Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Textbook Anthropology A Global Perspective 8Th Edition Raymond Scupin PH D Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Anthropology A Global Perspective 8Th Edition Raymond Scupin PH D Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Anthropology A Global Perspective 8Th Edition Raymond Scupin PH D Ebook All Chapter PDF
https://textbookfull.com/product/anthropology-a-global-
perspective-9th-edition-raymond-scupin/
https://textbookfull.com/product/nesters-microbiology-a-human-
perspective-8th-edition-anderson/
https://textbookfull.com/product/punk-crisis-the-global-punk-
rock-revolution-raymond-a-patton/
https://textbookfull.com/product/police-misconduct-a-global-
perspective-roberson/
Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective Gary
Ferraro
https://textbookfull.com/product/cultural-anthropology-an-
applied-perspective-gary-ferraro/
https://textbookfull.com/product/cultural-anthropology-a-toolkit-
for-a-global-age-kenneth-j-guest/
https://textbookfull.com/product/flood-forecasting-a-global-
perspective-1st-edition-adams/
https://textbookfull.com/product/transportation-a-global-supply-
chain-perspective-coyle/
https://textbookfull.com/product/forensic-justice-a-global-
perspective-1st-edition-beulah-shekhar/
Anthropology
A Global Perspective
Eighth Edition
This page intentionally left blank
Anthropology
A Global Perspective
Eighth Edition
Raymond Scupin
Lindenwood University
Christopher R. DeCorse
Syracuse University
Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced with permission appear in the
appropriate Credits sections at the end of the book.
Copyright © 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. This digital publication is
protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited repro-
duction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise except as authorized for use under the product subscription through
which this digital application is accessed. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the
appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit
www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and REVEL are exclusive trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries
owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates.
Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of
their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demon-
strative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement,
authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between
the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors.
2014044490
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Student Edition
ISBN-10: 0-13-400486-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-400486-0
Instructor’s Review Copy:
ISBN-10: 0-13-400500-7
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-400500-3
Á La Carte
ISBN-10: 0-13-400512-0
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-400512-6
Contents
Preface xiii Inheritance and Molecular Genetics 52
About the Authors xvii Cells and Genes 52
The Role of DNA 53
1 Introduction to Anthropology 1 Mitosis and Meiosis 53
Anthropology: The Four Subfields 2 Polygenic Inheritance 53
Biological Anthropology 2 Epigenetic Factors 54
Archaeology 5 Population Genetics and Evolution 54
Linguistic Anthropology 6 Mutations 54
Cultural Anthropology 8 Gene Flow 55
Applied Anthropology 9 Genetic Drift 55
Holistic Anthropology, Interdisciplinary Research, Natural Selection 55
and the Global Perspective 12 Cultural, Behavioral, and Epigenetic Factors 55
Anthropological Explanations 13 How Do New Species Originate? 56
The Scientific Method 13 Measuring Evolutionary Change 56
Humanistic Interpretive Approaches in Anthropology 14 Speciation 57
Why Study Anthropology? 16 Adaptive Radiation 58
Critical Thinking and Global Awareness 16 The Evolution of Life 59
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 17 Analogy and Homology 59
Blood Chemistry and DNA 60
Key Terms 18
Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift 60
2 The Record of the Past 19 The Paleontological Record 61
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 64
Answering Questions 20
Key Terms 66
Paleoanthropological Study 22
Fossils and Fossil Localities 23 4 The Primates 67
Archaeological Research 25
Primate Characteristics 68
The Archaeological Record 27
Movement and Locomotion 68
Locating Sites and Fossil Localities 29
Dentition, Eyesight, and Brain Size 68
Subsurface Archaeological Testing and Survey 30
Reproduction and Maturation 70
Remote Sensing 30
Classification of Primates 70
Archaeological Excavation 32
Primate Subdivisions 72
Dating Methods 32 Classification of Fossil Primates 72
Numerical or Absolute Dating 37
Evolution of the Primate Order 72
Interpretations About the Past 40 Prosimians 73
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 40 Evolution of the Anthropoids 75
Key Terms 41 Emergence of the Hominoids 78
Modern Apes 81
3 Evolution 42 Primate Behavior 84
Cosmologies and Human Origins 43 The Human Primate 87
Western Traditions of Origins 43 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 88
The Scientific Revolution 44 Key Terms 89
Catastrophism versus Uniformitarianism 45
Theory of Evolution 45
5 Hominin Evolution 90
Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection 46 Trends in Hominin Evolution 91
Examples of Natural Selection 47 Bipedalism 91
Principles of Inheritance 49 Reduction of the Face, Teeth, and Jaws 94
Mendel and Modern Genetics 49 Increase in Cranial Capacity 95
v
vi Contents
Fossil Evidence for Hominin Evolution 95 Current Approaches to Human Variation 139
The Oldest Hominins 95 Clinal Distribution 139
Australopithecus anamensis: Early Hominins Multivariate Analysis 140
from Lake Turkana 97 Current Perspectives 140
Australopithecus afarensis 97 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 140
The Laetoli Footprints 99 Key Terms 142
Australopithecus africanus 100
The Robust Australopithecines: Branches on 7 The Paleolithic 143
the Family Tree 100
The Origins of Genus Homo 103 Lifestyles of the Earliest Hominins 144
Homo erectus 103 Primate Models of Early Hominin Behavior 144
The Archaeological Record 146
Interpreting the Fossil Record 105
Oldowan Sites and Early Hominin Behavior 147
Changing Views 106
Current Perspectives 108 The Life and Times of Genus Homo 149
Genetic Differences and Hominin Evolution 109 The Archaeological Record and the Acheulean
Industry 151
From Homo erectus to Homo sapiens 110
The Middle Paleolithic 156
Transitional Forms 110
Changes in Technology and Subsistence 156
The Evolution of Homo sapiens 111
The Neandertals 157
Genetic Data and Modern Human Origins 113
Modern Homo sapiens and Their Cultures 158
Mitochondrial Eve 113
The Material Record of Homo sapiens 159
Paternal Genetic Ancestry 114
Ethnicity and Social Organization 160
Archaic and Anatomically Modern
Upper Paleolithic Art 161
Homo sapiens 114
The Migration of Upper Paleolithic Humans 163
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 115
Upper Paleolithic Hunters in the Americas 163
Denisovans or the Denisova hominins 117
Homo sapiens in Asia, Australia, and Oceania 166
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 117
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 167
Key Terms 119
Key Terms 169
6 Human Variation 120 8 The Origins of Domestication
Sources of Human Variation 121 and Settled Life 170
Genetics and Evolution 121
The End of the Paleolithic: Changes in Climate
The Physical Environment 122
and Culture 171
Culture 122
Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic, and Archaic Technology 171
Evaluating Reasons for Variation 122
The Neolithic: Origins of Food Production 176
Adaptive Aspects of Human Variation 123
Evidence for Domestication 176
Body Hair and Sweat Glands 123
Why Did Domestication Occur? 179
Skin Color 123
The Oasis Theory 179
Body Build 125
The Readiness Hypothesis 180
