RJJM Crop Science

EXAMINATION SYLLABUS iii.
Genetic Factors
CROP SCIENCE 1. Genotypes (Definitions, and Highly Recommended Varieties/Cultivars)
a. Selection Indices of Major Crops of the Philippines (Rice, Corn, Coconut,
CROP SCIENCE I Banana, Sugarcane, Mango, Durian, Mungbean, Vegetables, and Others)
I. THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE 2. Genetically Modified Organisms (Definition, Concepts and Recent Developments
a. Some Data and Facts about Philippine Agriculture (e.g. Bt Corn, Tomato, Soybeans, Cotton, Sweet Potato and Others))
b. Problems, Status and Prospects of Philippine Agriculture (AFMA, b. Interaction Between Genetics and Environmental Factors
GATT/WTO, Biotechnology, etc.) c. Human Factors
c. The Nature and Features of Agricultural System i. Preferences of Farmers
d. The Nature of Agriculture as a Field of Study ii. Capability of Farmers (e.g. Economic and Social
II. CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS Knowledge)
a. Botanical System of Classification iii. Cultural Practices (e.g. Eco-socio and Political Observations)
b. Agronomic Classification VI. CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SEED SELECTION
c. Horticultural Classification a. Goals and Basic Concepts in Crop Improvement
d. Descriptive Classification b. General Methods of Crop Improvement
III. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS c. Mating System in Crops
a. The Plant Cell – Parts and Function d. Classes of Seeds
b. The Anatomical Region of the Plant Body e. Production and Distribution of Certified Seeds
c. Plant Tissues and Tissue Systems f. Preservation of Germplasms
d. The Plant Organs VII. SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
IV. PLANT GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION a. Features of Sustainable Crop Production
a. Concepts of Plant Growth and Development i. Sustainable Agriculture Concepts
b. Phases of Plant Growth and Development ii. Diversification
c. Other Concepts Related to Plant Growth iii. Resource Conservation and Regeneration
i. The Law of Minimum iv. Productivity and Stability of Production System
ii. The Law of Optima and Limiting Factors b. Sustainable Crop Management for Lowland and Highland
iii. The Law of Diminishing Returns i. Integrated Nutrient Management
d. Plant Life Processes ii. Integrated Pest Management
i. Photosynthesis
ii. Respiration CROP SCIENCE II
iii. Translocation I. SITE CHARACTERIZATION
iv. Etc a. Biophysical, Associative Economics, Socio-cultural and Political
e. Plant Reproduction Determinants
i. Sexual Reproduction II. PRODUCTION PRACTICES
ii. Asexual Reproduction a. Land Preparation for Annual and Perennial Crops (Conventional vs
V. FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION Improved Tillage Methods, Practices for Erosion Control)
a. Environmental b. Planting Materials Selection and Preparation
i. Abiotic Factors c. Planting Methods
1. Climatic Factors (Definition of Climate, Components, and Elements of Climate) d. Water Supply and Management (Irrigation Practices, Effects on Aquatic
2. Soil and Topography (Components of Soil, Physical Properties, Etc.) Environment, Farmland Water Collection and Impounding/Watershed)
3. Orographic Effects (Rainfall, Light, Wind) e. Soil Nutrient Management (Source of Plant Nutrients, Environmental
4. Climate Stresses (Draught and Salinization, Lahar, El Niño, La Niña, Greenhouse Effects of Various Nutrient Sources, Other Nutrient Practices, Integrated
Effects, Ozone, and Global Warming) Nutrient Cycling)
ii. Biotic Factors f. Pest Management (Use of Pesticides, Alternatives of Pesticides)
1. Beneficial Organisms (Pollinators, Decomposers, Natural Enemies of Pests, Nitrogen g. Specialized Management Practices (Water/Shelter Breaks, Physical and
Fixers, Etc.) Chemical Control of Growth and Development, Shading, Other
2. Pests (Insects, Diseases, Weeds, Invertebrates and Vertebrate Pests) Treatments)
www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 1
h. Specialized Production Practices (Landscape, Ornamentals, Plantations) The 4 major crops of the Philippines are under the research and
i. Harvesting and Postharvest Production Technology (Harvesting development responsibilities of local and international research institutions an
Methods, Processing (Primary and Secondary), Storage) example of which are the PhilRice and IRRI that are responsible for research
j. Farming System (Monocropping, Multi-storey System, Diversified and and development of rice.
Integrated System, Conversion to Low-External Input System)
The Philippines has now a human population of about 101 million and
consumes an average of about 103 kgm of rice per annum. The average rate of
The Nature and Importance of Agriculture
increase in human population is 2.35% per annum while increase in food
Some Data and Facts about Phil. Agriculture
production is only 2%. So what will happen if this trend will continue in the
The Philippines has an estimated land area of about 30 million hectares.
years to come?
Luzon = 47%
It is a dream of every Philippine government (President)
Visayas = 19%
administration to that the country will be able to attain self-sufficiency in rice
Mindanao = 34 %
but it did not happen for the past 4 presidents. The local supply of rice in our
Agriculture = 12.231 million has.
country is short of around 10% for the entire Filipinos, Thus our country keeps
7.5 million are considered Prime lands
on importing rice from our Asian neighbors every year to a tune of 2 million
Luzon=43%
metric tons every year. Why is this so? The Philippines has Phil Rice and
Visayas= 23%
IRRi‘s main office is in the Philippines. Rice researchers and technologists in
Mindanao= 34%
other countries were trained in the Philippines but we buy rice from them.
9.4 million has are hilly, mountainous , rough or rugged
Why? Why?
Hilly lands- is an area of at least 1 sq km of which 70% of the land form have
The nature of Agriculture as a field of study
more than 15% slope.
Agriculture is simply the arts and science of raising plants and
animals, and is considered the basic and mother industry of most countries.
Rice Area = 4.126 million has.
 art –requires skills and practice
Irrigated = 52%/2.79 million has.
Rainfed = 44%/1.33 million has  science- knowledge and skill are learned through systematic
Upland = 4% discovery of facts and principles through the formulation of
hypothesis, testing, designing, experimentation, gathering of facts,
Corn Area = 2.527 m has. analysis, and interpretation until general conclusion and
Sugarcane = .388 m has. recommendation are arrive at.
Peanut = 0.0269 m has. It has two major branches: Crop Production and /or Crop Science and
Animal Production and /or animal science.
Nature and Features of Philippine Agricultural System Crop Science is further subdivided into: Agronomy and Horticulture
The Philippines is a tropical country, where most areas grow crops the Agronomy is concerned with cereals, legumes, root crops, and field
whole year round. It has two distinct seasons based on rainfall: wet (late part of crop production and management.
April to early part of October) dry (late part of October to early part of April). Horticulture is concerned with the production and management of
In 1920 Corona classified our climate into 4 types. Lately it is classified into 6 vegetables, flowers, fruits, and landscaping.
types. It is clear that climate has made a significant change not only in the The word crop denotes several meaning but in this course the word
Philippines but the world over. Just recently the much publicized climate crop refers to plant that are grown and harvested for economic reason.
change is considered a very serious issue worldwide. Importance of Agriculture;
The top 5 crops in the Philippines are rice, corn, coconut bananas and Source of food
sugarcane. Field legumes like mungbean, peanut, and soybeans are considered Source of fuel
as secondary crops in order of economic importance.Worldwide; wheat, rice Source of clothing and shelter
and corn are the top 3 major crops. Source of employment
Source of GDP
Source of raw materials for the industry
Fundamental basis of community PROBLEMS, STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF
The importance is almost all the food you eat, the clothes you PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
wear….and for as long as humans and animals eat food/feed agriculture will The Philippines is basically an agricultural country with a tropical
remain as an important industry. environment. Like other small countries in Asia, it is beset with lot of
Future Directions/ Prospects problems:
The Department of Agriculture‘s objectives is to ensure a sound policy - Average farm size is small
environment that is favorable to higher investment to agriculture and fisheries. - Agricultural lands keep on decreasing and decreasing due to land
It also aims to provide a setting that is market oriented while addressing the key conversion, etc.
concern of food security poverty alleviation and social equity, job generation - Most farmers are located in marginal areas where soil erosion is
increase income, global competitiveness and resource sustainability. high & low soil fertility
The DA is banking on hybrid seeds and other improved genetic - High occurrence of pest and diseases
materials such as Bt corn and GET Excel Tilapia and other biotechnology - Irrigation problems
products to dramatically increased productivity and generate jobs in the country - Lack of capital
sides. - High price of farm inputs
Launching of the Strong Republic National Highway (SRNH). Or the - Low price of farm output
roll-on roll-of (RORO) food highway. - Lacks farm to market roads
Slogan: ―May Dating Na, May Aksyon Pa‖ - Rampant graft and corruption in the bureaucracy
Funding for the agricultural sector received a substantial budget increase. Unit II. Classification of Agricultural Crops
Terms and Definition:
The sector‘s competitiveness is promoted by an amendment to the high 1. Cultivar - Cultivated variety
value crops development act that will give incentive to large landowners 2. Family - is usually the highest taxon commonly included in plant
who plant crops with high export demand. identification or study.
3. Taxonomy - the field of science that deals with the classification,
The creation of the Plant Variety Protection Board that will give protection nomenclature and identification of plants
to intellectual property rights acquired for the development of new plant 4. Variety – a group of individuals (plants) within a specie that differ
varieties. from the rest of the species
Importance of Classifying Crop Plants:
Biotechnology (Traditional and Modern Biotechnology)
1. To get acquainted with crops
2. To understand the climate, soil and water requirements of
2 categories:
different crops
Traditional- uses the old method of plant breeding such as cross
3. To familiarized the adaptability requirements of crops
pollination, food processing involving fermentation and others.
4. To know the growing habit of crops
Modern- makes use of genetic information found in the DNA
5. to know the economic importance of crops
(deoxyribonucleic acid) to improve materials use in food production,
A. Botanical classification (based on ICBN and/or ICNCP)
medicine and others. Biotechnology, generally is the use of living
Plants are named in 3 ways:
organisms (microorganisms, plants, and animals) , their parts or products to
improve or make materials such as food , medicines, chemicals and others
1. Common name – usually the English name
materials useful to man. This technology has been used in many advanced
2. Local name – varies from place to place
countries since 1990,s in commercial applications.
3. Scientific name – follows the binomial system of nomenclature
Use of CMS (cytoplasmic male sterility) in hybrid corn and hybrid rice offer
(genus and species)
a lot of promise.
Grouping of plants (largest to smallest group) as bases for modern
classification:
Kingdom, division, class, sub-class, order, family, genus and 2. Horticultural crops- are annual and perennial species which are
species ( Table 1). grown under a system of intensive culture.
“Hortus”- garden and ―colere‖-to cultivate
Agronomic Classification(Uses)
1. Cereals or grain crops- grains used as staple food
Rice Oryza sativa L.
Corn Zea mays L.
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor L/
Sorghum vulgare L..
Wheat Triticum spp.
Barley Hordeum vulgare
Millet(pearl ) Pennisetum typhoides
Millets ( panics etc.) Panicum spp.
Millet (Italian) Setaria italica
Millet (Japanese) Echinocloa spp.
Oats Avena sativa
Rye Secale cereale
Triticale ( x Tritiosecale )
2. Legume seed crops or pulses- consumed in dry seed form and
high in protein under Family Leguminosae or Fabaceae
A. Horticultural crops
Peanut Arachis hypogea L.
Soybean/soya bean Glycine max L.
Mungbean Vigna radiata L./Phaseolus aureus
Beans (Field/garden) Phaseolus vulgaris L
Beans (Broad) Vicea faba L.
Black gram/ cowpea Vigna ungiculata
Garden pea Pisum sativum
Chick pea Cicer arietinum
Winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobos
Lentil Lens cculinaris
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan
Yam bean Pachyrhizus erosus
3. Root and tuber crops – source of carbohydrates, the major
economic parts are the roots
Note: Angiosperm compose the majority of cultivated plants. Cassava Manihot utilissima
EAD Sweet potato Ipomea batatas
B. Agricultural Classification – is based mainly on their uses and that Gabi Colocasia esculenta
agricultural crops are group into : agronomic, horticultural, and weeds. Yam Dioscorea alata
1. Agronomic crops – are annual herbaceous plants that are grown in Carrot Daucus carota
the farm under a system of extensive or large scale culture. 4. Sugar crops- source of sugar
Derived from Greek words: Sugarcane Saccharum officinalis
―Agros‖- field and ―Nomos‖- manage Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris
Corn Zea mays
5. Oil and beverage crops –source of oil and beverages Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Coconut Cocos nucifera Paragrass Brachiaria mutica
Corn Zea mays Pangola grass Digitaria decumbens
Soybean Glycine max Alabang grass Dicanthium aristatum
Castor bean Ricinus communis Signal grass Brachiaria decumbens
Cotton Gossypium ssp. Star grass Cynodo plectostachyus
Olive Olea europaea Napier Pennisetum purpureum
Palm oil Elaeis guianeensis Carpet grass Axonopus spp.
Sunflower Helianthus annus Legumes:
Peanut Arachis hypogaea Kudzu Pueraria phseoloides
Sesame Sesamum indicum Centro Centrosema pubescens
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala
6. Fiber crops-grown for fiber-grown for fiber (seed, bark or stem) Stylo Stylosanthes humiles
Abaca Musa textiles Siratro Macrophilium atropurpurium
Kenaf Hibiscus sabdariffa Setaria Setaria anceps
Jute Corchorus olitorius 11. Starch crops- grown for the production of starch.
Hemp Cannabis sativa Tapioca/cassava
Ramie Boehmeria nivea Potato
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum Sweet potato
Kapok Ceiba pentandra Maize
Flax Linum usitatisssimum C. Horticultural Crops- require special care. They are group into:
7. Oil seeds crop- crop seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract 1. Olericultural crops/Vegetable crops - Edible groups: tree fruits, nuts,
vegetable oil to meet various requirements small fruits,
Ground nut/peanut Onion- Allium cepa
Mustard(black) Sinapis nigra Garlic-Allium sativum
Mustard (White) Sinapis alba Tomato- Lycpersicon esculentum
Sunflower Helianthus annus Eggplant-Solanum melongena
Sesame Sesamum indicum Cabbage-Brassica oleraceae
8. Rubber crop Yard long bean-Vigna sesquipedales
Rubber Heavea braziliensis Winged bean-Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
9. Medicinal and aromatic or drug crops / biocidal plant source of Bitter gourd- Momordica charantia
pharmaceutical and medicinal plant. Watermelon-Citrullus lunatus
Ulasiman Portuloca oleraceae Pechay-Brassica rapus
Lagundi Vitex negundo Vegetables:
Yerba Buena Mentha cordiflora FAMILY Species SCIENTIFICNAME
Sambong Blumea balsamifera Araceae/Arum Gabi,taro, Colocasia esculenta
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacom dashen
Pepper mint Mentha piperita Amaranthaceae Amaranth, Amaranthus viridis
Pepper Capsicum spp. kulitis
Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus Asteraceae/ lettuce Lactuca sativa
Citronella grass C. winterianus Compositae
10. Forage legumes and grasses Apiaceae/Parsley Celery Apium graveolens
Grasses: carrot Daucus carrota
Basellaceae alugbati Basella alba esculentum
Brassica Cabbage (var Brassica oleracea Tabasco/hot Capsicum
Capitata) B. oleracea var italica pepper frutescens
broccoli ( var B. oleracea var botrytis Sweet pepper Capsicum
italica) B. juncea annum
cauliflower B. pekinensis Fruit Crops
mustard Raphanus sativus Anacardiaceae cashew Anacardium
Chinese occidentale
cabbage Mango Mangifera indica
radish Spanish Spondias purpurea
Convolvulaceae Kangkong Ipomea acquatica plum/siniguelas
Sweet potato Ipomea batatas Annonaceae guyabano Annona muricata
atis Annona squamosa
Cucurbitaceae cucumber Cucumis sativus Bombacaceae durian Durio zibethenus
Musk melon Cucumis melo Bromeliaceae pineapple Ananas comosus
squash Cucurbita Burceracaea Pili nut Canarium ovatum
maxima/moshata Caesalpiniaceae Tamarind Tamarindus indica
Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Caricaceae papaya Carica papaya
chayote Sechium edule Clusiaceae mangoteen Garcinia mangostana
watermelon Citrullus lunatus Ebenaceae mabolo Diospyros blancoi
Spaghete Lagenaria siceraria Lauraceae avocado Persea amiricana
squash/upo Mimosaceae camatchile Pithecellobiumdulce
Patolang tagalong Luffa acutanggula Miliaceae lanzones Lansium domesticum
Dishrag gourd L. cylindrica santol Sandoricum koetjape
Moraceae camansi Artocarpus camansi
Malvaceae Ladies finger/okra Hibiscus Bread fruit Artocarpus communis
esculentus Marang Artocarpus
Moringaceae Horseradish/malu Moringa Jack fruit odoratissimus
ngay oleifera Artocarpus
Leguminoceae/Papillionac heterophyllus
eae Musaceae banana Musa ssp.
