
should be given by hand to remove the air.
7. Priming of piston engine cylinder should be carried out if necessary
8. In a piston engine if engine fire develops during starting then continue
cracking to start the engine to blow out the fire.
PRECAUTIONS:
The ground power unit and CO2 fire extinguisher trolley are to be stationed near the a/c.
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PROCEDURE FOR STARTING THE ENGINE
PISTON ENGINE:
JET ENGINE:
1. Place the start selector switch to the desired engine and the start arming switch (if so
equipped) to ‘start position’
2. Turn the a/c boost pumps on
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3. Place the fuel and ignition switch on
4. Position the low rpm switch in low or normal (high)
5. Make sure that the power lever is in the ‘start’ position: If the propeller is not at the ‘start’
position. Difficulty may be encountered in making a start.
6. Depress the start switch and if printing is necessary depress the primer button.
7. Make sure the fuel pump parallel light comes on at or above 2200 rpm and remains on
upto 900 rpm.
8. Check the oil pressure and temperature maintain the power level at the ‘start’ position
until the specified minimum oil temperature is reached.
9. Disconnect the ground power supply.
RESULT:
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EX NO: 11 STUDY OF COMPRESSION TESTING OF THE PISTON ENGINE
CYLINDER
AIM:
COMPRESSION TESTING:
The purpose of testing the cylinder, compression is to determine the internal condition of
the combustion chamber by ascertaining if any appreciable leakage is occurring.
Types of Compression Testers- The two basic types of compression testers currently in
use are
PROCEDURE:
1. When the spark plugs are removed, identify the cylinders to which they belong. Close
examination of the plugs will reveal the actual operating conditions and aid in diagnosing
problems in the cylinders.
2. Review the operating and maintenance records of the engine. Records of previous
compression tests reveal progressive wear conditions and help to establish the necessary
maintenance approach.
3. Precautions should be taken to prevent the accidental starting of the engine. Remove all
spark plug leads, and place them so that the spark plugs cannot fire.
4. The differential-pressure compression equipment must be kept clean and should be
checked regularly for accuracy. Check equipment with the shutoff valve closed and
regulated pressure at 80 psi [552 kPa]-the cylinder pressure gage must indicate 80 ± 2 psi
[552 ± 13.8 kPa]and hold this reading for at least 5s.
5. Combustion chambers with five piston rings tend to seal better than those with three or
four, with the result that the differential-pressure tester does not consistently show
excessive wear or breakage where five piston rings are involved.
6. If erratic readings are observed on the equipment, inspect the compression tester for
water or dirt.
Record all readings and compare to specifications. It indicates the actual pressure in the
cylinder.
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PROCEDURE:
PRINCIPLE
The regulator air pressure is applied to one side of the orifice with
the air valve closed and no leakage on the other side of the orifice, and then
both the pr. gauge will read the same. When the air valve is opened the
leakage through the cylinder increases. The cylinder pr. gauge will record a
proportionally low reading.
PROCEDURE:
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13. If the leakage is more than 25% go for the wet test.
1. Air is leaking through crank case breather (leakage around the piston
rings or hole in the piston)
2. Air leaking from the valve because of the carbon piece (can be hear air
exiting from the exhaust stacks)
RESULT:
Thus the compression testing of the piston engine is studied.
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