Cranial and Facial Features 126
A Push Toward Domestication? The Environment,
Biochemical Characteristics 126 Population Growth, and Demographic Stress 180
Sickle-Cell Anemia 127 Coevolution 181
Lactase Deficiency 128 Agricultural Origins in Perspective 181
Effects of the Physical Environment 129 Domestication in Different Regions of the World 182
High-Altitude Adaptations 129 Southwest Asia 182
Cultural Factors in Human Evolution 130 Europe 183
The Impact of Modern Urban Life 131 East Asia 185
The Concept of Race 132 South Asia 186
Ancient Classification Systems 132 Africa 187
Early “Scientific” Studies of Race 134 The Origins of Domestication in the Americas 189
Limitations of Early Classification Systems 135 South America 190
Geographical Races 135 North America 192
Heredity and Intelligence 136 Consequences of Domestication 193
Problems in Measuring Intelligence 136 Human Settlement and Population Growth 193
Contents vii
Health and Nutrition 193 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 241
Increasing Material Complexity 195 Key Terms 242
Sociopolitical Organization 195
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 195 11 The Process of Enculturation:
Key Terms 197 Psychological and Cognitive
Anthropology 243
9 The Rise of the State and Biology versus Culture 244
Complex Society 198 Instincts and Human Nature 245
The State and Civilization 199 Human Beings as Animals 245
Types of Political Systems 199 Instincts in Animals 245
Agricultural States 200 Instincts and Learned Behaviors 246
Studying Complex Societies 201 Do Humans Possess Instincts? 246
Settlement Patterns and Organization 201 Drives 247
Monumental Architecture 202 Culture versus Instinct 247
Specialization 203 Enculturation: Culture and Personality 247
Status and Social Ranking 204 Early Studies of Enculturation 248
Trade and Exchange 205 Childhood Acquisition of Cultural Knowledge 251
The Archaeology of Religion 206 Psychoanalytic Approaches in Anthropology 252
Written Language 206 Sigmund Freud’s Influence 252
Theories about State Formation 208 Understanding Incest Avoidance and the Incest Taboo 253
Integrationist or Voluntaristic Perspectives 208 Biological Explanations of Incest Avoidance 253
Conflict or Coercive Theories 209 Marital Alliance and the Incest Taboo 254
Multicausal (or Multivariant) Theories of Childhood Familiarity Hypothesis 254
State Formation 210 Incest Avoidance: Biocultural or Interactionist
Conclusions about Early State Formation 211 Perspectives 255
States in Different World Areas 213 Enculturation and the Sex Drive 257
Civilizations in Southwest Asia 213 Codes of Sexual Behavior 257
Early Asian Civilizations 215 Sexuality and Culture 257
South Asia: The Indus Valley 216 Enculturation and Cognition 258
Agricultural Civilizations in Africa 216 Structuralism 258
Empires of the Americas 220 Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky 259
Andean Civilizations 221 Cognitive Anthropology 260
The Collapse of State Societies 223 Evolutionary Psychology 262
Reasons for Collapse 223 Enculturation and Emotions 263
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 224 Neuroanthropology 264
Key Terms 225 The Limits of Enculturation 265
Unique Biological Tendencies 265
10 Culture 226 Individual Variation and Agency 265
The Characteristics of Culture 227 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 266
Culture is Learned 227 Key Terms 268
Symbols and Symbolic Learning 228
Culture is Shared 230
12 Language 269
Aspects of Culture 230 Nonhuman Communication 270
Values 231 Teaching Apes to Sign 270
Beliefs 232 Ape Sign Language Reexamined 271
Norms 233 Ethological Research on Ape Communication 272
Ideal versus Real Culture 234 Animal Communication and Human Language 273
Cultural Diversity 234 Productivity 273
Food and Diversity 235 Displacement 273
Dress Codes and Symbolism 238 Arbitrariness 273
Ethnicity 239 Combining Sounds to Produce Meanings 274
Cultural Universals 240 The Evolution of Language 274
viii Contents
18 Politics, Warfare, and Law 411 Art and Music in Tribal Societies
Musical Traditions
443
444
Politics, Warfare, and Law 412 Religion in Chiefdoms 444
Decision Making in a Political System 412 Shamanism in Chiefdoms 445
Warfare and Feuds 413 Human Sacrifice 445
Law and Social Control 413 Art, Architecture, and Music 445
Political Organization in Foraging societies 414 Music 446
Characteristics of Leadership 414 Religion in Agricultural States 446
Warfare and Violence in Foraging Societies 415 Ecclesiastical Religions 447
Conflict Resolution 415 Divine Rulers, Priests, and Religious Texts 447
Political Organization in Horticultural and Universalistic Religions 448
Pastoralist Tribes 416 Hinduism 448
Sodalities 416 Buddhism 449
How Leaders are Chosen 416 Judaism 450
Pastoralist Tribal Politics 417 Christianity 451
Explaining Tribal Warfare 418 Protestantism 451
Law and Conflict Resolution among Tribes 421 Islam 452
Political Authority in Chiefdoms 422 Art, Architecture, and Music 454
The Evolution of Chiefdoms 423 Religion and Secularization in Industrial and
Law in Chiefdoms 424 Postindustrial Societies 455
Politics in Agricultural States 424 Religion in Socialist States 455
Law in Agricultural States 425 Religion in Japan 455
Mediation and Self-Help 425 Art and Music 456
Political Organization in Industrial and Music 456
Postindustrial States 426 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 458
Political Organization in Socialist States 428 Key Terms 460
Industrialism and State Bureaucracy 428
Law 428 20 Globalization, Culture, and
Japanese Law 428 Indigenous Societies 461
Warfare and Industrial Technology in Industrial Globalization: A Contested Term 462
and Postindustrial States 429 Globalization: Technological and Economic Trends 463
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 430 Globalization: General Theoretical Approaches 464
Key Terms 431 Modernization Theory 464
Dependency Theory 467
19 Religion and Aesthetics 432 World-Systems Theory 468
Religion 433 Anthropological Analysis and Globalization 470
Myth and Ritual 434 Globalization, Politics, and Culture 471
Rituals 434 Globalization and Indigenous Peoples 472
Rites of Passage 434 Vanishing Foragers 472
Religious Specialists 436 Tribes in Transition 475
Religious Movements 436 Chiefdoms in Transition 478
Cognition and Religion 436 Forms of Resistance among Indigenous Peoples 480
Revitalization among Native Americans 480
Aesthetics: Art and Music 438
Melanesia and New Guinea: The Cargo Cults 482
Religion among Foragers 439
A Hawaiian Religious Renaissance 483
The Dreamtime 439
A Lost Opportunity? 484
Inuit Religion 439
Native American Knowledge 484
Art, Music, and Religion 441
Preserving Indigenous Societies 485
Religion Among Horticulturalists
Pro- and Anti-globalization: An Anthropological
and Pastoralists 442
Contribution 485
Animism and Shamanism in South America 442
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 488
Witchcraft and Sorcery 442
Key Terms 489
Totemism 443
Contents xi
Boxes
Anthropologists at Work
John Hawks: Physical (or Biological) Anthropologist Nancy Rosenberg: Gender, Food, Globalization and
Kelley Hays-Gilpin: Archaeologist Culture
Bonnie Urciuoli: Linguistic Anthropologist Russell Bernard: Saving Languages
Scott Atran: Cultural Anthropologist Gabriella Coleman: The Ethnography of Hackers and Geeks
A. Peter Castro: Applied Anthropologist Eric Wolf: A Global Anthropologist
Scott Madry: Google Earth and Armchair Archaeology Susan Brownell: Ethnography in China
George Fletcher Bass: Underwater Archaeologist Akbar Ahmed: Globalization and the Islamic World
Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey: Primatologists in the Field Clyde Collins Snow: Forensic Anthropologist
Donald Johanson: Paleoanthropologist John McCreery: Applying Anthropology in Japan
Grahame Clark and the Mesolithic
Critical Perspectives
Engendering Archaeology: The Role of Women in Aztec The Origins of Maize
Mexico War before Civilization?