Graminae/Poaceae Myrtaceae guava Psidium guajava
Liliaceae/Allium Common onion Allium cepa Duhat/lumboy Syzigium cumini
Sibuyas tagalog A. var macopa S. samarangense
ascalonocum Oxalidaceae Camias/iba Averrhoa bilimbi
Gree onion/dahon A. fistulosum balimbing A. carambola
garlic A. sativum Passifloraceae Passion fruit Passiflora edules
Solanaceae/nightshade Irish potato Solanum Rosaceae strawberry Fragaria vesca
tuberosum
eggplant S. melongena Rutaceae lime Citrus aurantifolia
tomato Lycopersicon calamansi Citrofortunell mitis
Pummelo Citrus grandis 4. Spices and condiments/spice crops- used for flavoring, and or coloring
Mandarin Citrus nobilis of fresh or preserved foods.
Sweet orange/kahil C. sinensis Some important species:
Onion Allium cepa
Garlic Allium sativum
Sapindaceae rambutan Nephelium Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
lapapaceum Eggplant Solanum melongena
Sapotaceae chico Manilkara zapota Cabbage Brassica oleracea
starapple Chrysophyllum Yard long bean Vigna sesquipedales
caimito Winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Vitaceae grape Vitis vinifera Bitter gourd Momordica charantia
Water melon Citrullus lunatus
Ornamental Crops: Pechay Brassica rapus
Mango Mangifera indica
Araceae Anthurium Anthurium sp. Banana Musa spp.
Gabi-gabi Caladium bicolor Pineapple Ananas comosus
dumbcane Dieffenbanchia sp. Papaya Carica papaya
Compositae African daisy Gerbera jamesonii D. Classification of crops based on Climate
Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum 1. Tropical- Crops best adapted in warm and hot climate
moriffolium a. Rice
Orchidiaceae mariposa Phalaenopsis b. Sugarcane, etc
amabilis 2. Temperate- best adapted in cool climate, marked winter
Waling waling Vanda sanderiana season/freezing
Oleaceae Jasmine/sampaguita Jasminum sambac a. Wheat
Euphorbiaceae San fransico/croton Codiaeum b. Oats, etc
variegatum E. Classification based on Growing Season
Rubiaceae santan Ixora sp. 1. Rainy/Kharif/Monsoon crops- the crops grown in monsoon months fro
Rosaceae rose Rosa sp. June to October/Nov. Require warm- wet weather at major period of
Anonaceae Ilang-ilang Cananga odorata crop growth also required short day length for flowering. Ex. Cotton,
2. Pomological/Fruit crops – consumed fresh or processed form rice etc
Mango- Mangifera indica 2. Winter/Rabi/Cold season crops- require winter season to grow well
Banana-Musa spp. from October to March. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather.
Pineapple- Ananas comosus Require longer day length to flower. Ex Wheat, Sunflower etc.
Papaya- Carica papaya 3. Summer/Zaid crops- crops grown well in summer months from March
Lanzones-Lanzium domesticum to June. Require warm day weather for major growth period. And
Rambutan-Nephelium spp. longer day length for flowering. Ex. Groundnuts, watermelons
Pomelo- Citrus grandis pumpkins, gourds
Jack fruit- Artocarpus heterophylus F. Classification Based on Life Cycle/Duration of crops
3. Ornamental crops-wide variety of species for cut flower industry, 1. Seasonal crops- A crop complete its life cycle in one season ex.
landscape, turf etc. Rice, wheat etc.
4. Plantation Crops-for industrial processing. Oil crops, beverage crops, 2. Two seasonal crops- crops complete its life cycle in two seasons.
fiber, spices etc. Ex cotton, turmeric, ginger etc.
3. Annual-crops require one full year to complete its life cycle. Ex. opening.They are drought resistant and are able to grow well even
Sugarcane under moisture stress.Ex. sorghum, maize, napier grass, etc.
4. Biennial crops- crops growing in one year and flowers , fructifies 3. CAM- (Crassulacean acid metabolism plants) the stomata open at
and perishes the next year. Ex. Banana, papaya etc night and and large amount of Carbon dioxide is fixed which is stored
5. Perennial crops- crops live for several years. Ex fruit crops mango in the vacuoles.. During daytime stomata are closed. Transpiration is
guava etc. negligible . C4 and CAM plants have high water use efficiency. They
G. Classification based on cultural method/water/ecosystem are highly drought resistant . Ex. Pineapple, sisal, agave etc.
1. Rain fed crops- crops grow only on rain water. M. Structure and form
2. Irrigated crops- crops grow with the help of irrigation water - Herbaceous-soft and succulent
H. Classification based on root system: - Woody-developed secondary tissues, for building materials
1. Tap root system- the main root goes deep into the soil. - Vines- trailing and climbing
2. Adventitious/Fibrous rootcrops has fibrous, shallow and spreading - Trees-woody, usually single stem/trunk
roots . N. Leaf retention
I. Classification based on economic importance - Deciduous- loses leaves annually for extended period
1. Cash crops- grown for quick turn-over of money - Evergreen-maintain leaves throughout the year
2. Food/Feed/Fodder crops- grown for human food, animal feed, fodder O. Usefulness
J. Classification based on number of cotyledon - Root crop/ Tuber crop
1. monocots or monocotyledons - Medicinal crop
2. dicots or dicotyledons - Forage crop
K. Classification based on Flower initiation in response to - Fruit and vegetable
daylength/length of photoperiod - Grains or cereals
Most plants are influenced by relative length of day and night, especially - Ornamentals
for flower initiation, the effect on plants is known as photopriodism. - Fiber crop
1. Short day plants- floral initiation takes place when the days are short - Sugar crop
less than 10 hrs.. ex. Rice mungbean etc. - Beverage crop
2. Long day plants- requires long days for floral initiation more than 10 - Other (special uses)
hrs..Ex. wheat, barley etc. - Cover crop
3. Day neutral plants- photoperiod do not have much influence on - Catch crop
photoperiod. - Companion crop
L. Classification based on photosynthesis ( Reduction of CO2/Dark Major agronomic crops of the world, theirfamilies and scientific names
reaction) Family: Graminae Scientific name
1. C3 plants- Photorespiration is high on these plants. Have lower water Crops:
use efficiency. The initial product of Carbon assimilation is the 3- Oats Avena sativa
carbon compounds. The enzyme involved in the primary carboxylation Millets Eleusine coracana
is Ribulose-1-5 biphosphate carboxylase. Ex. Rice, soybean, wheat , Pennisetum americanum
barley, cotton, potato. Barley Hordeum vulgare
2. C4 plants- The primary product of Carbon fixation is four Carbon Rice Oryza sativa
compounds which is ascorbic acid. The enzyme responsible for Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
carboxylation is phosphoenol pyruvic acid carboxylase which has high Rye Secale cereale
affinity for CO2 and capable of assimilation even at lower Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
concentration of CO2. photorespiration is negligible. Photosynthetic Triticale Triticosecale spp.
rate is higher in C4 than in C3 plants for the same amount of stomatal (Wheat x rye)
Wheat Triticum sp
Maize Zea mays  Composed of a bounding nuclear envelope and a karyolyph fluid
Family: Legumenosae Scientific Name which bathes the reticulum or chromosomes
Crops: Mitochondria and Chloroplast
Peanut/Groundnut Arachis hypogea  The particles of cell include chloroplast where photosynthesis occur,
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan and the mitochondria the site of respiration.
 The membranes also include the bounding ectoplast and tonoplast and
Chick pea Cicer arietinum the internal endoplasmic reticulum and dictysomes.
Soybean Glycine max Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lentil Lens culinaris Transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and
Alfalfa/Lucerne Medicago sativa specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the
Beans Phaseolus spp. cytoplasm
Peas Pisum sativum  The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its
Clover Trifolium spp. surface and secretes proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER,
Field bean Vicia faba which lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata and release
Nature and Composition of Plants Golgi Apparatus
THE CELL  To process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and
 the functional basic unit of life lipids that are synthesized by the cell
 Unit structure of life of an organism  Particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion
 the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often  Forms a part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells
called the building block of life Ribosome
Characteristics of Cells  Large complex of RNA and protein molecules
1. They can divide or reproduce.  Each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA
2. They can grow. from the nucleus is used to synthesize proteins from amino acids
3. They can transport food and water.
 Can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough
4. They can photosynthesize.
endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in
5. They can respire.
prokaryotes)
6. They can secrete nectars.
 Ribosomes read the sequence of messenger RNAs and assemble
7. They can absorb, contain and excrete elements and toxic
proteins out of amino acids bound to transfer RNAs.
substances.
Vacuoles
8. They can contain genetic material.
 Store food and waste
Generally, there are two parts of a cell: the PROTOPLAST and the CELL
WALL.  Store extra water
Protoplast  Often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a
It is divided into many compartments by different particles and membrane
membranes or organelles. Among these organelles, the most important is the  Some cells have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out
Nucleus of the cell if there is too much water.
NUCLEUS  The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants
 A cell's information center than animals.
 Houses the cell's chromosomes Cell Wall
 Bearer of the hereditary characteristics  The outside rigid membrane that surrounds the entire protoplast
 Secreted by the protoplast which separates the protoplast from
each other
 Cemented together by the intercellular substance called the middle Functions of Cell and Tissue Systems
lamella composed of pectates and other substances 1. The parenchyma cells functions as storage of water and food and for
 The first wall formed by the protoplasts is the primary wall which is the conduction of materials
composed mainly of cellulose. As this wall ages more deposits by the 2. Collenchyma, sclerids, fibers and tracheids strengthens the cells or
protoplast brings about the formation of the secondary wall. Between serve as mechanical tissue elements
the cell wall and the protoplast is the membrane that envelops the 3. Tracheids and vessels conduct water and mineral salts.
protoplast which is the cell membrane also called the plasma 4. Sieve tubes conduct food
membrane or which protects the cells from harmful substances. 5. Vascular cambium is a meristematic tissue whose cells are capable of
However, it allows the passages of gasses and nutrients into and out of cell division.
the cell. ROOT
 Roots absorb nutrients and water from the soil.
 They serve as the anchorage of the plant to the soil media.
 They serve as storage organs for food.
The three major functions of roots are

1) Absorption of water and inorganic nutrients;
2) Anchoring of the plant body to the ground; and
3) Storage of food and nutrients.
In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesize cytokinin,
which acts as a signal as to how fast the shoots can grow
The Cross section of a simple root has:
 Epidermis which consists of a layer of epidermal cells and protective
layer called cuticle.
 Vascular cylinder which is composed of the vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem and one or more layers of non-vascular tissues called pericylce
 Cortex which is between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder
Types of Root Systems
 Taproot system
- Single primary root dominates over branch roots (usually
found in Gymnosperms and most Dicotyledons)
 Fibrous root system
PLANT TISSUES AND TISSUE SYSTEMS - A network of fine roots with no central dominant root.
Fibrous root systems don't go as deep as taproots, but they
The primary plant body is composed of the following different kinds spread laterally
of cells and tissues. STEM
1. Epidermis – which has the three types of cells : the epidermal, guard Generally, there are four types of stem:
and epidermal hairs The stems of the woody dicotyledons and gymnosperms;
2. Cortex – composed of collenchyma, sclerenchyma (the fibers and 1. Monocotyledonous stems;
sclerids) and parenchyma 2. Stems of Herbaceous plants; and
3. Vascular Tissues – consist of the xylem and the phloem 3. Different modified stems
4. Pith – composed largely of parenchyma with occasional fibers  All stems have nodes and internodes which may be distinct or not
5. Pith rays – composed of the parenchyma cells
 These buds and leaves are attached on these nodes and by their 1. Exocarp or epicarp – outer layer which is colored, thick and has oil
position on the stem can either be terminal, lateral, or axillary, glands beneath the surface
accessory or adventitious. 2. Mesocarp – middle part is white and spongy
 These buds may further develop into a leaf, flower or a combination 3. Endocarp – inner part is composed of locular membrane and the juice
of both. sacks
Four Main Functions of the Stem Types of Fruits
1. As Support System. Stems functions to support leaves, flowers and 1. SIMPLE FRUITS
fruit. The leaves being the site of photosynthesis are held in a  Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the
favorable position by the stem to receive air and light. Likewise, the ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only
floers are raised in a position that will facilitate pollination and one pistil.
subsequent dispersal of seeds. 2. AGGREGATE FRUITS
2. As Conduction System. The stem conducts water, mineral salts from  Aggregate fruits form from single flowers that have multiple
the roots to the structures above the soil. It also conducts food from the carpels which are not joined together, i.e. each pistil contains
leaves to all parts of the plant. one carpel. Each pistil forms a fruitlet, and collectively the
3. As Storage of Food and Water. Some plants particularly the root crops fruitlets are called an etaerio.
have stem which store food and water. 3. MULTIPLE FRUITS
4. As Vegetative reproductive Structures. The stems can be used as  A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an
propagating materials. inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a
single mass.[21] Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-
LEAVES orange, and breadfruit.
 The lamina which is the extended flat part of the blade is the most SEEDS
important part of the true leaf.  Small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat,
 The leaf blade may be attached to a stem-like part known as petiole. usually with some stored food
 The base of a leaf encircles the stem called the leaf sheaths.  The product of the ripened ovule of plants which occurs after
 Modified leaves are the bracts and tendrils. fertilization and some growth within the mother plant
 The tendrils which are used by the plants to twine around objects are  The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in
the slender thread-like structure. seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination),
 Bracts are simple shaped and structured than a leaf and more exposed with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the
than the petals. integuments of the ovule.
FLOWER
Functions of the Flower UNIT IV. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. For reproduction Growth is an irreversible increase of an organism which can be
2. For breeding or crop improvement observe based on the following indexes like increase in height, length, number
3. For aesthetic purposes of tillers, number of leaves, number of branches, etc. development on the other
4. For food hand, is the process on which cell becomes specialized to perform specific
FRUITS function.
 Formed as a result of fertilization o the egg cell Plant growth and development is greatly influence by both external
 Some fruits develop even without fertilization like banana, pineapple, and internal factors.
seedless grapes. These fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. A. External Factors (Factors of the environment)
The fruit consists of the fruit wall and the seeds. The fruit wall could An environmental factor is any external force, substances or condition
be dry or fleshy, dehiscent (splits apart when ripe) or indehiscent. The three of which affect the growth of a biological organism) plant or animal. The sum of
layers of fruit wall are: all such factors constitutes the environment.