Historical Archaeology Contacts between Two Worlds?
Underwater Archaeology The Downfall of the Moche
Planetary-Level Extinctions Key National Symbols
Creationism, Intelligent Design, and Evolution The Anthropology of the “Self”
What’s in a Name? Primate Classification and Taxonomy Human Aggression: Biological or Cultural?
Interpreting the Fayum Fossils Were There Matriarchal States?
The Piltdown Fraud Graduation: A Rite of Passage in U.S. Society
Race and Genetics: The Human Genome Project Globalization and McDonald’s
Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and the Aryan Master Race The Elgin Marbles
Could Early Hominins Speak? The Evolution of Language Ethical Controversies in El Dorado
Preface
Educational Goals and materials from numerous geographical regions and his-
torical eras to enrich student understanding. In evaluating
Orientation of This Text human evolution, prehistoric events, language divergence,
or developments in social structure, anthropologists must
The world has become a small place. Global communica- rely on a diachronic approach, and draw on models that
tions, international trade, geopolitical events, and ease of accommodate change through time.
travel have brought people from different cultures into
more intimate contact than ever before, forcing this gen-
eration of students to become more knowledgeable about
societies other than their own. This textbook is grounded Three Unifying Themes
in the belief that enhanced global awareness is essential
for people preparing to take their place in the intercon- of This Text
nected world of the twenty-first century. Anthropology is In the previous edition of this textbook, we emphasized
ideally suited to introduce students to this global perspec- three unifying themes that structured the material pre-
tive. Through exploring the range of human diversity, the sented. These have been retained and expanded in this
subfields of anthropology help liberate students from nar- eighth edition. The first two themes we introduce students
row, parochial views and enable them to appreciate the full to are the diversity of human societies and cultural patterns
sweep of the human condition. the world over and the similarities that make all humans fun-
The anthropological perspective, which stresses criti- damentally alike. To achieve these two objectives, we pay as
cal thinking, the evaluation of competing hypotheses, and much attention to universal human characteristics as we
the skills to generalize from specific data, is fundamental do to local cultural contexts and conditions. We emphasize
to a well-rounded education. This text engages readers the growing interconnectedness of humanity and both the
in anthropology by delving into both classic and current positive and negative consequences of this reality. We draw
research. It reflects a commitment to anthropology’s holis- on anthropological studies to discover how people are
tic and integrative approach, demonstrating how the four responding to the process of globalization.
basic subfields of anthropology—biological anthropol- The third theme, which we emphasize more promi-
ogy, archaeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology— nently in this edition, focuses on the interconnections
together yield a comprehensive understanding of humanity. between the sciences and humanities within anthropol-
Insights from each of the subfields are woven together to ogy. We call this the synthetic-complementary approach, which
reveal how anthropologists unlock the working of a partic- views the scientific method and the methods in the human-
ular society or discover the threads that unite human soci- ities as complementary and suggests that one is incomplete
eties in the past and present. In examining anthropological without the other. This theme had been mentioned in previ-
research, this text often draws on research from other dis- ous editions, but we make it much more of a centerpiece
ciplines, including an array of findings from biology, pale- in this one. This third important theme dovetails with the
ontology, history, psychology, sociology, political science, two other themes, demonstrating how human behavior is
religious studies, and research in other areas that shed light unique to a specific culture, and yet is also universal. This
on anthropological inquiry. Exploring interactions between point resonates with an observation made by the late Eric
anthropology and other fields further underscores anthro- Wolf. In another anthropology textbook published decades
pology’s unique, holistic perspective that sparks the critical ago, Wolf emphasized that anthropology has always had
imagination that brings the learning process to life. one foot in the sciences and the other foot in the humani-
The comparative approach, another cornerstone of ties. This observation is even truer today. Wolf said,
anthropology, is also highlighted throughout the text. “Anthropology is both the most scientific of the humanities
When anthropologists assess fossil evidence, artifacts, and the most humanistic of the sciences” (1964, 88). Wolf
languages, or cultural beliefs, they weigh the evidence was kind enough to give us suggestions in developing this
from a comparative perspective, even as they acknowl- textbook, and we would like to carry on the tradition that
edge the unique elements of each case, society, or culture. he emphasized in his work.
Anthropologists draw on examples from across both time Some anthropologists have argued that the scientific
and space. The text consequently casts an inquiring eye on approach is not suitable for assessing and interpreting
xiii
xiv Preface
human behavior and culture, whereas others believe that • New discussions of Pierre Bourdieu on agency and
the humanistic approach is not appropriate for develop- forms of economic, social, and cultural capital.
ing general cross-cultural and causal explanations about • New discussion of the ethics of anthropological
human behavior and culture. This has led to textbooks research in war zones and its controversies.
that focus on either one approach or the other. In this
• New reorganization of chapters 14–19 to highlight the
book, we highlight how the interpretive-humanistic
different environments, subsistence and demographic
perspective is complementary to the scientific method,
conditions, technology, economics, social structures
which seeks general cross-cultural and causal explana-
including family, gender, and age, politics, warfare,
tions for human behavior and culture. The interpretive-
law, religion, art, and music found in different forms of
humanistic perspective provides insight into the specifics
societies throughout the world.
of human behavior within different cultures, whereas the
scientific approach offers a method to test causal expla- • New discussion of the research on human cooperation
nations that allow for insight into universal aspects of and the development of prosocial norms in economics
human behavior. and religious traditions.
• New discussion of polyandry based on recent cross-
cultural research.
for this eighth edition. By probing beneath the surface of each chapter to help instructors convey anthropology
various assumptions and hypotheses, students discover principles in a clear and engaging way. For easy access,
both the excitement and challenge of anthropological they are available for download at www.pearsonhighered.
investigation. com/irc.
Anthropologists at Work boxes, profiling prominent
anthropologists, humanize many of the issues covered in
the chapters. These boxes—another carryover from the
first edition—go behind the scenes to trace the personal Acknowledgments
and professional development of some of today’s leading A textbook like this one requires the enormous effort of
anthropologists. We have added three new boxes in this many people. First, we would like to offer thanks to our
area focusing on Bonnie Urciuoli’s work as a linguistic colleague Christina Dames, who is a recent graduate of the
anthropologist, Gabriella Coleman’s fascinating ethno- University of Missouri, Columbia anthropology program
graphic research on hackers and geeks on the Internet, and a faculty member at Lindenwood University. She pro-
and Akbar Ahmed’s research on globalization and the vided in-depth research assistance on the production of this
Islamic world. textbook, helping to update the materials in many areas.
We would also like to thank the following reviewers for
Pedagogical Aids their valuable comments on the various editions of this text-
book: Susan Abbott-Jamieson, University of Kentucky; Kelly
For sound pedagogical reasons, we have retained some
D. Alley, Auburn University; Barbara Gallatin Anderson,
features in this eighth edition of Anthropology: A Global
Southern Methodist University; Robert Bee, University of
Perspective. Each chapter opens with a Chapter Outline
Connecticut; Harumi Befu, Stanford University; John E.
and Learning Objectives that will help guide students to
Blank, Cleveland State University; Barry Bogin, University
the most important issues addressed in that chapter. And
of Michigan—Dearborn; Donald E. Brown, University
each chapter ends with Summary and Learning Objectives
of California—Santa Barbara; Tom Brutsaert, Syracuse
that address issues covered in it; students can use these
University; Robert Carmack, State University of New
to help comprehend the material they have read. In addi-
York—Albany; A. H. Peter Castro, Syracuse University;
tion, each chapter ends with a list of Key Terms that will
Miriam S. Chaiken, New Mexico State University; Gail W.
help students focus on important concepts introduced in
Cromack, Onondaga Community College; James Duvall,
the chapter.
Contra Costa College; Allen S. Ehrlich, Eastern Michigan
University; Michele Ruth Gamburd, Portland State
University; Josef Gamper, Monterey Peninsula College; Alan
Support for Instructors and Goodman, Hampshire College; Leonard Greenfield, Temple
State University; John W. Page, Kirkland, Washington; of the hominin evolution chapter. His expertise in the most
Curt Peterson, Elgin Community College; Leonard current hypotheses within paleoanthropology and genetics
Plotnicov, University of Pittsburgh; D. Tab Rasmussen, was extremely helpful.
Washington University—St. Louis; James L. Ross, We also extend thanks to all colleagues who sent us
University of Akron; Susan D. Russell, Northern Illinois photos and information for use in the biography boxes.
University; L. Schell, State University of New York— We are grateful for the unwavering support given to
Albany; Edwin S. Segal, University of Louisville; David H. this project by Pearson. Without the moral support and
Spain, University of Washington; John Townsend, Syracuse encouragement of our acquisition editor Charlyce Owens-
University; Robert B. Townsend, College of Lake County; Jones, Richard DeLorenzo Project Manager, Permissions
Trudy Turner, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Stephen editor Brooks Hill-Whilton at Pearson and Senior Project
A. Tyler, Rice University; Virginia J. Vitzthum, University of Manager at Lumina Datamatics Tracy Duff, Jen Simmons
California—Riverside; Alaka Wali, University of Maryland; Photo researcher at Lumina Datamatics, and Carol Ann
Dustin Wax, University of Nevada, Los Vegas, William Ellis this project would have been much harder to complete.
Wedenoja, Southwest Missouri State University; Melford Our warmest appreciation goes to our families, whose
S. Weiss, California State University–Sacramento; Ronald emotional support and patience throughout the publica-
K. Wetherington, Southern Methodist University; Aubrey tion of the eight editions of this text truly made this book
Williams, University of Maryland; Pamela Willoughby, possible.
University of Alberta; and Larry Zimmerman, University of Anyone with comments, suggestions, or recommen-
South Dakota. dations regarding this text is welcome to send e-mail mes-
In particular for this eighth edition, we would like sages to the following addresses: rscupin@lindenwood.edu or
to thank Anna Bellisari, Wright State University; crdecors@maxwell.syr.edu.
Andrew Kramer, University of Tennessee; Bruce P.
Wheatley, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Daniel Raymond Scupin
J. Wescott, University of Missouri; Robert R. Paine, Texas
Tech University. We would like to thank John Hawks at Christopher R. DeCorse
the University of Wisconsin at Madison for his evaluation
xvii
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Introduction to Anthropology
Chapter Outline
Anthropology: The Four
Subfields 2
Holistic Anthropology,
Interdisciplinary
Research, and the Global
Perspective 12
Anthropological
Explanations 13
Humanistic Interpretive
Approaches in
Anthropology 14
Why Study Anthropology? 16
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1.1 Compare and contrast the four major 1.4 Discuss how the field of anthropology
subfields of anthropology. bridges both the sciences and the
humanities.
1.2 Describe how the field of anthropology is
holistic, interdisciplinary, and global. 1.5 Describe why any student should study
anthropology.
1.3 Explain how the scientific method is used
in anthropological explanations.
1
2 Chapter 1
First contact. To science-fiction writers, first contact The subfields of anthropology initially emerged in
refers to the first meeting between humans and extrater- Western society in an attempt to understand non-Western
restrial beings. To anthropologists, the phrase refers to the peoples. When Europeans began exploring and colonizing
initial encounters between peoples of different societies. the world in the fifteenth century, they encountered native
For thousands of years, peoples throughout the world have peoples in the Americas, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.
had first contacts with each other. Today, “first contacts” European travelers, missionaries, and government officials
are happening at every moment—through e-mail, smart- described these non-Western cultures, providing a record
phones, and the Web, as well as by the ease of international of their physical appearances, customs, and beliefs. By the
travel. What do we observe at these “first contacts”? How nineteenth century, anthropology had developed into the
do we understand diverse peoples of the world? How can primary discipline for understanding these non-Western
we explain human behaviors? In a globalized world, these societies and cultures. The major questions that these
questions are growing more and more important. As we nineteenth-century anthropologists sought to answer dealt
shall see in this chapter, anthropology incorporates four with the basic differences and similarities of human societ-
major subfields that seek to understand different aspects of ies and cultures and with the physical variation found in
humanity in much the same way that future space travel- peoples throughout the world. Today, anthropologists do
ers might investigate extraterrestrials. not solely focus their attention on non-Western cultures:
Anthropologists use a variety of field methods, tech- They are just as likely to examine cultural practices in an
niques, and theoretical approaches to conduct their inves- urban setting in the United States as to conduct fieldwork
tigations, which have two major goals: to understand the in some far-off place. However, anthropologists continue
uniqueness and diversity of human behavior and human so- to grapple with the basic questions of human diversity and
cieties around the world and to discover the fundamental similarities through systematic research within the four
similarities that connect human beings throughout the subfields described below.
world in both the past and the present. To accomplish
these goals, anthropologists undertake systematic case
studies of human populations across the globe.