When the factors for growth, development and yield performance are When the CO2 is lacking, Solarization is apt to occur or to be more
external to the plant, s, they are called environmental actors. An example of the pronounced to occur at lower light intensities and on shorter exposure.
environmental factors that may alter the growth of the vegetables includes: Light Intensity determination:
1. Light intensity 6. Disease organism 1. With the use of Phenheliometer- this is connected to a recorder so
2. Available water 7. Temperature it will register readings in millivolts/minutes. Readings should be
3. Daylength 8. Chemicals (Pesticides) converted into Langley/minute.
4. Humidity 9. Fertilizer nutrients 2. With corresponding layers of Ozalid papers exposed to sunlight
5. Weeds through a tube. Determine the standard curve through regression
1. LIGHT analysis with number of bleached ozalid paper on the X-axis and
Light is the only source of plants energy that can be used to drive the Langley(readings) on the Y-axis
photosynthesis of plants. The energy of light is a physical energy and is most Ozalid Paper- cut the small pieces and about 10-15 layers should
recognized in the form of heat from sunlight. When the light strikes the green be exposed at one (1) time.
leaf of the plant, the physical energy of light is transformed by the chlorophyll
into chemical energy. Table 2. Maximum light intensity requirements of some vegetable crops
The chemical energy is used in photosynthesis to energize the reaction (foot candles)
that lead to the formation of sugars, starches, structural fibers and other
chemical constituents of the plants from water and carbon dioxide. Vegetable Crops Light Intensity Requirements
The water in the soil enters the plants through the roots while the CO2
enters into the plants through the small openings of the leaves called stomata. Tomato 7000 ft. candles
a. Light Intensity Eggplant 4000 ft. candles
Since sunlight provides all the energy used to drive the photosynthesis, Pepper 3000 ft. candles
plant growth maybe more or less proportional to the amount of sunlight
available. Cucumber 5000 ft. candles
Except when temperature becomes too high for some crops or when Taro 1000 ft. candles- shade tolerant
insufficient soil moisture is available, vegetable yield in the Philippines may be
Kidney beans 2500 ft. candles
expected to be higher during the dry season because of higher sun light
intensities than during rainy season when thick clouds reduces light intensities Lettuce 2500 ft. candles
(Table 1).
Pumpkins 4500 ft. candles
Table 1. Comparison between dry and wet season
The intensity of light directly affects the rate of photosynthesis. Very
Criteria Dry season Wet season
high light intensity may be damaging to the plants. Solarization may occur
which is the photodestruction of chlorophyll by excessive light illumination.
Figure1. Effect of light intensity on the rate of Ps of a bean leaf Clouds Less and thin More and thick
(Phaseolus vulgaris)
Light intensity High Low
1000 ppm CO2

Yields Higher Lower
Supply Higher Lower
Price lower Higher
Foot Candles- means a unit of light measurement. It is an energy emitted b. Light Utilization by Plants
by a standard candles light measured (1) one foot As indicated in Figure 2, the solar energy balance during
away. summer, energy expenditure is based on the percentage of the total that is
Table 3. Intensity values in Ft. C. for various light conditions and plant sufficient to evaporate 36 inches of water- shows that only 1% of light
photoreactions. received by the leaf is utilized for photosynthesis. On the other hand the
Light condition or Photoreaction Foot Candles efficiency of light utilization by plants is expressed with the following
formula:
Starlight 0.0001 Energy from dry matter produced
Moonlight 0.02 Eu= ------------------------------------------------
Photoperiodic induction 0.3 Energy intercepted by crop
(cocklebur) Where: Eu= efficiency of light utilization by plants
Indoors near window 100.0 1 gram dry matter = 4000 calories
Implication of the Formula:
Overcast weather ,000.0 1. Pants with high percentages of light utilization (Eu) has a high
Maximum Photosynthesis 1,200.0 efficiency of converting light into dry matter.
2. Maximum use of intercepted sunlight can be possible only with
Direct sunlight 10,000.0 proper cultural and management practices.
Flight of Light Energy: Examples:
Energy income 100% a. Proper spacing
Energy expenditure 100% b. Balance fertilization
Transpiration 39% c. Proper control of pest and diseases
Back radiation 34% d. Proper weed control
Reflection 20% e. Multiple cropping
Heating air 4% 3. Varieties with high efficiency of light utilization (Eu) (upright
Heating soil 2% leaves) can produce high dry matter (DM) even under a low light
Plant growth 1% intensity.
Only about 1% of the light received by the leaf during sunny days is Examples:
utilized for photosynthesis. a. Varieties with upright leaves
b. Varieties with high harvest index
Dry Matter (for grains)

Harvest Index = -----------------------------------------
Dry Matter (for above ground)
The higher the harvest index, the higher the efficiency of light
utilization (Eu) of the crops. Harvest index is utilized in varietal
improvement.
HI (high) X HI (low)
50-50 Hi (High-low) X HI (High)
Properties of the Plants that Affect Light Utilization
b. Optimum LAI- a point at which the lower leaves are at their
1. Optical properties of the leaf compensation point. There is no more addition of dry matter due to the fact that
This is the first factor that determines the metabolic lower leaves, photosynthesis equals respiration.
energy fixed by green plant. This has something to do with the
pattern of absorption and reflection of solar radiation.
Examples: Optimum LAI
a. Moisture of the leaf- increases in absorption of
solar radiation since it takes longer period for a Crop
moist leaves to be saturated with heat. Growth
b. Deficiency of elements- plants deficient in dw/dt = wt./unit time
Rate
Sulfur have greater reflection of solar radiation
that those deficient in N, K, and P.
Reflection pattern is: S> N> K> P
c. Light colored leaves have greater reflection than Leaf Area Index
purple leaf.
2. Leaf Are Index (LAI) Increasing further the LAI makes the lower leaves parasitic.
The ratios of leaf are to that of the ground area occupied by
the particular plant. a. Leaf Area Duration (LAD) – the capacity of the leaf absorbing surfaces to
A Leaf Area Index (LAI) of say 4- means that total leaf are remain functional for photosynthesis.
is 4 times greater than the ground are occupied by the particular LAD= Leaf Area x time
plant. b. Extinction Coefficient- is the measure of the loss of light intensity as it goes
a. Critical LAI- As the amount of LAI required for from the top of the canopy to the lower portion. If the extinction coefficient is
95% interception of solar radiation at local high, the higher is the radiation intensity that is wasted due to less energy
noon. The most distinguishing characteristics of absorption by a given surface of the leaves.
a critical LAI response is that failure for the
increment weight/unit time to decline at higher Extinction Coefficient and Ps a s a function of LAI
LAI.
Critical LAI
K=. 03
Crop K= 0.5
Growth dw/dt = wt./unit time Dry Amtter K= 0.7
Rate Production
K= 1
g/m2/day K= 2
Leaf Area Index

Leaf Area Index
The curve is still increasing due to reduce respiration of lower leaves
so that the assimilation rate is still high and lower leaves are not dependent on K=represents the amount of the decrease of light intensity per given
upper leaves. surface of the leaves. The higher the K (extinction coefficient), the higher light
intensity is wasted because lesser light is being absorbed by a given surface of
the leaves. So the lesser the K, the higher the dry matter accumulation due to flowering is controlled by genes and therefore, dependent on the
wore light intensity absorption from dry matter production. variety,
When a sensitive variety is planted at the wrong time of the year (improper
Implication day length) it will be exposed to day length that will delay or prevent flowering.
It is related to leaf display whether erect, horizontal or drooping. This Delay of flowering is usually accompanied by a reduction in the total number of
means with lower K, we can plant the crop close together to produce more dry flowers. Therefore high seed yield of sensitive varieties like soybeans, can only
matter. be expected when planted at the time of the year when the prevailing day length
In general, the more vertical the leaf displays, the more LA that will will stimulate its flower development.
intercept light then the more efficient for Ps. General Group of Plants Response to Photoperiod
At maximums Lai, this is the condition where we can‘t increase LAI
which means leaves are produce equal leaf drying. 1. Photoperiod sensitive plants- Flowering is markedly affected by
e. Light Saturation Point changes in light period or daylength. There are two distinct types of response
Refers to an increase in light intensity that is not followed by a under these:
corresponding increase in the rate of photosynthesis. a. Short Day Plants (SDP)- Flowers only when the light period is
shorter that its critical daylength (CDL). CDL is a light period required to
Light Saturation Point induce flowering.
b. Long Day Plants (LDP)- Flowers only when light period is longer
than its critical daylength.
Example:
Rate
CDL requirement is 12 Hours. If the plant is exposed to light for 9
hours, and if it is SDP, the response is flowering.
of If the plant is exposed to light for 13 hours and if the plant is LDP. The
response is flowering.
Light Intensity
These are the measures of the capacity of the
Photosynthetic system:
1. LA - Leaf Area
2. LAI -Leaf Area Index
3. LAD -Leaf Area Duration
4. LAR - Leaf Area Ratio = the unit of leaf are
per unit of plant dry weight.
c. Photoperiod
A major effect of light on plants is caused by differences
in day length or photoperiod. Days are longest in June and shortest in It is not the light period that induces an effect but it is the length of
December and or intermediate length between these dates. dark period. This has been proven with the light interruption experiments. The
Some vegetable crops like soybeans and peas are day light period when interrupted with different light quality, there is no change of
length or photoperiod sensitive. the effects
Flower development of these crops is stimulated, delayed However, when the dark period has been interrupted with different
or prevented by the day length occurring at the time the crops are light quality, varied response of plants was observed.
grown. The length of the day required to stimulate, delay or prevent
Example: Light interruption of the dark period resulted to the
following: A general effect of temperature upon plants is that the rate of
Light Quality Plant response respiration and other internal biochemical and growth processes are increased
Red (R) Vegetative by a rise in temperature. These rate increases continue to rise until the
Far Red (FR) Flowering temperature becomes so high that the structure of some of the essential enzymes
and biochemical substances are denatured or cooked. A certain rule stated that
Red-Far Red Flowering
for every increase of the temperature by 10oC, the rate of biochemical reactions
Far Red – Red Vegetative are doubled provided that temperature ranges are within 5 oC to 35oC. It can be
Red- Far Red- Red Vegetative illustrated by the graph below:
Red- Far Red-Red-FR Flowering
2. Photoperiod insensitive Plants Rs

These are the plants which are not affected by daylength. They are Ps
called Day Neutral Plants
Examples: a. Beets d. Asparagus Less CHO
b. Cabbage e. Sweet corn
c. Carrots f. Tomato More
Examples of vegetable crops belonging to SD or LD.
Vegetable crops Critical Daylength CHO
Requirements
Less CHO
(No. of Hours) Above
Short Day Plants (SDP) Below
a. Lima beans 13-13.5 Opt. Opt.
b. Chayote 12 Opt.
c. Chinese cabbage 10-13 Night Temperature
d. Sweet pepper 14
Temperature Regime
e. Sweet potato 10-12
1. Optimum temperature- temperature at which plant growth is best,
f. Winged beans 12
which means rapid growth (rapid cell division) and rapid
Long Day Plants (LDP)
utilization of more CHO.
a. Radish 15
2. Below optimum- Slower cell division and slower rate of Ps. Little
b. Cauliflower 16
amount of energy (CHO) produced or less heat is absorbed by the
c. Onion LD + 60-80oF 12-15 for bulb
chlorophyll.
formation
3. Above optimum-
d. Onion SD +60-80oF 10-11 no bulbing
a. Very high rate of transpiration
e. Turnip 16
b. Loss of chlorophyll content
c. Enzymes activity stops.
2. TEMPERATURE AS A FACTOR OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The Role of Temperature
The physical and chemical; processes are controlled by
The temperature is very closely related to light. Both are derived from
temperature and these processes in turn control the biological reactions that take
the same source, the emission of electromagnetic radiation by the sun.
place in plants. For instance:
However, light and temperature differ because certain wavelength of radiation
can be seen and observed by the eye (visible light) while adjacent wavelengths
cannot be seen are best detected as heat by man‘s sense of feel.
1. Temperature determines the diffusion rates of gasses and P2O5> K2O> NaNO3> CaCO3> MgO
liquids in plant system. As temperature decreases, the
viscosity of water increases, hence the rate of absorption In tomato, at 13oC, there is a decrease in the concentration of P 2O5
slows down. and K2O in stems and leaves. At 13 to 18oC, more blossom end root due to less
2. Solubility of various substances is temperature dependent. pollen germination. In cucumber, growth was best in this temperature
CO2 is twice as soluble in cold water as it is in warm. The combination:
inverse is true for most solids like sugar. It is much more  33oC room temperature
soluble in warm than in cold water.  23 to 28oC air temperature
3. Rate of reaction is affected by temperature. Usually the If night temperature is high, the following are suggested:
higher the temperature, the faster the reaction with certain a. Select the right variety, a variety that can
limits. The physiological limit of temperature is 5 to 35oC. tolerate high night temperature and low light
4. Temperature affects the stability of enzyme systems. intensity with less pollen bursting.
a. At optimal temperature, enzyme systems function b. Right cultural practices.
well and remain stable for long period of time. 3. ATMOSPHERIC GASES AS PART OF THE ENVIRONMENT
b. At colder temperature, enzyme remain stable but are
non-functional. All gases , solid and liquid present in the air that influence plant
c. At high temperature, they completely breakdown. growth are factors of the atmospheric environment. For instance:
Effect of Temperature (Tomato)
1. Growth of young plants in general 1. Oxygen (O2)- is required for respiration of all living
a. Best temperature combination: organism. It constitutes 20% of the gas in the air. Little can be
 23 to 28oC – day temperature done to control O2 concentration to be of practical use of the
 18 to 23 oC – night temperature farmers.
b. Poor temperature combination 2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)- along with water obtained through
the roots from the soil constitute the major chemical building
 18oC- day temperature
blocks use in Ps and plant growth. CO2 makes up only 0.03
 13oC night temperature
of the air (but not true in urban/industrialized areas).
c. At 28oC night temperature, dry matter yield
3. Nitrogen (N2)- constitute 79% of the air but gaseous N2 is
decreases, leaves become pale green and chlorotic.
inert and exert a little influence upon plant growth not until it
2. Flowering and fruit yield
is concerted to NH4 or NO3 forms in the soil or not until
a. Opening of flowers is high at higher day
these chemicals form of N2 are added to the soil as fertilizers.
temperature. Anthesis and flower opening was best
In this case, N2 functions as one of the factors of the
at:
soil; environment although its original source is the
 28 to 23oC day temperature atmosphere. The N2 needs to be converted to NH4 or NH3 by
 23oC night temperature nitrogen fixation using Rhizobium bacteria or by lightning.
b. fruit yield and fruit setting:
 28oC day temperature 4. SOIL FACTORS
 18oC night temperature Besides providing the physical support and anchorage for the plants,
In cucumber, it is practically the same with tomato. However, the soil is the Major source of minerals and water used by the plants. Variations
maximum photosynthetic rate was observed to be within the range of in soil conditions and minerals content affects plant growth.