Biological Anthropology
These studies have broadened our understanding of Biological anthropology, (also referred to as physical
humanity, from the beginning of human societies to the anthropology) is the branch of anthropology concerned
present. This chapter introduces the distinctive approaches with humans as a biological species. As such, it is the
used in anthropology to achieve these goals. subfield most closely related to the natural sciences. Bio-
logical a nthropologists conduct research in two major
a reas: human evolution and modern human variation.
Anthropology: The investigation of human evolution presents one of the
most tantalizing areas of anthropological study. Research
The Four Subfields has now traced the African origins
of humanity back over six million
1.1 Compare and contrast the four major subfields of years, while fieldwork in other
anthropology. world areas has traced the
The word anthropology is derived from the Greek words expansion of early hu-
anthropo, meaning “human beings” or “humankind,” and man ancestors through-
logia, translated as “knowledge of” or “the study of.” Thus, out the world. Much
we can define anthropology as the study of humankind. This of the evidence for hu-
definition in itself, however, does not distinguish anthropol- man origins consists
ogy from other disciplines. After all, historians, psycholo- of f ossils, the frag-
gists, economists, sociologists, and scholars in many other mentary remains
fields systematically study humankind in one way or an- of bones and living
other. Anthropology stands apart because it combines four m a t e r i a l s p re s e r v e d
subfields that bridge the natural sciences, the social sciences, from earlier periods.
and the humanities. These four subfields—biological anthro- The study of human
pology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural evolution through
anthropology—constitute a broad approach to the study of analysis of fossils
humanity the world over, both past and present. Figure 1.1 is called paleoan-
shows these subfields and the various specializations that thropology (the
make up each one. A discussion of these subfields and some prefix paleo from Excavation of a human skull from an
of the key specializations in each follows. t h e G r e e k w o r d ancient burial
Introduction to Anthropology 3
Figure 1.1 The four core subfields of anthropology and applied anthropology.
CULTURAL
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY
ETHNOLOGY
palaios means “old” or “ancient”). Paleoanthropologists and among different modern human populations. These
use a variety of scientific techniques to date, classify, and anthropologists study human variation by measuring
compare fossilized bones to determine the links between physical characteristics—such as body size, variation in
modern humans and their biological ancestors. These pa- blood types, or differences in skin color—or various ge-
leoanthropologists may work closely with archaeologists netic traits. Their research aims at explaining why such
when studying ancient tools and activity a reas to learn variation occurs, as well as documenting the differences
about the behavior of early human ancestors. in human populations.
Other biological anthropologists explore human Skeletal structure is also the focus of anthropologi-
evolution through primatology, the study of primates. cal research. Human osteology is the particular area of
Primates are a diverse order of mammals that share an specialization within biological anthropology dealing
evolutionary history with humans and, therefore, have with the study of the human skeleton. Such studies
many physical characteristics in common with us. Many have wide-ranging applications, from the identification
primatologists observe primates such as chimpanzees, of murder victims from fragmentary skeletal remains
gorillas, gibbons, and orangutans in their natural habitats to the design of ergonomic airplane cockpits. Biological
to ascertain the similarities and differences between these anthropologists are also interested in evaluating how
other primates and humans. These observations of living disparate physical characteristics reflect evolutionary
primates provide insight into the behaviors of early hu- adaptations to different environmental conditions, thus
man ancestors. shedding light on why human populations vary.
Another group of biological anthropologists focuses An increasingly important area of research within bio-
their research on the range of physical variation within logical anthropology is genetics, the study of the biological
4 Chapter 1
“blueprints” that dictate the inheritance of physical char- of modern humans, biological anthropologists have cal-
acteristics. Genetics research examines a wide variety of culated the genetic distance among modern humans,
questions. It has, for example, been important in identify- thus providing a means of inferring rates of evolution
ing the genetic sources of some diseases, such as sickle- and the evolutionary relationships within the species.
cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs disease. Recent The Genographic Project is gathering samples of DNA
genetics research has also focused on how human popu- from populations throughout the world to trace human
lations living in the Himalayan Mountains are adapting evolution. Labs analyzing DNA have been established in
to new environmental conditions and low oxygen levels different regions of the world by the Genographic Proj-
found at the altitude of 4,000 meters above sea level. Re- ect. As DNA is transmitted from parents to offspring,
search revealed that the gene or genes that determine high- most of the genetic material is recombined and mutated.
oxygen blood count for women gave survival and adaptive However, some mutated DNA remains fairly stable over
capacities in this high mountain altitude, demonstrating the course of generations. This stable mutated DNA can
a case of natural selection and human evolution within a serve as “genetic markers” that are passed on to each
particular localized environment (Beall, Song, Elston, and generation and create populations with distinctive sets
Goldstein 2004). of DNA. These genetic markers distinguish ancient lin-
Genetics has also provided important clues into hu- eages of DNA. By following the pathways of these ge-
man origins. Through the study of the genetic makeup netic markers, genetic paleoanthropologists can blend
Anthropologists at Work
John Hawks, Neandertal genes with humans and chim-
Biological Anthropologist panzees, it will become possible to ex-
pand our knowledge of evolution beyond
John Hawks is a biological anthropolo- the skeletal record, finding signs from the
gist who works on the border between immune system, digestion, and pigmen-
paleoanthropology and genetics. He got tation, to traits like hearing and ultimately,
his start teaching evolution in his home the brain itself.
state of Kansas, followed by doctoral Hawks is probably most widely
training and teaching in Michigan, Utah, known for his blog, which is visited by
and his current home, the University of several thousand readers every day. De-
Wisconsin. He studies the relationships scribing new research from an expert’s
between the genes of living and ancient perspective, he has shown the power of
people, to discover the ways that natu- public outreach as an element of the sci-
ral selection has affected them. In 2007, entific process. This element of his work
Hawks and his co-workers scanned has made him a leader in the “open sci-
the genome, finding evidence for wide- ence” movement, trying to expand pub-
spread selection on new, advantageous lic accessibility to scientific research and John Hawks
mutations during the last 40,000 years open access to scientific data.
(Hawks et al. 2007). The breadth of this Hawks says that a biological an- environment gives biological anthropol-
selection across the genome indicated thropologist has to use evidence from ogists a way to interpret ancient fossils
that human evolution actually acceler- the fossil record and has to be trained and place them in their environmental
ated as larger populations and new ag- in human anatomy—especially bone context. However, Hawks’ scientific
ricultural subsistence exerted strong anatomy, or osteology. B iological work hasn’t been limited to genetics and
pressures on ancient people. Far from a nthropologists have to know the fossils. He has become more and more
slowing down our evolution, culture had a natomical comparisons between interested in the problems of cultural
created new opportunities for adaptive h umans and other primates, and the transmission and information theory.
change in the human population. way these anatomies relate to habitual Hawks welcomes everyone who is
Hawks made substantial contribu- b ehaviors. The social and ecological interested in human evolution based on
tions examining the Neandertal genome. behaviors of primates vary extensively a scientific approach to go to his blog
The availability of genetic evidence from in response to their unique ecologi- at http://johnhawks.net/weblog/hawks/
ancient bones has transformed the way we cal circumstances. Understanding the hawks.html.
study these ancient people. By comparing relationship of anatomy, behavior, and
Introduction to Anthropology 5
Ethnoarchaeology is the study of artifacts and material language and culture, how language is used within soci-
record of modern peoples to understand the use and sym- ety, and how the human brain acquires and uses language.
bolic meaning of those artifacts. Linguistic anthropologists seek to discover the ways in
In another novel approach, still other archaeologists which languages are different from one another, as well as
have turned their attention to the very recent past. For ex- how they are similar. Two wide-ranging areas of research
ample, in 1972, William L. Rathje began a study of modern in linguistic anthropology are structural linguistics and
garbage as an assignment for the students in his introduc- historical linguistics.
tory anthropology class. Even he was surprised at the num- Structural linguistics explores how language works.
ber of people who took an interest in the findings. A careful Structural linguists compare grammatical patterns or other
study of garbage provides insights about modern society linguistic elements to learn how contemporary languages
that cannot be ferreted out in any other way. Whereas ques- mirror and differ from one another. Structural linguistics
tionnaires and interviews depend upon the cooperation has also uncovered some intriguing relationships between
and interpretation of respondents, garbage provides an un- language and thought patterns among different groups of
biased physical record of human activity. Rathje’s pioneer- people. Do people who speak different languages with dis-
ing “garbology project” is still in progress and, combined tinct grammatical structures think and perceive the world
with information from respondents, offers a unique look at differently from each other? Do native Chinese speakers
patterns of waste management, consumption, and alcohol think or view the world and life experiences differently
use in contemporary U.S. society (Rathje 1992). from native English speakers? Structural linguists are at-
tempting to answer this type of question.
Linguistic anthropologists also examine the connec-
Linguistic Anthropology tions between language and social behavior in different
Linguistics, the study of language, has a long history that cultures. This specialty is called sociolinguistics. Sociolin
dovetails with the discipline of philosophy, but is also guists are interested both in how language is used to define
one of the integral subfields of anthropology. Linguistic social groups and in how belonging to a particular group
a nthropology focuses on the relationship between leads to specialized kinds of language use. In Thailand, for
Introduction to Anthropology 7
Anthropologists at Work
Kelley Hays-Gilpin, tions between the past and present—is
Archaeologist of crucial importance. It is about being
able to glean messages from the past
Conservation of the past, the decipher- that help us live better lives in the pres-
ing of gender in the archaeological re- ent, including such matters as how to
cord, and the meaning of rock art are grow food in the desert and how to help
just a few of the intriguing topics that others understand and appreciate their
Kelley Hays-Gilpin has addressed in heritage.
more than two decades of research. Hays-Gilpin co-authored an inter-
Hays-Gilpin is an archaeologist with disciplinary study of Prehistoric San-
a research focus on the prehistoric dals from Northeastern Arizona: The
American Southwest, particularly the Earl H. Morris and Ann Axtell Morris
history and archaeology of the Pueblo Research, published in 1998. It draws
peoples. Like many modern archaeolo- on the research of three generations of
gists, her career has included work in women engaged in the study of essen- Kelley Hays-Gilpin
both cultural resource management tially the same group of archaeologi-
and university teaching (see Chapter cal materials from sites in northeastern museum and the Hopi Tribe’s cultural
25). Her doctoral work focused on early Arizona. While it provides a detailed preservation office, explores Hopi cul-
decorated ceramics in the Four Corners examination of a particular collec- tural continuity over centuries, if not
region in the Southwest, and she be- tion, the study also affords insight into millennia, through pottery, rock art,
gan her career with the Navajo Nation changing perceptions of archaeological mural p ainting, baskets, and textiles.
Archaeology Department in Flagstaff, interpretation. Also published in 1998 More important, the project is explor-
Arizona. Hays-Gilpin worked on col- was Hays-Gilpin’s co-edited volume, ing ways in which Hopi traditions can
lections salvaged from archaeological Reader in Gender Archaeology, which help shape a sustainable future for
sites destroyed by development proj- helped establish the legitimacy of gen- Hopi communities through subsistence
ects or threatened by construction. dered approaches to the study of the farming, craft production, public health
Currently, she teaches archaeology, archaeological record. programs, and cultural revitalization.
ceramic analysis, and rock art courses For archaeologists, rock art— For Hays-Gilpin, the study of ar-
at Northern Arizona University in Flag- paintings and engravings—provides a chaeology must emphasize teamwork
staff, located just hours from the Petri- unique source of information, offering and reward team players. She feels that
fied Forest National Park and significant clues to prehistoric subsistence, ideol- archaeologists are not in competition
rock art sites. ogy, and religion. Yet the interpretation with one another, but rather in compe-
Although concerned with the inter- of these prehistoric creations is chal- tition with the forces that are destroy-
pretation of past technology and adept lenging, and they have often received ing the archaeological record faster
at ceramic classification, Hays-Gilpin less attention than they deserve. Hays- than it can be studied. Her research
has consistently sought to push the in- Gilpin’s Ambiguous Images: Gender and career epitomize this approach to
terpretation of archaeological data to and Rock Art (2004), which won the archaeology. Hays-Gilpin advocates
extract deeper meaning than archae- Society for American Archaeology’s monitoring and reporting on sites that
ologists usually propose. Beginning with 2005 book prize, provides a significant have been threatened with destruc-
her doctoral work, she became increas- contribution to the relatively unexplored tion, and she continues work on many
ingly interested in the study of ideology, field of gender in rock art. Hays-Gilpin collections that have resided in mu-
symbols, and gender in the archaeo- demonstrates that rock art is one of seums for as much as a century. Her
logical record. Through the compara- the best lines of evidence available to work has led her to collaborate with a
tive study of pottery, textiles, and rock understand the ritual practices, gender network of archaeologists, cultural an-
art, she used ancient art as a means of roles, and ideological constructs of pre- thropologists, art historians, linguistic
understanding cultural continuity and historic peoples. anthropologists, and Hopi artists. Her
change. This research furthered her un- In addition to her current aca- interdisciplinary approach to the past
derstanding of modern Native American demic position, Hays-Gilpin holds the exemplifies modern archaeology’s ho-
perceptions of, and concerns about, the Edward Bridge Danson Chair of An- listic and inclusive requirements—quite
past. For Hays-Gilpin, the significance thropology at the Museum of Northern a contrast to its more narrowly special-
of ancient objects to contemporary in- Arizona, where she is director of the ized traditions. With this new approach,
digenous people—having conversations Hopi Iconography Project. This proj- Hays-Gilpin has helped to redefine the
about ancestors and making connec- ect, a collaborative effort between the discipline of archaeology.