15 to 20oC. Soil moisture conditions and nutrient content affect plant growth by
With low root temperature- the mineral contents of cucumber altering the penetration of air into the soil by aeration and absorption of
leaves is as follows in their order of magnitudes: nutrients, respectively. Moisture conditions and nutrient content are factors of
the soil environment:
a. Nutrient content- will be discus in details in the next chapter. For Lower yields of vegetables crops when they reduce
successful vegetable production (in general) N, P and K contents functional and effective leaf are either by eating the leaves or
in the soil must be adjusted regularly to suit what is required by damaging the plant tissues. Aphids and Leafhoppers as well As other
the plants by adding either commercial chemical fertilizer or insect frequently transfer virus as they move from one vegetable the
animal manures. Mineral elements needed by the plants in lesser other. However, not all environmental effects of insects are
quantities (micronutrients) may be added too. detrimental. Pollen of many plants is effectively distributed by insects
b. Soil Water – water supply in the soil constantly changes. That‘s like bees which enhances the pollination and fertilization stages of the
why irrigation water is very indispensable for successful vegetable plants.
production. to appreciate the importance of water, it plays a great C. Virus:
role like: 1) a major constituents of the protoplasm, 2) solvent and Viruses also, like bacteria and fungi, cause plant disease.
carrier of nutrients and other that enters into plant cell, 3) reagent Very small virus particles consist of two substances, namely:
and reactant in many metabolic processes, 4) maintenance of i. A protective coat of protein, and
turgidity associated in the opening and closing of stomata. The ii. The inner core3 of DNA similar to DNA that
forms and position of the leaves are also easily affected when is the active chemical substances of genes.
water becomes limiting. Inadequate water to maintain turgor When a virus caters to a plant cell (or animal cell/ human
resulted in the reduction of vegetative growth. cell) it takes a command of the genetic control of the cell,
5. BIOTIC FACTORS (Biological Environment) making the plant‘s own genes virtually ineffective. The virus
There are several components of the biological environment. This commands the cell to produce the proteins that protect the DNA
includes the following: or genes of the virus and also produce the DNA or genes that
A. Other plants: duplicate the virus. Thus, a virus-infected cell begins to work
1. Other vegetable crop plants – All plants that grow adjacent to for the benefits of the virus until its resources for sustaining life
a given plant are part of the plants biological environment. is completely used, At which the virus has been duplicated
The denser the plant, the more intense is the competition millions of times and cell dies.
for the environmental factors (intraspecific competition). Aphids and leafhoppers are the most important
2. Weeds – compete the vegetable crops for light, space, water carriers of plant viruses. Controlling these insects is one way of
and nutrients in exactly the same day that the two vegetable controlling virus but the best protection is to grow virus-
plants are competing each other (This is an interspecific resistant varieties when they are available.
competition). D. Animals:
3. Plants from previous growing period – May provide root These include rats and birds which destroy parts of
nodules containing Nitrogen- fixing bacteria it they are growing plants or whole plants or eat the mature plants or
legumes. Other plants may be producing residues which are produce before harvest or during storage.
toxic to the next crop. Growing the same crop year after E. Man:
year may lead to excess removal of nutrients from the soil The most influential and potent component of the
of certain mineral nutrient elements. biological environment of vegetable crops. He should be the
4. Bacteria – some species parasitize vegetable crops and cause most important of all factors of the biological environment.
diseases or multiply in great numbers and plug the vascular Only man can control the conditions and most aspects of the
system of the plants. Toxins and poisons that reduce plant‘s environment.. he can control the cultural and
photosynthesis emanate from the infection site. management practices and genetics of his vegetables crops.
5. Fungi: will also parasitize plants. The fungi grow from the 6. Chemical Environment:
spores in decaying refuse of in the soil from diseased This includes the naturally occurring chemical components of the
plants. atmospheric and soil environment. Artificial chemical environment are also
B. Insects: supplied to increase yields of the vegetable crops. Hormones are sometimes
applied to increase fruit set. Fertilizers and pesticides are also commonly
applied. To summarize these examples, it should be emphasized that for each
B. Internal Factors (Genetics) gene as a gene for disease resistance or high yelled, there is a
Genetics is the science that studies the biological mechanism by which particular environment under which it will function most efficiently.
variations in the many different characteristics of plant and animals are passed To understand why and how genetic and environmental
from one generation to the next. factors influence plant growth, it is helpful to recognize the concept
There are many questions that may arise from this information: for accepted by a biologist: which state that:
example; ―That all variations of all characters both observed and
6. Why are some sitao varieties always tall and indeterminate unobserved of biological organism are a consequence of only two
while others are short and determinate. factors genetics and environment”
7. What determines if a variety will respond with increase yield if According to this concept, nothing except genetics and environment is
given additional fertilizers. responsible for any of the variations among ands within all plants and animal
8. Why are some offspring of plants very much alike their parents species. This could be illustrated by the following formula:
but usually different in certain details. Phenotype = Genotype + Environment
The answers to the above questions maybe base on the facts that all Where: Phenotype = is the general outside appearance
living organisms have hereditary units called GENES. (character) of the plant
These genes are the determining factors in cooperation with the (biological Organism).
environment for all variations. These genes are distributed to an individual at Genotype = is the genetic make-up of the plant.
random and contributed by both parents. One half are in the sperm cell received Example:
from the female parent and the other half are in the sperm cells received from A cabbage variety (K-K) can produce flower when subjected to cool
the male parent. The egg and sperm cells unite to grow and develop into new temperature environment (chilling requirement) but instead will form heads
offspring. under a higher temperatures. Let‘s say that this variety is with a chromosome
Such genes determine the potential limits of your personal characters number.
and the potential good and bad characteristics of vegetables. Phenotype = Genotype + Environment
If a vegetable grower wants to manage his crop in order to get the Flower = K-K with A chromosome number + cool environment
highest possible yield, he must recognize all factors which influence growth, Heads = K-K with A chromosome number + warm environment
development and yield performance of his crops. In gynoecious cucumber, Gibberillic Acid (GA) is also used to
Factors those are internal to the plant that, those that are part of the alter its flowering. Gynoecious cucumbers are those that give all female flowers
plant itself are called- genetics factors, while those that are external are called but when sprayed with GA, some male are formed.
environment. Phenotype = Genotype + environment
INTERACTION BETWEEN GENETICS AND ENVIRONMENT Male flowers = Gynoecious cucumber + GA environment
It may be established by the genes received from its seed parents that a Few characteristics of vegetables that are jointly controlled by genetics
vegetable variety is capable of growing vigorously and giving high yields. This and environment include:
is called yield potential of the variety. 1. Tall vs medium or short plant
The variety will not give high yield however, if it is not provided with 2. yellow vs compared with red fruits
adequate fertilizer, moisture, and light. Even if these important factors are 3. long vs short carrots roots
sufficient, growth and yield may be limited by other environmental factors such 4. early vs late maturity
as attacked by disease causing organism and insect unless: 5. smooth vs rough tomato fruit
1. The variety varies genes for resistance to pest; 6. high vs low yields
2. That the environment which favors the insects to grow, multiply and 7. resistant susceptible varieties
attacked the vegetable does not occur; and Contribution of Genetics to Vegetable Production:
3. That the verities without genes for insect and disease resistance should
be protected by adequate fungicides and insecticides.
The vegetable grower has but only one opportunity to influence the
contribution of genetics to the success of his vegetable growing operation, that
is ― when he selects the variety to be planted‖
For instance:
1. The used of improve varieties- which possess highly selected genes
that established high potential for yield,, disease resistance, color,
flavor, storage ability, shelf life, etc. which are essential to profitable
vegetable production, while: unimproved varieties usually carry
unselected random sample genes.
2. It was also stated that for each gene, there is a particular environment
in which it will function most effectively and efficiently. Selected and
improved varieties carry many desirable genes which provide the
genetic potential for high yield, disease resistance, and may be
excellent quality. It will follow that genes of improved varieties must
be specifically selected for the environment in which the variety will
be grown if the variety is to give its best performance. Types of Reproduction
Flower Structure 1. sexual- reproduction by means of seeds. It involves the formation of
Kinds of Flower: specialized reproductive cells called gametes. This process is
1. Complete flowers- flowers containing all four floral organs ( called gametogenesis. Fusion of the male and female gametes
sepals, petals, stamens and pistil). that leads to the development of an embryo and eventually the
Example of plants with complete flowers: seed. (Please see illustration of gametogenesis under seed
a. Potatoes c. eggplant development and production).
b. soybeans d. tomatoes 2. Asexual- reproduction of new plants which arise from specialized
2. Incomplete flowers- lack one or more floral organs. Most of vegetative organs such as tubers, rhizomes, runners, bulbs,
the crops belonging to the grass family like corn (sweet corn) corms or by various means of propagation such as rooting of
belongs to this kind in which the sepals and petals are plant cuttings, grafting or layering.
lacking. Some of the incomplete flowers are perfect flowers. Varietal Improvement in Vegetables
3. Perfect flowers- are flower that bears stamen and pistil in the In varietal improvement, the knowledge of the mode of reproduction
same flower structure. of a crop is essential. The method of pollination has a profound effect of the
Example: soybeans, cowpea, tomato, and eggplant genetic constitution of the plant. There are two most common modes of
4. Imperfect flowers- one of the essential organ is absent. These reproduction in Vegetable crops:
flowers are always incomplete. I. Naturally self-pollinated vegetables- these vegetable crops have less that
a. Staminate- bearing only the stamen with no pistil 4% natural cross pollination.
b. Pistillate– bearing pistil but no stamen Examples:
In connection with these kinds of flowers, two kinds of plants a. Eggplant e. Soybeans
can be identified: b. Tomato f. Peas
1. Monoecious plant – crops plants in which staminate and Pistillate c. Pepper g. Potato
flowers are borne on the same plant. d. Beans
Example: corn, cucurbits, etc. Reinforcing Mechanisms:
2. Dioecious plant- crop plants in which staminate and Pistillate A. Cleistogamy- the inflorescence of the male and female flower is
flowers are borne on different plants. borned between the culm and sheath. The shedding of pollen before the flower
Example: papaya, asparagus
opens. Flower that lend themselves to this mode of pollination are perfect e.) Suited to mechanical harvesting. Jointless
(containing both stamen and pistil). pedicel and determinate growth may be good
B. Stamen‘s Position- near or around the stigma as in tomato. The stigma is combination in tomato. Most tomatoes- will
surrounded by stamens. Sometimes pollination is accomplished even before the also give only 25% ripe.
flowers open. B. Beans:
II. Naturally cross-pollinated vegetables. This includes vegetable crops with
more than 90% natural cross-pollination. a. Cowpea 67-3- completely determinate.
Examples: b. Native sitao- indeterminate (viny).
a. Sweet corn f. Broccoli Bush sitao- weakly determinate Cowpea x string beans V. Sinensis x V.
b. Squash g. Carrots Sesquipedalis weakly determinate.
c. Cucumber h. Asparagus
d. Ampalaya b. Dwarfness in cucumber and squash.
Reinforcing Mechanisms: Under normal condition, cucurbits are viny and needs trellis, but dwarf
cucumber and squash may not be necessary. The drawback is , it gives smaller
1. Dioecism- the male and female flowers are borne in separate plants of the fruits.
same species. Examples: Asparagus, papaya c. Tornless eggplant with long fruits
2. Monoecism- the male and female flowers are borne separately in the same II. Improvement based on maturity of the crops
plants, thus self-pollination is almost negligible. Examples: Cucurbits ( a. Early
Ampalaya, squash, cucumber). b. Medium early
3. Self-incompatibility (self-sterility)- the pollen of the flower could not c. Late maturity
pollinate the same flower, due to some substances ( not identified yet) that d. Uniform maturity
prevent pollen germination at a certain stage of flower development. Examples; Most improvements are on the selection of crops with early and
Crucifers uniform maturity. As mentioned in the improvement of tomatoes, early and
4. Special floral devices-: uniform maturity are desired especially in growing tomatoes for processing,
a. Heterostylous- the stamen (Male) is found below the stigma Another example is on mungbean with problem on maturity, most varieties
(female). of mungbean are late maturing and do not mature at the same time. Therefore
Examples of varietal improvement in vegetable crops: selections are made with these desirable characteristics. These characteristics
I. Improvement based on habit of growth and other morphological are desirable in almost all crops.
characters. – These are carried out by genes influencing morphology. III. Improvement by genes for disease and insect resistance
There are two general habit of growth:
1.) Determinate- whose main axis terminates in a floral bud (ex. S. Examples
Corn) 1. The development of Bacterial Wilt (BW) Resistance in Tomatoes such as VC
2.) Indeterminate- whose main axis remains vegetative and in lines.
which flowers form on axillary buds (ex. Cucumber). -Nagcarlan- a variety with small fruits but tolerant to heat but susceptible to
A) In tomato- we are interested in self-pruning genes, BW
which is characterized as follows: -Anahu- a variety which is BW susceptible, medium sixe, non-cracking
a.) Branches terminate with flower cluster. -1169- a strain which BW resistant but with small fruit and cracking
b.) Plants are smaller, can be planted closer and 2. The development of tomatoes against little Leaf Disease carried by the white
can be fertilized easier. fly
c.) Has closer cluster of fruits and matures at the -Diamante
same time. IV. Improvement by the use of genes for adaptation:
d.) Jointless pedicel-fruit easily removed. a. Heat tolerance in crucifers: F, KK, F1 K-Y cross. These are
introductions and have been tried in different Philippines
conditions. It has been found out that these varieties are Differences Between Auxin, Giberrellins and Kinins:
considered Plants with water economy because of the Auxin G.A. Kinins
following reasons: 1. Promote protein synthesis yes ? Yes
i. There are more waxes in the leaves 2. Promotes parthenocarpic fruit development yes ? no
ii. Faster root proliferation. 3. Favors formation of female flowers in yes no no
V. Improvement by genes influencing sex expressions cucumber
Example 4. Favors formation of male flowers in no yes no
1. Monoecious cucumber- will continue to produce male flowers cucumber
then at certain nodes female flowers are produce. 5. Enhance respiration yes yes no
2. Gynoecious cucumber- will produce all female flowers 6. Maintain green coloration of the leaf no ? yes
The production of F1 hybrids was done by:
1. Emasculation- using monoecious cucumber. Mono x PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Mono One of the major differences between plants and animals is plants'
2. Without emasculation- less expensive to adopt. Gyno
ability to manufacture their own food. This process is called
X Mono
VI. Improvement using self-incompatible lines: photosynthesis,which literally means "to put together with light." To produce
Example food, a plant requires energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and
Self-incompatibility in crucifers which means the pollen water from the soil. During photosynthesis, it splits carbon dioxide into carbon
cannot fertilize itself because of some substances that and oxygen, adds water, and forms carbohydrates (starches and sugars).
prevent the pollen germination in the stigma at the flower Oxygen is a by-product.
and bud stages.
The formula for photosynthesis can be written as follows:
Improvement by hybredization can be done by using one line
or atrain in a row to facilitate cross pollination. Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight = Sugar + Oxygen
Effects of growth regulators on Sex Expression or
1. Towards femaleness: 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + Energy => C6H1206 + 6 02
a. Auxin favors the formation of female flowers After producing carbohydrates, a plant either uses them as energy,
Auxin are substances synthesized plant body ( stem and stores them, or builds them into complex energy compounds such as oils and
tip) that stimulates cell enlargement in general. proteins. All of these food products are called photosynthates. The plant uses
Example IAA, IBA, NAA them when light is limited, or transports them to its roots or developing fruits.