8 Chapter 1
Anthropologists at Work
Bonnie Urciuoli, book Urciuoli describes how Puerto Ri-
Linguistic Anthropologist can migrants struggle to adjust to the
mainly English-speaking majority. She
Bonnie Urciuoli completed her B.A. in discusses the history and relationship
English at Syracuse University. She of the United States and Puerto Rico,
completed her M.A. and Ph.D. at the in which Puerto Rico has often been
University of Chicago. Her doctorate referred to as a “backward” and “unde-
combined the study of both anthropol- veloped” society. These negative char-
ogy and linguistics. She has done re- acterizations have consequences for the
search in New York City as a linguistic Puerto Rican migrants who come to the
consultant on a Columbia University- United States and find themselves as
sponsored project with Puerto Rican a discriminated racial underclass. With
and African-American teenagers; with Urciuoli’s focus on language, she notes
grants from the Ford Foundation and the how Puerto Rican English is often de-
Spencer Foundation. In this project she scribed as “broken” or “ungrammatical”
studied Puerto Rican families in Manhat- and how prejudice connects to language Bonnie Urciuoli
tan and the Bronx, examining patterns of and influences discrimination in obtain-
Spanish-English bilinguals and related ing jobs and achievements in education. prevalent in the United States and have
language ideologies. She has taught The Puerto Rican migrants are urged to a definite influence on how ethnic minor-
linguistics and anthropology at Indiana get rid of their accent in order to suc- ities are treated.
University and, since 1988, at Hamilton ceed in business and in education. Urciuoli’s current research began
College in Clinton, New York. Based on When Puerto Rican migrants do speak when she met Latino students from
her research on Puerto Rican bilingual- English with teachers, employers, and working-class backgrounds at the rural
ism in New York City, Urciuoli began others, their experience is often fraught and the largely white affluent student
examining the intersection of race, class with fear and anxiety. Urciuoli studies population at Hamilton College in up-
and linguistic identity, which resulted how “accents,” “pronunciation,” “tone,” state New York. These Latino students
in several articles and a 1996 book re- and “word choice’” are perceived by were very similar to the Puerto Rican
cently re-issued and entitled Exposing people of various ethnic backgrounds, teenagers she encountered in New
Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences including the Puerto Ricans. Her book York City, who were the topic of her
of Language, Race, and Class. In this indicates that language prejudices are book Exposing Prejudice. Urciuoli has
Introduction to Anthropology 9
been publishing articles about how col- porate world uses in which students or been influenced by what the corporate
leges market multiculturalism and diver- workers have to position themselves world deems important for skill devel-
sity as part of their image, while Latino when seeking and performing their jobs. opment. Students and workers have to
students and those of other minority Corporations include key terms such as market themselves as having a “bundle
groups who provide that diversity often skills, communication, team, and leader- of skills” in order to become success-
experience social and academic strug- ship in their advertisements, workshops, ful. Corporate Web sites and workshops
gles. At times, these Latino students and literature on the Internet. Urciuoli emphasize how students and workers
are categorized and diagnosed as hav- seeks to understand how students and are responsible for developing these
ing “language interference,” or “learning workers are supposed to manage their “soft skills.” However, in reality these di-
disorders” (Urciuoli 2003). Currently, Ur- “selves” in the corporate environment. verse skills are not as easily tested and
ciuoli is conducting in-depth interviews The corporate world presents “skills” as assessed as presented in these corpo-
with these Latino students about their quantifiable, testable, and subject to rat- rate advertisements and literature. It is
educational experiences, which will be- ings. In the early days of the industrial important to realize that this essay was
come her new book on this topic. revolution, “skills” were related to the published in 2008, just as the American
Urciuoli has also contributed some tasks that were needed to perform in the economy was entering a devastating re-
unique linguistic anthropological re- factory. However, currently, the corpo- cession. Since that time, many students
search of the Internet. In an essay en- rate language used tends to construct di- have been striving to market themselves
titled “Skills and Selves in the New verse “soft skills” as easily assessed and for the American economy by developing
Workplace” published in the American unproblematic for evaluating the mar- and presenting these “bundles of skills”
Ethnologist, Urciuoli analyzes the lan- ket value of one’s own self in relation to for success. Bonnie Urciuoli has con-
guage of Internet corporate Web sites leadership, teamwork, or other manage- tributed toward an understanding of this
that market skills-related services. She ment performance criteria. Educational process with her linguistic anthropologi-
investigates the language that the cor- institutions in the United States have cal analysis of the Internet.
Republic of the Congo and Brazil to the Arctic regions of anthropologists call ethnographic data. The gathering of
Canada, from the deserts of the Middle East to the urban ethnographic data in a systematic manner is the specific
areas of China. The first professional cultural anthro- research goal of the cultural anthropologist. Technically,
pologists conducted research on non-Western or remote ethnology refers to anthropologists who focus on the
cultures in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, cross-cultural aspects of the various ethnographic studies
and the Pacific Islands and on the Native American popu- done by the cultural anthropologists. Ethnologists analyze
lations in the United States. Today, however, many cultural the data that are produced by the individual ethnographic
anthropologists have turned to research on their own cul- studies to produce cross-cultural generalizations about
tures in order to gain a better understanding of their insti- humanity and cultures. Many cultural anthropologists use
tutions and cultural values. ethnological methods to compare their research from their
Cultural anthropologists (sometimes the terms sociocul- own ethnographic fieldwork with the research findings
tural anthropologist and ethnographer are used interchangeably from other societies throughout the world.
with cultural anthropologist) use a unique research strategy in
conducting their fieldwork in different settings. This research
strategy is referred to as participant observation because Applied Anthropology
cultural anthropologists learn the language and culture of The four subfields of anthropology (biological anthropol-
the group being studied by participating in the group’s daily ogy, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural an-
activities. Through this intensive participation, they become thropology) are well established. However, anthropologists
deeply familiar with the group and can understand and ex- also recognize a fifth subfield. Applied anthropology is the
plain the society and culture of the group as insiders. We dis- use of anthropological data from the other subfields to ad-
cuss the methods and techniques of cultural anthropologists dress modern problems and concerns. These problems may
at greater length in Chapter 14. be environmental, technological, economic, social, political,
The results of the fieldwork of the cultural anthro- or cultural. Anthropologists have played an increasing role
pologist are written up as an ethnography, a description in the development of government policies and legislation,
of a society. A typical ethnography reports on the envi- the planning of development projects, and the implementa-
ronmental setting, economic patterns, social organiza- tion of marketing strategies. Although anthropologists are
tion, political system, and religious rituals and beliefs of typically trained in one of the major subfields, an increas-
the society under study. This description is based on what ing number are finding employment outside of universities
10 Chapter 1
Anthropologists at Work
Scott Atran, in his widely acclaimed book In Gods
Cultural Anthropologist We Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape
of Religion In this book Atran explores
Born in 1952 in New York City, Scott the psychological foundations of reli-
Atran went to Columbia University as gion and how it has become a universal
a Westinghouse mathematics scholar. feature of all human societies. He has
At a student demonstration against the also contributed toward an understand-
Vietnam War in 1970, he met the fa- ing of the characteristics associated
mous anthropologist Margaret Mead, with suicide bombers and political and
and she invited him to work as her as- religious terrorism in different areas of
sistant at the American Museum of the world. Atran has been funded by
Scott Atran
National History. In 1970, Atran also the National Science Foundation and
traveled to the Middle East for the first other agencies to study the phenom-
time, conducting fieldwork in Palestin- ena of terrorism; this has included processes and cultural management of
ian villages. As a graduate student in fieldwork and interviews with al-Qaeda the environment, and on religion and
1974, Atran organized a famous debate associates and other militant groups, terrorism, have been featured around
at the Abbaye de Royaumont in France as well as with political leaders in con- the world in science publications, such
on the nature of universals in human flict zones in Europe, the Middle East, as Science, Nature, Proceedings of the
thought and society, with the participa- Central and Southeast Asia, and North National Academy of Sciences USA,
tion of some well-known scholars such Africa. His recent book Talking to the and Brain and Behavioral Sciences,
as the linguist Noam Chomsky, the psy- Enemy: Faith, Brotherhood and the (Un) as well as the popular press, includ-
chologist Jean Piaget, the anthropolo- Making of Terrorists is based on this ing features stories with BBC television
gists Claude Lévi-Strauss and Gregory long-term research. In March, 2010, and radio, National Public Radio, The
Bateson, and the biologists François Ja- Atran testified before the Senate Armed Wall Street Journal, and Newsweek.
cob and Jacques Monod, a conference Services Subcommittee on Emerg- He has been the subject of a cover
which many consider a milestone in the ing Threats and Capabilities today on story in The New York Times Maga-
development of the field known as cog- “Pathways to and from Violent Extrem- zine (“Darwin’s God,” 2007) and has
nitive science. ism: The Case for Science-Based Field written numerous op-eds for the New
Atran continued observing societ- Research.” York Times and the magazine Foreign
ies as he traveled overland from Por- Atran has taught at Cambridge Uni- Policy.
tugal to China, via Afghanistan and versity, Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Atran has teamed up with psychol-
Pakistan. Landing again in the Middle and the École des hautes études en sci- ogists and political scientists, including
East, he conducted ethnographic re- ences sociales (School for the Advanced Douglas Medin and Robert Axelrod, to
search on kinship and social ties, land Studies of the Social Sciences) in Paris. experiment extensively on the ways sci-
tenure, and political economy among He is currently a research director in an- entists and lay people categorize and
the Druze, a religious group in Israel thropology at the Centre national de la reason about nature, on the cognitive
and Lebanon. Later, Atran became a recherche scientifique (The Center for and evolutionary psychology of religion,
pioneer in the study of the founda- Scientific Research, CNRS) based in and on the role of sacred values in po-
tions of biological thinking in Western Paris and is a member of the Jean Nicod litical and cultural conflict. Based on
science and other Native American Institute at the École normale supérieure. recent fieldwork, he has testified before
Indian groups such as the Itzá Maya He is also visiting professor of psychol- the U.S. Congress and has repeatedly
in Mexico. This research became the ogy and public policy at the University of briefed National Security Council staff
basis of his well-known books Cogni- Michigan, presidential scholar in sociol- at the White House on paths to vio-
tive Foundations of Natural History: To- ogy at the John Jay College of Criminal lent extremism among youth in South-
wards an Anthropology of Science, The Justice in New York City, and co-founder east and South Asia, the Middle East,
Native Mind and the Cultural Construc- of ARTIS Research and Risk Modeling. North Africa, and Europe. Atran has
tion of Nature, and Plants of the Petén Most recently Atran has become senior utilized his knowledge and research
Itzá Maya, which illustrate how people fellow and co-founder of the Centre for as a cultural anthropologist to help un-
throughout the world classified bio- the Resolution of Intractable Conflicts, at derstand some of the basic questions
logical species of plants and animals in Harris Manchester College and the De- of human life and also to contribute to
very similar ways. partment of Social Anthropology, Oxford solving some of our current problems
Later, Atran began an investiga- University. with globally sponsored political and
tion of the cognitive and evolutionary Atran’s broadly interdisciplinary religious terrorism.
foundations of religion, which resulted scientific studies on human reasoning
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Fig. 32.—The demon of the South-West Wind.
Louvre. Actual size.
Drawn by Saint-Elme Gautier.
Nothing could be clearer than the governing idea of this
conception. The artist has wished to unite in a single being the
highest powers of life and nature—the bull, the lion, the eagle: these
are types of physical force differently applied. Patient and tenacious
in the bull, who drags the plough and transports the heaviest
burdens; violent and impetuous in the lion, while in the king of birds
the formidable strength of beak and talons add to the fear inspired by
his lightning flight. Finally, the head and countenance are those of a
man, the impersonation of intelligent force, of will governed by
reflection, before which every living thing has to bow.
The root of this conception is the same as that by which the
Egyptian sphinx was suggested. The chief differences lie in the
greater complexity of the winged bull and in its less quiescent
attitude. The sphinx combines but two elements, the man and the
lion; its pose is easier and perhaps more natural than that of the
Assyrian animal. It is extended on the ground, its paws stretched idly
before it, an attitude that could be preserved without fatigue for an
indefinite time, and therefore in complete accordance with its
governing idea, and with the function it had to fill at the gates of a
palace or temple. That idea, for the bull as well as the sphinx, was
force in repose. But the bull stands upright, and, when looked at from
one side, seems to walk. We feel that if he did complete his stride he
would bring the structure that stands on his loins down about our
ears.
Here, as in most cases where comparison is possible, the
advantage remains with Egypt. But yet the Assyrian type is by no
means without a certain nobility and beauty of its own. In spite of
their colossal dimensions, in spite of the supernatural vigour of their
limbs and the exaggerated energy and salience of their muscles,
there is a kind of robust grace in the leading lines and proportions of
these figures to which we cannot be indifferent, and their effect is
increased by the wings that lie along their backs and furnish so
happily the upper part of the huge alabaster slabs, above which
nothing rises but the horned tiara. Finally, the face with its strongly
marked features, with its frame of closely curled hair and beard
arranged in the strictest symmetry, is still more remarkable than all
the rest (Fig. 33). The expression is grave and proud, and
sometimes almost smiling. It is in fine harmony with the general idea
that led the Chaldæans to create these mysterious but kindly beings,
and to endow them with their mighty frames of stone.[101]
Fig. 33.—Head of a winged bull of
Assurbanipal. British Museum. Height 38
inches.
Drawn by Saint-Elme Gautier.
These bulls have only been actually found in Assyria, but
numerous and precise texts have been deciphered by which their
existence at the gateways of Chaldæan temples and palaces has
been proved.[102] They are not now to be met with in the country of
their origin, because their material was too rare in the lower part of
the great basin to escape the attacks of spoilers. Soft or hard,
volcanic or calcareous, stone was there precious and difficult to find.
Sooner or later such objects as these would be dragged from their
ancient sites and broken up to be used anew. If chance had not so
willed that the Assyrian palaces were preserved for us by
entombment in their own ruins, we should now have known nothing
of a type that played a great part in the decoration of Mesopotamian
buildings, and, by its originality, made a great impression upon
neighbouring peoples; or at least we should only know it by
reproductions on a very small scale, like those we meet with on the
cylinders, or by imitations vastly inferior to the originals, like those of
the palaces at Persepolis.