2. Towards Maleness: Photosynthesis occurs only in the mesophyll layers of plant leaves
a. Gibberellic Acid- favors the formation of male flowers in and, in some instances, in mesophyll cells in the stem. Mesophyll cells are
cucumber. sandwiched between the leaf's upper and lower epidermis and contain
G.A. is substance that promotes or stimulates the numerous chloroplasts ( Figure 12), where photosynthesis takes place.
elongation of internodes. Can be source from fungus Chloroplasts are incredibly small. One square millimeter, about the size of a
Gibberella fujikuroi . example, G.A3- it is involved in period on a page, would contain 400,000 chloroplasts.
flowering and bolting as well, seed germination and in Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes leaves green, is found in the
breaking seed dormancy. chloroplasts. It is responsible for trapping light energy from the sun. Often
Cytokinin- this was found to stimulate cell division. chloroplasts are arranged perpendicular to incoming sun rays so they can absorb
maximum sunlight. If any of the ingredients for photosynthesis--light, water,
and carbon dioxide--is lacking, photosynthesis stops. If any factor is absent for
a long period of time, a plant will die. Each of these factors is described below.
Plant growth and development converted to energy is called oxidation and is similar to the burning of wood or
coal to produce heat. Controlled oxidation in a living cell is called respiration
Photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration are the three major and is shown by this equation:
functions that drive plant growth and development (Figure 24: open larger
image.). All three are essential to a plant's survival. How well a plant is able to C6H12O6 + 6 O2 => 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
regulate these functions greatly affects its ability to compete and reproduce.
This equation is essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a building process, while respiration is a breaking-down
process (Table 2).
Table 2. Photosynthesis and Respiration.
Photosynthesis Respiration
 produces food  uses food

 stores energy  releases energy
 uses water  produces water
 uses carbon dioxide  produces carbon dioxide
 releases oxygen  uses oxygen
 occurs in sunlight  occurs in the dark as well as
light
Unlike photosynthesis, respiration does not depend on light, so it
occurs at night as well as during the day. Respiration occurs in all life forms
and in all cells.
Endogenous Rhythm
Recurring events or oscillations with properties not directly reflecting
environmental fluctuation. Many instances the rhythm --- started by
certain environmental factors and persist for several cycles --- under
constant or fluctuating environmental parameter that started it
Rhythms in plants which are classified according to the duration of
each cycle or frequency of recurrence. Most common rhythms are the
annual rhythm, the lunar rhythm and the circadian rhythm (repeated
every 24 hours)
Circadian rhythms in plants: Closing and opening of foliage and
flowers of certain plants; and increase in respiration of certain flowers at
specific time of the day even under constant ambient temperature
Categories of Plant Movements
Tropisms
Nastic
RESPIRATION
Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are of value to a plant
when they are converted to energy. This energy is used for cell growth and
building new tissues. The chemical process by which sugars and starches are
Categories of Plant Movements -Abscission of leaves to reduce the evaporative surface area and
Tropisms conserve moisture
 Direction of the environmental stimulus determines the direction of the Crop Adaptation Biochemical Adaptations
movement  Biochemical changes with some bearing on certain survival mechanisms
-Phototropism (response to light) -Increase in proline and abscisic acid in plants during periods of
-Geotropism or Gravitropism (response to gravity) moisture stress to regulate increased water-holding capacity of tissues
-Solar tracking where the flat blade of the leaf is always at nearly right for moisture and stomatal closure to conserve water
angle to the sun throughout the day -Increase in heat-shock proteins when plants are subjected to sudden and
Categories of Plant Movements Nastic movements transient sub- or supra-optimal temperatures
 Triggered by an external stimulus (sometimes interacting with an internal -Increase in amides to help plants detoxify ammonia concentrations in
timing mechanism) but in which the stimulus direction does not determine their tissues
the direction of movement -Increase in calorific respiration in aroids to help volatilize certain
-Hyponasty and Epinasty --- bending up and bending down essential oils to attract pollinating insects at the time of flower anthesis
-Nyctinasty --- folding of some leaves in response to night which;
rhythmic due to its interaction with the biological clock CROP IMPROVEMENT
-Hydronasty --- the folding or rolling of leaves in response to water
stress I. WHAT IS CROP IMPROVEMENT?
-Thigmotropism = Thigmomorphogenesis --- response to touch or
mechanical stress  It is synonymous to plant breeding which is the purposeful
-Seismotropism = Seismomorphogenesis --- response to shaking without manipulation of plant species in order to create desired genotype and
contact to the organism phenotype for specific purposes.
Steps in Plant Movement Perception  The process of manipulating plant character is either through
--- Detection of the environmental stimulus by the plant controlled pollination (conventional methods), genetic engineering or
Transduction both, and is followed by artificial selection of progeny.
--- Biochemical and biophysical changes which occur in response to  Plant breeding often, but not always, leads to plant domestication
the stimulus  electrical signals, action potentials and chemical messengers (Wikipedia, 2007) - bringing in wild plants under human care.
Response  The art and science of improving the genetic make-up of crops in order
---- What happens to structure  bending, curving, folding, etc. to produce forms or types suitable to mans‘ need.
Crop Adaptation  Bernardo (2002) define it as the art, science and business of improving
Capacity of plants to adapt to their environment --- in order to survive plants for human benefits.
under a wide range of changing environmental conditions  The process is 90-95% selection and 5-10% hybridization
Crop Adaptation Morphological Adaptations  As a Science – it is grounded on a theoretical and empirical
 Metamorphosed or specialized organs which performs non-typical functions body of knowledge,
Pneumatophores or modified roots of certain trees growing in marshes, particularly genetics but there are also other disciplines that
which serves as "breathing" organs Are involved:
-Modified petiole of the water hyacinth which serves as float * Plant Physiology * Plant Pathology
-Modified root of the raddish which serves as organ for food storage * Entomology * Plant Biochemistry
-Modified root of sincamas which serves as organ for water storage * Statistics * Computer Science
-Shade leaves production which are more adapted to low light * Agronomy * Horticulture
intensities * Botany
Crop Adaptation Physiological Adaptations Knowledge of the above disciplines enables the breeder to decide
-Closing of the stomates to conserve water objectively which:
1. Parent to cross
2. Selection method to use 1. Improved Crop Productivity
3. Progenies to keep a. Increased productivity per unit area per unit time
4. Cultivar to release a.1. Use of high yielding varieties (HYVs)
 As an Art – PB requires subjective judgment in the design ex. 1. hybrid corn - most important contribution of
implementation of breeding program. plant breeding to world agriculture
*Breeder‘s eye – intuition that one progeny or group of ex.2. IR 8 – 1st semi-dwarf variety of rice; a cross of
progenies or cultivar is better than the other. one dwarf variety from Taiwan with one long duration from Indonesia; miracle
 As a business – PB requires investments of people, time and money. rice; 2x-3x yield increase
* Development in major crops shifted from non-profit universities and a.2. use of varieties for intensive cropping systems
government agencies to commercial seed companies. ex.1. early maturing varieties suited for sequential
 For human benefits – plants were not improved for the sake of cropping (in rice <115 days ex. IR36
themselves but to meet specific human needs like food, feeds, fiber – 110 days; Rc 10 – 106 days; Rc 82- 110 days)
and aesthetic values. ex.2. shade tolerant varieties suited for intercropping
* Decision to make: with perennial crops
1. What combinations of traits to breed for, and b. expansion of area under cultivation
2. What group of environments to breed for b.1. introduction of new crop in a new environment
II. Why do we need to improve crops? ex. White potato suitable for lowland production
a. To feed the ever increasing population (forecasted 8.5 Billion by 2020)
b. There is a great demand for 'specialty crops' for non-food use. b.2. tolerance to abiotic stress
For example, crops that produce starch, such as maize and potato, and ex.1.Water stress
those that produce oil such as oil seed rape (canola). These novel compounds ex.1.1. flooding – floating rice varieties grown to areas prone to flash floods.
can be used to make plastics and detergents, which at present are made using Submerge 1
fossil fuels as a starting point. As the world's supply of crude oil and natural gas ex.1.2. deficit – varieties tolerant to drought
dwindles, there is a huge demand for alternative, renewable' energy resources. (Rc 14,36,40, 42; corn –sequia pop‘n from
c. Transformed plant which can be used as reactors' to produce large CIMMYT, Mexico)
quantities of plant- derived pharmaceuticals ex.2. problem soils
In addition, new strains of plants that make vaccines against diseases ex.2.1. low soil fertility – varieties efficient in the utilization of the limiting
such as cholera and hepatitis are currently in clinical trials. Ex. transgenic nutrient (varieties of legumes efficient in N2 fixation)
bananas and potatoes make a protein that mimics part of a virus. By eating the ex.2.2. soil acidity –acid tolerant varieties of corn (CMUvar 6-12; Rc 1 for rice)
plant, our bodies make antibodies against the virus, eliminating the need for
vaccinations using needles. This could be particularly significant in developing ex.2.3. soil salinity – salt tolerant lines of rice (Rc 48, 50, 86 & 90)
countries, where there is a need for trained nurses using refrigerated vaccines to c. greater stability of yield – the ability of a variety to give good yield
perform injections. under varying environmental conditions
d. To develop a climate ready crops ex.1. Matatag series lines of rice – resistant to tungro & GLH
III. Major Goals of Crop Improvements ex.2. varieties less preferred by stem borers: Rc1, Rc 48, Rc 50
General Objective: To improve the traits of a crop species that will increase 2. Improved Quality and Stability
its economic and/or aesthetic values.  Acceptability of end-users/consumers of the product determines the
1. Increased yield success of the variety
2. Improved quality ex.1. IR 8 – highest yielding rice in history but eating quality is poor
3. Improved adaptation to new areas of production C4 – yield is low but most acceptable eating quality
4. Improved agronomic and horticultural characteristics IR 64 rice variety – standard variety for eating quality
5. Improved resistance to insect pests and diseases Other varieties with good grain qualities:
IV. Contribution of PB to Agriculture
Rc14, Rc18, R 28, Rc78, Rc80, Rc82, Rc72H, matatag lines, 1. Top cross. Outcrossing of selection to a common pollen parent. In maize,
Rc 128, and other newly approved rice varieties commonly an inbred and a cultivar
ex.2. breeding for: B
a. product color g. higher starch content A C only A will pollinate B,C,& D
b. product taste h. better fiber qualities D
c. product odor i. better canning qualities 2. Polycross. Open pollination of a group of selected genotypes that have been
d. higher protein content arranged in a manner that promotes random mating random crossing of many
e. higher content of specific amino acid (qpm in corn) selected individuals
f. longer shelf-life
3. Improved Profitability A B
 Increase yield at reduce production cost
ex.1. Use of resistant varieties D C
ex.2. Improve plant type that is suitable to mechanical harvesting
(uniform plant height, ear height, uniform maturity, etc)
V. Some Basic Concepts in Crop Improvements E F
Three (3) Elements of Crop Improvements
1. Breeding Objective (s) 3. Backcross. Mating of a hybrid to one of its parent
* Growing conditions of the crop i.e.. Agro-climatic condition
* Cropping pattern in the growing areas
* Farmers needs and preferences
2. Sources of genetic variation
Genetic variation – is a variation due to the genetic makeup of the plant. The
primary basis of plant breeding
a. Mutation – origin of natural genetic variability; a sudden heritable
change in an organisms
Types of mutation:
a.1. Spontaneous mutation (frequency is1 x 106)
a.2.Iinduce mutation – use of mutagenic agents i.e. x-rays
b. Germplasm – The sum total of hereditary material or genes present 4. Selfing/self-pollination. Mating system used to increase homozygosity in a
in a species. breeding population. Occurs when male and female gametes from the same
b.1. Germplasm collection – contains a large number of genotypes individual unite to produce seeds. Fastest method to reach homozygosity.
of a crop species and its wild relatives 5. Full-sib-mating. Crossing of pairs of individual in the population. Next to
c. Landraces – early cultivated forms of a crop species, that evolved selfing in terms of speed to reach homozygosity.
from a wild population 6. Half-sib mating. Occurs when individual plants are pollinated by
3. Utilization of Genetic Variation random pollen from the population.
Breeding methods for: 7. Hybrid crosses. Mating between genetically different parents
a. Self-pollinated species (mass, pureline, hybridization & selection: pedigree, a. single cross hybrid
bulk, SSD, double haploid; backcross & multiline breeding) Inbred line A x inbred line B : [A x B]
b. Cross-pollinated species (Intra and inter population improvement: mass, b. Three-way hybrid
half-sib, full-sib & S1 selection; reciprocal recurrent Single cross (AxB) x inbred line C : [AB] x C
selection: RS for GCA and SCA) c. Double-cross hybrid
VI. MATING SYSTEMS IN CROPS single cross(AxB) x single cross (CxD) : [(AxB) x (CxD)]
d. Multiple hybrid (8-way cross)
double cross x double cross : [(AxB) x (CxD)] x [(ExF) x  Heterosis or Hybrid vigor – a phenomenon wherein a hybrid exceed
(GxH)] the performance of its two parents for one of more traits.
e. Multiple cross (6-way cross)  Types of Heterosis:
double cross x single cross : [(AxB) x (CxD)] x [(ExF)] a. Mid-parent Heterosis (%) = F1 – midparent value x 100
f. Top cross hybrid. Inbred line A x Composite Variety: A x V
g. Double top cross hybrid. Single cross (AxB) x Composite variety: midparent value
[(AxB)] x V
VII. Types of Cultivars b. High parent Heterosis(%) = F1 – high parent value x 00
Cultivars – are cultivated variety; group of plants with distinct, high
uniform and stable characteristics. parent value
a. Clone cultivars – consist of one clone or several closely similar clones c. Standard Heterosis (%) = F1 – check variety x 100
that are propagated by asexual means ex. Forage grasses
b. Line cultivars – consist of a group of plants of self-or cross- check variety
pollinated species that have largely the same genetic  Inbreeding Depression – reduction in the performance of the progeny
background, defined as a theoretical coefficient of percentage that is associated with an increase in homozygosity due to inbreeding.
of 0.87 or higher.  Homogeneous – a population composed of individuals of the
c. Open pollinated varieties (OPV) – consist of normally cross- same genotypes or phenotypes
pollinated plants selected to a standard that allows variation but in  Heterogeneous – a population compose of individuals of
which the cultivars have one or more characteristics. ex CMU Var 12. different genotypes
Maintained through open pollination in isolation  Quantitative traits – trait that is govern by several minor
d. Synthetic cultivars – consists of progenies derived by intercrossing a genes, highly affected by environment , ex. yield.
specific sets of clones or seed propagated lines. Maintained also  Qualitative traits –phenotypes are distinct, not affected by
through open pollination in isolation environment govern by one or two major genes ex.
e. Composite-cross population – generated by hybridizing more than two Flower color, seed coat color
cultivars or lines of normally self-pollinated plants.  Heredity – transmission of genetic characters from parent to
f. Multilines or blends – a seed mixture of cultivars or lines each present in offspring
excess of 5% of the whole  Heritability – portion of the phenotypic variance among
g. Hybrid cultivars – consist of first generation progenies from a cross individuals that is due to genetic differences among them
between two pure lines, inbreds, open-pollinated, etc. that are dissimilar.
SOME TERMINOLOGIES USED IN PLANT BREEDING: Narrow sense heritability = additive variance / phenotypic variance
 Genotype – total genetic make-up of an organisms
 Phenotype – the expression of the total genotypic make –up of the Broad sense heritability = genetic variance/ phenotypic variance
plants that are observable ex. yield, flower color, plant height and etc. VIII. GENERAL METHODS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT
 controlled pollination – done with the intervention of man/ plant  All crop improvement methods depend upon the presence of genetic
breeder (conventional plant breeding) variability for the characters to be improved
 Genetic engineering – using recombinant DNA technology to transfer  Creating Variability
specific gene from the donor to the host plant. 1. Introduction
 artificial selection – performed by the breeder * Bringing in exotic crop species which eventually become adapted to
 progeny – offspring Homozygous – an individual having identical the new environment
alleles in a gene ex. AA, aa * Will serves as direct source of new cultivars
 Heterozygous – an individual having different alleles in a gene ex. Aa, ex.1. IR varieties of rice to other parts of Asia; IR 36 – most
Bb successful variety; single most widely grown variety of any crop in
the world.
ex.2. Bangkok variety of santol from Thailand to Philippines a. Plant Cell and Tissue Culture
* serves as source of new crop species ex. Soybean from b. Clonal Propagation via Tissue Culture
China was a mere botanical curiosity in America in 1927 but now is a c. Embryo Culture, Ovule Culture and In Vitro Pollination
premier crop that has even surpassed maize as an industry d. Anther Culture and Haploid Plant Production
* serves as genetic source for specific desirable characters ex. e. Somatic Cell Hybridization
Tiniguib – white corn from Mindanao which is an introduction from Cebu f. Plant Genetic Engineering
has become the world‘s source of downy mildew resistance
Classic/ traditional tools
* Aesthetic value – ornamentals, shrubs and lawn grasses are Advanced
introduced to satisfy the finer sensibilities * Emasculation
technology
of man; for decoration purposes and of great value in social life * Hybridization
2. Selection * Wide crossing
* Selection * Molecular markers
 the oldest breeding method and an integral part of any crop * Marker-assisted selection
improvement program * Chromosome counting
* Chromosome doubling * DNA sequencing
 The discrimination of individuals in the population * Plant genomic analysis
 The process by which plants or group of plants are sorted out or saved * Male sterility
* Triploidy * Bioinformatics
from a population of plants * Microarray analysis
 Plants with the desired characteristics are chosen to constitute the next * Linkage analysis
* Statistical tools * Primer design
generation
 Two simplest form of selection:
1. Mass selection – a group of plants possessing the same
desired traits are selected, seeds are bulked and planted and if it has Advanced tools
superior performance, it could become a potential variety
2. Pure line selection – involves selection of individual * Mutagenesis
homozygous plants and growing the progenies of each selected plants. The * Tissue culture
best progeny could become a variety if the performance is superior * Haploidy
3. Hybridization * In situ hybridization
 The crossing of two genetically different plants to combine the * DNA markers
desirable features of the parent plants.
 The process can be done to produce a hybrid or it can be an initial step X. Methods of Crop Improvements
to population improvement followed by selection.
4. Introgression or introgressive hybridization 1. The traditional /conventional method of crop improvement done through
 The transfer of a few genes from one species or genus to another sexual hybridization,
 Played a role in evolution of certain crop species, notably maize a. making crosses between two plants with desirable characteristics.
IX. Tools of the Plant Breeder b. at fertilization, the genetic information from each parent
1. Variation in chromosome number (polyploidy; somatic cells possess recombines, so characteristics from each parent are inherited by the offspring.
multiples of c. However, many other features are also inherited, along with the
Complete basic chromosome sets (x) in excess of the diploid number. desirable one.
Ex. Triploid = 3x d. A breeding programme lasting for many years may be necessary to
2. Mutation (spontaneous or induced) eliminate the unwanted characteristics, without losing the desired ones.
3. Fertility-Regulating Mechanisms and their Manipulation Methods Involved:
a. Incompatibility system (self- and cross-incompatible) A. Self-pollinated species (Autogamous crops)
b. Male sterility (genetic, cytoplasmic and genetic-cytoplasmic)
4. Molecular Biology 1. Mass selection •
•
•
2. Single plant selection (pureline selection) Pedigree Breeding Method (Source: Acquaah, 2006)
3. Selection Methods for the Development of Pure Breeding Cultivars
from Crosses
3.1.Pedigree Selection
3.2. Bulk population selection
3.3. Single seed Descent (SSD)
3.4. Double-Haploid Method
3.5. Backcrossing: selection method for the upgrading of genotypes
B. Selection of Cross-pollinated Crops
b.1. Mass Selection
b.2. Recurrent Selection
b.3. Half-sib Selection with Progeny Testing
b.4. Full-sib Selection with Progeny Testing
b.5. Selection with Test-cross Performance
b.6. Self-Family Selection
MASS SELECTION
* Selection of individuals * Higher percentage of desirable

* Sampling seed of selected genotypes
individuals to plant next * Method can only be used in
generation environments where trait is expressed -
* Oldest method of crop may not be suitable for off- season winter
improvement nurseries
* Improvement of * Effectiveness is function of heritability
heterogeneous * Manage field to enhance differences:
native populations or eg. irrigate excessively to increase
landraces disease pressure
Steps:
• Grow population
• Allow random mating
• Harvest and bulk seed from desirable plants
• Plant new generation
• Repeat
Bulk Breeding Method Single-seed Descent Method
Bulk Breeding Method Recurrent Selection
* Families created
* Parents crossed in all possible combinations
* Families and plants/families evaluated
* New set of superior parents selected
* Inter-mated in all possible combinations, forming next
generation cycle – improved
Single Seed Descent Method
Ear-to-row selection, generalized scheme (Source: Acquaah, 2006)
Half-sib Selection, with a progeny test (Source: Acquaah, 2006)
Full-sib breeding method (Source: Acquaah, 2006)
Half-sib Selection, with a Testcross (Source: Acquaah, 2006) Selfed-progeny Performance Breeding Method (Source: Acquaah, 2006)
2. Mutation Breeding – development of new crop varieties using chemicals or  Food demand
radiation to cause imprecise alterations to the plant's genetic information.  7 billion tons by 2020
a. Can cause random changes to the DNA which in some cases, be of  Cereal requirements – 2/3 of world supply
 Developing countries need to produce more food
agricultural benefit to the plant.
What is genetic engineering or recombinant DNA?
b. It has the advantage of not depending on the crossing of two sexual
Is one form of biotechnology that can create novel genetic
compatible species.
combinations by biochemical means through the insertion of foreign DNA
c. However, time-consuming and laborious analysis of the offspring
into a vector molecule and introducing this gene construct into an
of the mutagenized seed is necessary to find a plant with the desirable
organism.
characteristics.
Types of Transformation:
3. Genetic modification, or plant transformation, or Recombinant DNA
A. Use of Agrobacterium tumefaciens
technology is the newest method of crop improvement that becomes available B. Biolistic Transformation (Gene Gun)
to the plant breeders. Benefits from Genetic Engineering
a. It has the potential for transferring a desirable foreign gene from a
wide range sources, including non-plant genetic material, into an
economic crop species without sexual hybridization.
b. It is comparable to backcross method of breeding where the
desirable gene is transferred to a recipient genotype by a
succession of crosses but its difference is that insertion of
desirable gene into the host is not limited by the cross
compatibility between the two parents.
c. Using this approach, a fragment of DNA carrying the genetic
information for a particular characteristic can be identified in any
species of plant, animal or microorganism, then isolated, copied,
and introduced into an existing crop variety.
d. While this approach is unlikely to completely replace the existing
methods of plant breeding, it potentially provides a wider gene
pool from which to develop novel crops varieties.
e. Why there is a need to use unconventional method of plant
breeding or Recombinant DNA Technology?
f. As we enter into the 21st century, Agriculture faces a tremendous
pressure, particularly crop production. These pressures include
the following: Concerned Agencies in the Philippines
* A forecast increase in the world population to more than
8.5 B National Committee on Biosafety in the Philippines (NCBP)
* Limitation of an available land and water resources - multi-disciplinary, multi-agency membership + community representative
* An apparent slowing in the increase in crop yields - has very strict guidelines covering laboratory, greenhouse and field testing
Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC)
* Demands from costumers for cheaper and safer food; and
-multi-discipline disciplinary membership + community representative
* The need to sustain & improve the agricultural and -closely monitors activities, make recommendations to NCBP
surrounding environment Regulatory Agencies Cooperating Closely with the NCBP:
World Food Demand and Global Population Growth
1. Dept. of Agriculture – Bureau of Agriculture & Fisheries and Product 10. Future GM crops likely to be commercialized by 2015 include rice,
Standard (DA- BAFPS) eggplant, potatoes, and wheat. Drought resistant and nutritionally enhanced
2. Dept. of Health- Bureau of Food and Drug Administration (DOH-BFAD) crops are also expected in the near future.
3. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Constraints to Biotechnology development in the Philippines SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
-Insufficient and inconsistent research fund
-Unsatisfactory R & D infrastructure. Evaluation and approval process AGRICULTURE – is an essential system designed for the production of food,
of projects is sometimes politically motivated feed and fiber and using solar energy and other atmospheric, organic
- Capability building. Very modest number of scientists trained in resources and sedimentary resources; a thorough understanding of the
modern biotechnology
relationship between our institutions, production systems, and natural
-Too rigid regulatory framework for research.
-Propriety Rights. resources, and the principles of ecology is necessary for the design and
-Anti-biotech sentiments. Strong misinformation campaign to create management of sustainable agriculture
confusion among policy makers and the public
Ten key facts and figures about GM crops: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE CONCEPT
1. The first commercial GM food was the FlavrSavr tomato It includes a system of agricultural production that is resource
developed in the early 1990s in California. It was genetically altered so that it conserving, environmentally safe, and economically viable. It must
took longer to decompose after being picked. recognize human values, provide high-quality food and support the
2. GM crops have been grown commercially since 1996. Since then family farm and rural communities as part of a healthy larger system
the GM market has grown 74-fold and spread to 25 countries. The global value SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE - comes from two Greek words
of the GM crop market was 7.5 billion dollars in 2008. ―sustinere‖ which means from below and ―tenere‖ – to hold – to
3. There were 125 million hectares of GM crops worldwide in 2008, keep in existence or maintain, implies long term support or
about 6 to 7 percent of the total cultivated land area. That is an increase of permanence. It describes farming systems that are capable of
nearly 10 percent on the 114 million hectares in 2007. maintaining productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely and
4. The top three GM crops in 2008 were soybeans (53 percent of total such system must be resource-conserving, socially supportive,
GM area), maize (30 percent), and cotton (15 percent). Others include rapeseed commercially competitive and environmentally sound.
(canola), alfalfa, and papaya. - is any practice, method, technique, technology, philosophy or system
5. Ninety percent of GM crops, and almost all GM food crops, are of production that makes agriculture economically feasible,
grown in four countries—the United States, Argentina, Brazil, and Canada. The ecologically sound, socially just and humane (equitable), culturally
U.S. produces almost half of all GM crops. appropriate and grounded on holistic science.
6. There are 13.3 million farmers cultivating GM crops. The vast - is a system that utilizes an understanding of natural processes along
majority are smallholders in China (7.1 million) and India (5 million) who with the latest scientific advances to create integrated, resource-
are growing GM cotton. conserving farming systems. These systems will reduce environmental
7. Almost all commercial GM crops today are genetically altered for degradation, are economically viable, maintain a stable rural
one or both of two main traits: herbicide tolerance (63 percent) and insect community and provide a productive agriculture in both the short and
resistance (15 percent), while 22 percent have both traits. Different genetic long term
traits are combined to create ―stacked‖ GM crops. - refers to the ability of a farm to produce food indefinitely, without
8. In the United States 12.2 million hectares of GM crops (nearly 10 causing irreversible damage to ecosystem health. The two key issues
percent of the global total) were used for biofuels in 2008. are biophysical (long term effects of various practices on soil
9. According to industry research, in 2007 GM crops saved 15.6 properties and processes essential for crop productivity) and socio-
million tons of CO2 through reduced herbicide and pesticide use and reduced economic (the long term ability of farmers to obtain inputs and
tillage, the equivalent of removing 6.3 million cars from the road. manage resources such as labor)
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE - an integrated system of plant and Sustainable agricultural systems must maintain or enhance:
animal production having site specific applications that will, over the
long term: 1) biological and economic productivity of crops
2) enhance the efficiency of use of inputs
 satisfy human food and fiber needs, 3) lesser adverse environmental impacts both on and off the farm
 Enhance environmental quality and natural 4) minimize adverse environmental impacts on adjacent and downstream
resource base upon which the agricultural environments
economy depends. 5) minimize the magnitude and rate of soil degradation and enhance soil
quality and resilience so that crop productivity can be sustained with
 make the most efficient use of non-renewable
minimum adverse impacts on soils and environment
resources and on-farm resources and integrate,
6) enhance compatibility with social and political conditions
where appropriate, natural biological cycles and
Therefore, agriculture is judge as sustainable IF it is --
controls,
 sustain the economic viability of farm
 Ecologically sound – from Greek word for house ―eco‖ that
operations, and
implies the wisdom and authority to manage in the best interests
 enhance the quality of life for farmers and
of the household. Biological diversity is essential to achieve self-
society as a whole
regulation and stability. An ecologically sound agriculture must
Sustainability – ability of a system to maintain productivity in spite of a major
focus on the maintenance and enhancement of the natural resource
disturbance such as is caused by intense or large perturbation base. It should be resource efficient to conserve precious
resources and avoid systems toxicity.
- Capacity of a system to maintain output at a level approximately  Economically viable – It is essential to have a positive net return
equal to or greater than its historical average, with the approximation or at least a balance in terms of resource expended and
determined by its historical variability returned. At the very minimum, the system should provide the
food and other basic needs of the farming household.
CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE  Socially just and equitable – A socially just agricultural system
The concept of ―Sustainable Agriculture‖ has been conceived differently must address inequities. The system must assure that
by different authorities. resources and power are distributed equally so that basic needs
In economic terms, the use of resources today should not reduce real are met and human rights are assured. Equitable access to
incomes in the future. Sustainable development encompasses several aspects or information, market or other farm related resources especially
dimensions. land, should be provided to all irrespective of sex, social standing,
The World Conservation Union (1991) defines sustainable religion or ethnicity.
development as improving the quality of human life while living within the  Culturally appropriate – Culturally appropriate agricultural
carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. systems must give due consideration to cultural values, including
The World Commission on Environment (1988) defined sustainable religious beliefs and traditions in developing agricultural systems,
development as development that meets the needs of the present without plans and programs. Cultural roots are as important to agriculture
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. as plant roots. It is equally important that the highest values apply
Therefore, sustainable development means protecting the natural to human interactions, since without strong communities and
resources needed for food production and fuels while expanding production to vibrant cultures, agriculture will not flourish.
meet the needs of growing population. It means more efficient use of arable  Adaptable – Rural communities are capable of adjusting to
lands and water supplies as well as development and adoption of improved the constant changing conditions for farming: population
agricultural practices and technologies to increase yields. growth, policies, market demand, etc. This involves not only
the development of new, appropriate technologies but also 8. The incorporation of diversity of natural resources and enterprises
innovations in social and cultural terms. within the farm.
 Grounded on holistic science – Agriculture based on holistic 9. Increased self-reliance among farmers, local and indigenous
science, as against reductionist (conventional western science), communities.
gives importance to the interrelatedness of the social, economic, 10. Recognition of the role of women in development processes.
environmental, cultural and political aspects as much as to the
biophysical aspects of agriculture. It also considers the dynamic CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
interactions among on-farm, off-farm, non-farm and farm
related activities, recognizing that these activities complement 1. SA is flexible
each other. -No defined of practices, methods, techniques/technologies or policies
GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE -recognizes local specificity
2. SA is experiential
The goals of developing sustainable farming methods are: -does not impose a simple model or package
-long-term preservation or improvement of soil fertility while maintaining the -farmers and local communities must be able to adapt and allowed to
stability of the system by shaping an almost natural ecosystem change
-securing and improving nutrition in a largely autonomous system and 3. SA is participatory
achieving production surplus to meet other needs -farmers are active participants
-improve quality of life thru: -incorporates recent innovations originating from scientists, farmers or
1) Economic development both
2) Food security -relies on continuous innovation by farmers and local communities
3) Human development/people empowerment 4. SA is proactive
4) Stable environment -forward-looking
According to Pretty (1996), sustainable agriculture is any -concern of short and long-term sustainability
production systems that systematically pursue the following goals: -dynamic and innovative
1. A thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient
cycling, nitrogen fixation and pest-predator relationship for pest management. FEATURES/ATTRIBUTES/DIMENSIONS OF SA
For nutrient management, this involves recycling of nutrients, use of compost,
green manure and other forms of organic fertilizers. 1. Continuously evolving
2. Minimize/eliminate the use of external and non-renewable inputs o non-permanent
such as pesticides and synthetic, highly soluble fertilizers that damage the o dynamic
environment and pose damage to the farmers and the consumers‘ health. 2. Gender sensitive
3. Practice alternative crop and livestock breeding and selection. 3. Ecologically sound and friendly
Appropriate and highly adapted plant varieties and animal breeds will be o environmentally/ecologically friendly farming practices
conserved, multiplied and utilized. o dynamic relationship between man and environment
4. Practice diversified and integrated farming system with special o improved standard of living for farmers without negative
focus on functional diversity in the farm. effects on the environment
5. Full participation of farmers and local, indigenous people in all 4. Culturally appropriate
processes of problem analysis, technology development, adaptation and o culturally sensitive
extension. o documentation, validation, promotion and use of indigenous
6. A more equitable access to productive resources and opportunities. knowledge system
7. A greater productive use of local knowledge, practices and 5. Economically viable
resources. o economically viable system and practice
6. Location specific
o appropriate/practical technology  tillage practices – conservation tillage
7. Resource-based  in situ conservation as farmer-oriented approach to seed supply –
o community-based management of resources collecting, evaluating, safeguarding, improving, multiplying and
o control of resources distributing indigenous genetic resources in their place of origin
o enhanced/protect what is available or remaining Productivity and stability of Productions Systems
o use of indigenous technical knowledge Increasing efficiency of farm resources:
8. Social equity  nutrient and fertilizer management
o socially just and humane  efficient farm power
o enhance community participation and harmony  crop diversity and management
o socially acceptable Sources of stability of production systems:
o equitable  biological stability
9. Holistic Approach
 management stability
o holistic/integrated
 production stability
o diversified farming
 economic stability
o location specific
o system with no leak Sustainable Crop Management for Lowlands and Uplands
10. Enhances human values A. Integrated Nutrient Management
Relative concentration of nutrients in plant biomass, the soil surface,
Focus for action in sustainable agricultural framework:
upper soil water, lower soil water and soil itself, determine the productivity of
 long term sustainability rather than short tern benefits
the system.
 provide internal solutions to internal problems rather than external Techniques in managing soil and nutrients:
solutions to internal problems
 manure handling and improvement
 emphasis on management solutions to problems rather than merely
 composting
on technological solutions to the problems
 vermicomposting
 responsive to feedback, belief in accountability and participatory,
 green manuring
rather than detachment
 use of mineral fertilizer
 low rather than high external input
 MOET (Minus one element technology as in Leaf Color
 emphasis on systems approach rather than on individual
Chart)
commodities and monoculture
Forms of Green Manuring:
 relies on available indigenous resources and self-reliance rather than
 improved fallow such as replanting natural fallow vegetation
capital intensive
and green manure crops
 use of technologies that preserve and enrich the natural resource
 alleycropping
base rather than the use of technologies that exploit and destroy the
natural resource base  integrating trees into croplands
 Recognize location specificity of technologies, use of appropriate  relay fallowing by sowing bush legumes among food crops
and indigenous technologies.  live mulching
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND REGENERATION  shaded green manures
Resource conservation result to stability of production systems. Some  azolla and blue-green algae
methods that can be employed are: Integrated nutrient cycling alternatives in lowland rice-based
 multiple cropping systems (multi-storey, intercropping, relay farm ---
cropping, etc)  use of biofertilizers
 cover cropping  planting of G. sepium (kakawate) around the homelot and
 organic residue management along the bunds
 rice straw mulching/incorporation Six basic components of an IPM system:
 raising of farm animals 1. Acceptable pest levels. The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM
 bio-intensive gardening holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible,
 fodder production and the attempt can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and all-
 weed control using hand-pushed rotary weeder round counterproductive than it is worth.
 rice-fish culture 2. Preventive cultural practices: Selecting varieties best for local growing
conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of
 rice-duck culture
defense.
 pig-duck-rice culture
3. Monitoring: Regular observation is the consideration of IPM. Visual
B. Integrated Pest Management
inspection, insect traps, and other measurement methods are used to
IPM – is a systems approach to reduce pest damage to tolerable levels
monitor pest levels. Record keeping is essential as is a thorough
through a variety of techniques, including predators and
knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of target pests.
parasites, genetically resistant hosts, natural environmental
4. Mechanical controls: should a pest reach an unacceptable level,
modifications and, when necessary and appropriate,
mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include
chemical pesticides
simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps,
- a strategy or plan that utilizes various tactics or management
vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding.
method (cultural practices, plant resistance, bio-control and
5. Biological controls: Natural biological processes and materials can provide
chemical control) in a harmonious way
control, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost.
- a natural way of maintaining balance in the environment
The main focus is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target
- a philosophy embodying a design and evaluation for
pests.
decision making in managing ecosystems to maintain
6. Chemical controls: Considered as an IPM last resort, synthetic pesticides
population of pests below damaging levels
may be used when other controls fail or are deemed unlikely to
- The best mix of pest control tactics for a local pest problem
prove effective. Biological insecticides, derived from plants or
as measured by the parameters of yield, profits, safety and
naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g. BT), also fit in this
stability
category.
Criterion:
1. Technically feasible
Examples of Biological Control:
2. Practically feasible
 Bacillus thuringiensis – bacterial control of pest insect
3. Economically desirable
populations such as alfalfa caterpillar, bollworm, cabbage
4. Environmentally acceptable
loppers, fruit tree roller
5. Politically advantageous
Basic Elements of IPM:  Aluminum strips mixed with vegetable mulch in vegetable
1. Natural control – maintenance of population number or biomass with fields reduced or prevent aphid attack in cucumbers, squash
certain upper and lower limits by the action of the whole and watermelons
environment, otherwise known as equilibrium position or  Buildup of natural enemies by planting cover crops that are
balance of nature. Also defined as the average population density nectar-producing plants and source of alternate hose in and
of pest over a long period of time. around fields
2. Sampling or monitoring – quantitative measures of pest density or  Interplanting different crops to provide habitat diversity for
amount of pest damage buildup of natural enemies and enhance biological control
3. Control Action Threshold (CAT) – the pest density at which control  Destruction of crop residues, deep plowing, crop rotation,
measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest use of fertilizers, strip cropping, irrigation and scheduled
population from reaching ETL or economic damage planting
4. pest biology-ecology – life history of a pest in relation to the environment  Buildup of predators such as:
a. lady bugs – voracious predators of aphids, mites, scale 1. Rice IPM – 600,000 hectares or irrigated ricelands with farm sizes
insects and small caterpillars of 1.5 ha
b. hoverflies – bee or wasp-like that hovers on plant and feed 2. IPM POT for corn production – use of Trichogramma
on greenfly, spider mites and small caterpillars 3. IPM POT for vegetables – use of Diadegma on cabbage
c. dragonflies – predators of mosquitoes 4. POT for coconut, cotton, sugarcane, papaya – ongoing development
d. lacewigs, centipedes, frogs and birds Agroecosystem Analysis (AESA) – new procedure in farm management to
Biological Control Agents: help farmers decide as to what type of control is the most
 Encarsia formosa – small predatory chaclid wasp which is appropriate for the farm; way of assembling all factors studies
parasitical on whitefly, a sap-feeding insect which can cause wilting and placing them into a process for useful decision making
and black sooty molds - weekly monitoring of insect pests, natural enemies, disease
 Phtoseilus persimilis – can control red spider mites incidence, weed status, water/soil/weather, fertilization and
 Namaslug (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) – microscopic the general conditions of the crop
nematode that parasitize slugs, reproducing inside them and killing - Identifying changes and interactions in crops – to integrate
them different components and processes in the ecosystem
 Trichoderma virides – a biocon agent of plant disease against Dutch *Sustaining natural capital is pertinent to sustainability of intensive farming –
Elm disease; used to treat fungal and bacterial growth on tree -Economic development does not just depend on financial capital – it
wounds; use as a means of combating silver leaf disease ultimately relies on many other forms of ―capital‖
 Trichogramma chilonis – predator of cotton bollworm Other Forms of Capital other than financial capital:
 Trichogramma evanescens – parasitize eggs of corn borers  Natural capital – renewable and non-renewable stocks of natural
 Trichogramma japonicum – biocontrol against stemsborers resources that support life and enable all social and economic
activities to take place (rivers, lakes, aquifers, soil, minerals,
 Metarrhizium – parasitize stemborers and black bugs
biodiversity and the earth‘s atmosphere)
 Diadegma – biocon against diamond back moth
 Economic capital – human-made means of production like
Insectary plants – term used by organic farming movement to describe plants
machinery and equipment as well as infrastructures and assets
that attract insects, such as: Cilantro, mustard( Brassica juncea),
marigold (Tagetes patula), dill, wild carrot, thyme, clovers,  Social capital – networks of norms, values and understanding that
rosemary, mint, daisy and chamomile facilitate cooperation and trust within and between groups
Groups of Parasitic wasps that lay eggs on or in the body of an insect  Human capital – knowledge, skills, competencies and attributes
host: embodies in individuals that are developed through lifelong learning
 Ichneumon flies – prey on caterpillars of butterflies and moths and experience, including through the formal education system.
 Braconid wasps – attack caterpillars and other insects  Cultural capital – values, histories and practices that link a specific
 Chalcid wasps – parasitize eggs/larvae of greenfly, whitefly, group of people together
cabbage caterpillars,scale insects and strawberry totrix moth  Institutional capital – the range of formal and informal civic,
political and legal arrangements that underpin economic activities
Natural Pest Control for Organic Garden: and civic life
*Basil – repels flies and mosquitoes Criteria for environmental sustainability of a farming system:
*garlic – deters Japanese beetles  Regeneration – using renewable resources efficiently and not
*marigold – discourages Mexican bean beetles, nematodes and others permitting their use to exceed their long-term rates of natural
*peppermint – repels white cabbage butterfly regeneration
*mint – deters white cabbage moth  Sustainability – using non-renewable resources efficiently and
*rosemary – deters cabbage moth, bean beetle and carrot fly limiting their use to levels that can offset by substitution by
*Thyme – deters cabbage worms renewable resources or other forms of capital (e.g. using fossil-based
Available IPM Technologies in the Philippines: fertilizers)
 Assimilation – not allowing release of hazardous or polluting
substances to the environment to exceed the environment‘s
assimilative capacity (e.g. preventing excess nutrients entering water
ways)
 Avoiding irreversibility – avoiding irreversible impacts of human
activities on ecosystems (e.g. ensuring that farming does not
contribute to the extinction of a plant of animal species)
Key Principles to promote sustainable agriculture, a farm must be:
 Environmentally sustainable – to maintain and enhance the natural
capital on which faming depends as well as other ecosystems
influenced by farming
 Socially beneficial – to enhance the quality of life for people in rural
communities and beyond, while addressing wider social and cultural
schemes
 Economically viable – to ensure farmers have a secure and
rewarding livelihood
These outcomes can be supported through the development of
farming systems that are:
 Knowledge intensive – investing in human knowledge to
develop smart and productive farming systems that are less
dependent on high levels of material and energy inputs
 Innovative – experimenting and making greater use of farmers‘
knowledge, in combination with appropriate technologies
developed through research
 Resource efficient – using renewable and non-renewable
resources efficiently and making the most effective use of Decision making for the development of a more sustainable farming system
natural processes and resources available in the farm should be:
 Cyclical – integrating natural processes such as nutrient
recycling and soil regeneration into farming practices and using  Systems thinking – taking an integrated approach that considers
the by-products/wastes from farming as inputs into further the interactions and relationships among different elements. It is
production necessary to address the underlying reasons that is behind
 High value – producing high quality products from a quality unsustainable practices instead of just treating short-term
environment symptoms
 Diverse – developing and adapting farming systems so that they  Futures thinking – maintaining a long-term perspective and
are appropriate for the local environment, social, cultural and anticipating risks and challenges to farming systems, including the
economic conditio future implications of existing practices. Past trends do not dictate
 Resilient – developing the capacity of people to learn and adapt destiny, so it is important to explore different visions for the
to changing circumstances while ensuring that natural capital is future and to constantly look for opportunities to improve
still maintained sustainability
Comparison of internal and external resources/processes for farming  Participation – actively involving farmers and other people in
rural communities to develop more sustainable farming systems.
It is also important to encourage individuals and organizations that
are part of broader food systems, and those affected by farming to that maintain productivity that are profitable and protect the
take part in finding sustainable solutions environment.
 Leadership – supporting good participating through good Natural farming – involves no tillage, no fertilizers, no pesticides, no
leadership. It is essential to help people see any issues and weeding, no pruning and remarkably little labor by careful timing of
opportunities ahead and to develop their capacity to seek out seeding and careful combinations of plants (polyculture). Its practices
solutions. focus on analyzing and building soil through composting, green
 Biodiversity – is the sum total of all the plants, animals, fungi and manuring, mulch and various other soil management techniques,
microorganisms in the world or in a particular area, all of similar to organic farming.
their individual variation and all the interactions between them Kyusei Nature Farming – developed by Teruo Higa of Japan which means
 Agrobiodiversity – is the fundamental feature of farming systems saving the world; employs technology involving beneficial
which encompasses may types of biological resources tied to microorganisms and inoculants to increase the microbial diversity,
agriculture such as genetic resources, edible plants and crops, health and yield of crops.
livestock, soil organisms, naturally occurring insects, bacteria and Organic farming – was first used by Lord Northbourne; is a production
fungi, agroecosystem components and types, and wild resources system which avoids or largely exclude the use of synthetically
Agrobiodiversity includes not only a wide variety of species but also many compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock
ways in which a farmer can exploit biological diversity to produce and manage additives
crops, land, water, insects and biota -is an ecological production management system that promotes and
 Biodynamic agriculture/biodymanic farming – by spiritual enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity
insights of Dr. Rudolf Steiner that emphasizes on many of the that minimizes the use of off-farm inputs and on management practices
forces within living nature, identifying many of these factors that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony
and describing specific practices and preparations that guide Permaculture – or permanent agriculture was coined by Bill Mollison in 1970
the decomposition process in manure and compost which is a unique design that produce efficient low-maintenance
 Biointensive Gardening/Mini-farming – introduced by Alan integration of plants, animals, people and structure applied at the scale
Chadwick about the concepts and practices of double-dug of a home garden, all the way through to a large farm
method of making raised beds, intensive planting, Precision farming/agriculture or Prescription Farming or Site Specific
composting, companion cropping and whole system synergy. Management - a management strategy that employs detailed site-specific
 Biological farming/Ecological farming – is a system of crop information to precisely manage production inputs
production in which the producer tries to minimize the use of - to know the soil and crop characteristics unique to each part of the
chemicals for control of crop pests field, and to optimize production within small portions of the field that
Carrying capacity – is the theoretical equilibrium population at which a uses computers, telecommunications and global positioning systems or
particular population in a particular environment will stabilize when its (GPS), etc.
supply of resources remains constant Regenerative Agriculture – to enhance regeneration of renewable resources to
- the maximum sustainable population size, the maximum size that can achieve a sustainable form of agriculture
be supported indefinitely into the future without degrading the
environment SITE CHARACTERIZATION
Holistic Management – is a decision making process that enables people to Introduction
make decisions that satisfy immediate needs without jeopardizing their There is a need to evaluate the physical, biological and socio-
future well-being or the well-being of future generations economic conditions existing in the area, the options that are available in
Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) and Integrated Food and Farming terms of crop species and the technological inputs that will be required in
Systems – included in this concept are the goals of finding and growing the crops.
adopting integrated and resource-efficient crop and livestock systems The initial step prior to actual production constitutes a planning phase
or the conduct of a feasibility study to decide on the location and crop
enterprises that will be set up.
The Farm Environment  Deeper soils are more productive than shallow soils. Crops can endure
 It consists of the natural, biophysical, social, economic and political a longer drought when they thrive on soils having a higher water
environment. holding capacity.
 Farming systems is equated to the environment and the type of Soil Drainage is the removal of water from the soil through surface run-off
farming systems to be adopted in a farm and is determined by several and by flow through the soil to underground spaces
factors that influence it the site characteristics and qualities of the area  Well-drained soil promotes favorable conditions for plant growth and
play an important consideration in crop production and management. microbial activity.
These characteristics include topography/slope, effective soil depth,  Drainage is important for crops that are sensitive to water logging
soil texture, available moisture, water holding capacity, soil drainage,  Factors affecting soils drainage: slope, permeability, vegetation and
flooding hazard and natural soil fertility like pH, organic matter, land use, and amount of rainfall
available P, exchangeable K, cation exchange capacity, etc. Available Water & Water holding Capacity
 The ideal soil for upland crops has a deep rooting zone and easily  Available water is the water content of a soil held between field
penetrable by air, water and roots. It has good water holding capacity capacity and permanent wilting point expressed in percent
but drains excess water freely. It has a balance supply of nutrients that  Field capacity represents the maximum amount of water a soil can
cannot be easily washed away during rains. Paddy rice, e.g. prefers hold against normal drainage
level, deep, fertile and poorly drained soils that can be flooded while  Permanent wilting point is the moisture of soil water when the plants
the crop is growing. start to wilt
Effects of Soil Characteristics for Crop Production  Soil with poor drainage has limited agricultural use because of
Slope – is the ratio of the vertical distance over the horizontal distance both wetness. These soils are not suitable for upland crops unless
of the same linear unit multiplied by 100%. It influence retention and adequately drained but they are best for paddy rice.
movement of water, movement of soil materials, soil depth and rate and  Medium textured soils hold the most water in available form
amount of run-off  Coarse textured soil hold little water because of their low water
Soil Texture – refers to the relative proportion of clay, silt and sand. Soil content at field capacity.
structure depends on the kind and amount of clay in the soil.  Fine clayey soils supply limited available water because they return
 Clay works with organic matter to hold water and nutrients, binds soil large amount of water at permanent wilting point.
particles together; holds more water and nutrients than sandy soils; has Soil Erosion
higher cation exchange capacity than sandy soils  The degree and amount of soil erosion is mainly dependent on
 Medium textured soils like loam and silt loam are best soils for steepness and length of slope, climate, kind of soil, nature of land use
diversified upland crops. Paddy rice prefers poorly drained clayey and vegetative cover and cultural and soil management practices.
soils Surface erosion occurs when the amount of rainfall exceed to that of
Soil Depth – Effective soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil to layers the infiltration capacity of the soils.
coarser than loamy fine sand, sand, gravels, stones, rocks or any impermeable  Soils with larger & steeper slopes are more susceptive to sever soil
layer or to depth to water table. erosion than soils with lower shorter slopes & all other factors are
 Soil Depth – Effective soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil to equal.
layers coarser than loamy fine sand, sand, gravels, stones, rocks or any  Soil erosion is more severe on areas with more frequent and more
impermeable layer or to depth to water table. intense alternate wet and dry periods than areas with uniform rainfall
Depth of surface soil: throughout the year.
For Annuals – relatively shallow depths are all right  Sandy soils are more susceptible to erosion than clayey soils due to
For perennials – greater depths should be advantageous detachment and lack of binding materials.
 The thicker the effective soil depth, the more the volume of soil that  Plowing and tilling across the slopes tend to hasten soil erosion to a
can be extracted of plant nutrient and water great degree.
Flooding Hazard
 Flooding occurs on areas occupying low physiographic positions along d) Weeds – There must be thorough land preparation before planting and
rivers and streams, low alluvial terraces of the coastal landscape there must be maximum utilization of the land to prevent growth of weeds
 Prolonged deep flooding prevents root respiration due to absence of (increase plant density)
oxygen and deprives the plants of the essential soil nutrients e) Animals – Astray animals in the farm affect production. However, draft
Inherent Soil Fertility animals are beneficial to farmers. There must be compatibility of the
 Soil fertility refers to the status of the soil in terms of its ability to animal component to the crop components.
provide the plants adequate amount of nutrients in balance proportion Physical Component
and on readily available form necessary for normal plant growth. A. Soil Component
 It is related to pH, organic matter, CEC, available P, extractable K and 1) Geography – The location of the farm affects production. Farms near
base saturation big municipalities/cities produce a variety of crops in a small area
a. Soil pH affects plant growth on its nutritional needs. It influences the (diversified) whereas those in the upland are at
rate of plant nutrient released by weathering, the solubility of all a disadvantage due to lack of accessibility to roads and markets.
materials in the soil and the amount of nutrient ions kept on the CEC 2) Topography and elevation – The terrain or contour of the land affects
sites. cropping patterns. Lowlands are utilized for producing most likely
Organic matter content affects soils fertility in terms of CEC annuals (cereals, etc) whereas in the uplands with high altitudes, vegetables
and nutrient supply. The higher the organic matter content, the higher is the are raised.
CEC supply of available N, P and S. 3) Land Use Pattern – It depends on the rainfall pattern of the area and
b. Available P – second most deficient nutrient in most soils; is derived thecropping patterns used such as that after one cropping, it is followed by
from mineralization of organic matter. P availability is related to soil a short fallow before another cropping starts. Or the farm is fallowed to
pH. A pH range from 6.5 – 7.5 is usually best for P availability. rest for a few months before another cropping starts.
c. Exchangeable P - essentially needed in large amount by plants which B. Climate Component
comes mostly from mineral solids. K is most available at pH 6 – 1) Rainfall Pattern – With upland farms usually rainfed, planting crops
7.5.but in leached soils, available K declines. should be in timingwith good rain. A planting calendar based on rainfall
d. Percentage base saturation – refers to the percentage of CEC occupied pattern should be adopted to fully utilize photosynthesis. The climate also
by basic cations such as Ca, Mg, K and Na measured at pH 7 or 8. influences cropping patterns as this depends on the rainfall intensity and
Cations like H and Al are excluded because they are acid produced. distribution as it affects soil workability, crop growth and development,
Biotic Factors and maturity
a) Cropping patterns. These are temporal and spatial arrangement of 2) Temperature – Plants have specific temperature requirements to
crops in the field which are based on type of climate and soil, growvigorously at different stages of growth. In the choice of crops, the
availability of farm inputs and technical knowhow of the farmer. growing season has to be considered which are also influenced by atitude,
One cannot deviate much unless the community as a whole, changes altitude and slope of the place.
the pattern. The risks from pest damage are the field is greater if planting is 3) Typhoon/Drought Occurrence – In areas where there are ‗typhoon
not synchronized with that of the community. belts‘, the crops to be planted are creeping species (sweet potato, etc) and
b) Varietal selection– The variety to be planted in the farm depends on its the annuals so that these could be harvested with less effect from strong
adaptability, the preference or purpose for planting it, its resistance to pests winds or the planting of drought tolerant crops.
and diseases, maturity indices, high yielding and good eating quality. 4) Wind Velocity – Still air are beneficial to crops as this aids the
Information on yields of best farms in the area must be obtained and pollination process. But wind velocity also cause soil erosion and
used for upgrading operations. therefore planting wind breaks are necessary.
c) Insects & diseases – The prevalence of insects & disease must be 5) Solar radiation – Light intensity, duration and quality affects dry matter
considered thus planting synchronously is favorable and the variety accumulation as this is used for photosynthesis. Plants have higher dry
should be resistant to pests & diseases. Cavite, Laguna, Batangas and matter accumulation under optimum sunlight
nearby provinces should not be planted with papaya due to prevalence of Economic Components
ringspot virus.
1) Off-farm income sources – Farm management involves capital and attitude also limit production but if they are taking risk as opportunities then
the capital of a farmer might not be enough hence, he has to secure they have to diversity their farms to have continuous cash flow, much food,
off-farm income to augment his finances wider host range of pests and diseases and if one crop fails, there are still
2) Labor market – There is shortage of labor during ―peak months‖ and others to be harvested.
labor is expensive and if labor is available, it is expensive and demand 4) Intellectual and technical perspective
higher price. Therefore in the farm, operations should be done on Those who engaged in farming are the middle age group and are of
staggered basis such that labor is available at off-seasons low educational attainment. They lack technical knowhow but with wider
3) Market & Credit – In deciding what to raise in the farm, the farmer has farming experiences.
to the consider the demand (quantity and quality) of the products at high price 5) Tradition, customs and beliefs
based on customer preference; the marketing outlets and the ROI. Supply and Whatever traditions, customs and beliefs of the people influence the
demand situations should be known so that operations can be adjusted for type of crops or animals raised. They have to follow on what they ―believe‖ in
harvesting to coincide with the slack periods of supply when prices are high. terms of farming.
Also, the farmer has to develop storage and selling strategies to avoid risk. Bio-physical Features of Land and Crop Adaptation
 Credits are supplied by banks, etc. or middlemen. Credits help farmers 1. Submerged conditions during most of the crop’s life cycle e.g. rice, taro
a lot but this may also tie down their produce to lower prices. On the water chestnut (apulid) and Sesbaniarostrata for green manuring.
other hand, capital for inputs and services are readily available.  Most crops are sensitive to water logging
4) Transport facilities. Necessary for marketing of farm products as well as  Jute and sorghum can tolerate periodic waterlogged
transport of supplies and inputs. Insufficient transport facilities in the farm conditions
results to slow turnover of outputs to cash, and may even result to wastage of  Corn cannot tolerate waterlogging and sensitive to even short
produce. period (36 hrs) of waterlogging
5) Channels of market information – Media and technicians inform  Rambutan, papaya and durian are very sensitive to under-
farmers of the recent product demand and prices of commodities in the market. drainage or water-logged conditions
Farmer‘s has to raise goods of preference to consumers that command high  Mango can tolerate waterlogging for a certain period of time
prices.  Sorjan – a system of raising upland crops - (vegetables &
6) Landholding, inheritance pattern and land tenure status – Available peanuts) in raised beds alongside submerged lowland rice
land resources and farm distribution affect crops grown and the farming 2. Humid condition and where rainfall is more uniformly distributed which
system used. For land owners, they can plant on extensive scale whereas others is suitable to all perennial crops such as mangosteen (Mindanao) and abaca
on small scale based on farm sizes. (Mindanao, Easter Visayas and Bicol peninsula). Mango produces quality
 Land tenure status influences production as there are agreements and and tasty fruits in areas where there is a dry spell.
disagreements between landlord and tenants. With fragmented 3. Cool climate or mild climate in the highlands of Mt. province, Mt Kanlaon
holding, fields may be of different soil types due to complex (Negros Island) and in Bukidnon-Lanao plateau are suitable for
management practices vegetable species like white potato, cabbage, peas, carrots, head lettuce,
Socio-cultural Components asparagus,etc. The suitable fruit species are litchi (lychee), longgan, ponkan
1) Organization and Leadership – Formal and non-formal leaders help mandarin orange,strawberry, grape and macademia nut.
members in understanding the current pattern of resource distribution and these 4. Coastal areas are suited for coconut, cashew, tamarind and talisay
leaders would mobilize the members to form cooperatives and avail of and have (Terminaliacatappa) which is a source of dye for clothing materials
access to support and technical assistance. and nipa palm (Nymphafruticans) can thrive well in saline conditions.
2) Ethnicity and idiosyncrasies – Values, outcomes and traditions are inherent The limit of elevation for coconut is 600m above sea level.
to all people and this affects farming system. Farmers have to raise crops as 5. Partial shade is good for ginger, black pepper, vanilla, lanzones, rambutan,
handed down traditions such as in Mt. Province, people raised vegetables and in mangosteen, cacao, coffee, banana, arrowroot, pachouli and many other crops
Cebu, people raise and eat corn can be grown under coconut trees, ipil-ipil and madre de cacao (G. sepium).
3) Aspirations and attitudes – Aspirations help farmers to strive more for 6. Low pH 4.3 – 5.0 as in Bukidnon is suitable for rubber, pineapple, cassava,
certain definite purpose – child‘s education or alleviate income. Farmers‘ sweet potato and Stylosantheshumilis, a forage legumes that nodulate at pH
4.0-4.5. Acid tolerant crop varieties of corn have been developed by 1. Man – healthy and mature human being can continually develop and
CIMMYT,IPB-UPLB and CMU; mungbean, peanut and cowpea in IPB-UPLB Output of one-tenth horsepower
and rice in IRRI and CIAT-Colombia. 2. Animal – on the average, a work animal (horse, water buffaloes, and
7. Light-textured soils are good for rootcrops, asparagus,legumes and corn. cattle) can develop an average of 0.8 horsepower
8. Poor and stony soils are good for cashew and forage legumes. Kaong or 3. Tractor
sugar palm ―Areca pinnata‖ can also be grown in these areas. a. Hand tractor – in the Philippines, usual range of 5 to 12 HP
9. Drought-prone areas are suited for sorghum, cashew, pineapple, sweet b. Compact four-wheel tractor – horsepower ranges from 14 to 30
potato, pigeon pea,cowpea, mungbean, and napier. HP
10. Photoperiod or day length. Soybeans, winged beans, kenaf, coffee, c. Conventional four-wheel tractor – 36 to 80 HP
pineapple, \chrysanthemum and some rice varieties are photoperiod sensitive Primary tillage – refers to the initial breaking of the soil. A plow or any of the
responsive and will flower when daylength has become shorter than 12 hours. general purpose tillage equipment may be used.
Bulb formation is hastened by longer days. In yams (ubi), long days favor vine Examples:
development and short days hasten tuberization. 1. Native wooden or steel plow – an animal drawn plow has a cut width of
Crops that have become dominant in certain areas 15 cm. Average speed is 2 km per hour. A hectare can be plowed from
 La Union and Pangasinan - tobacco, garlic 40 to 50 hours
 QuirinoProv, CagayanValley&Siquijor - peanut 2. Tractor moldboard plow – cutting unit called bottom; similar to animal-
 Negros Tarlac-Pampanga and Batangas – sugarcane drawn plow; consists of a share, moldboard and landside; can prepare a
 Guimaras Island, Cebu & Central Luzon – mango hectare in 3-4 hours
 Albay, Camarines Sur, Bicol – Pili Nut 3. Disc plow – cut ranges from 15 cm to 20 cm; has a rolling bottom or disc;
 Cavite, Laguna, Bukidnon, General Santos - pineapple can effectively penetrate even hard soils and used in extreme field
 Davao &Bukidnon – export bananas conditions such as dry, sticky and moist soils
 Cagayan Valley & Mindanao - corn 4. General purpose tillage equipment – functions are to initially cut and
break the soil and then pulverize it. Example is the rotavator constructed
LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING PRACTICES with a set of cutting knives of tines
Land preparation: Secondary tillage - refers to all operations after the primary tillage and prior to
• usually involves the initial cutting of the soil, breaking up the soil planting
clods into smaller particles and leveling off the field OBJECTIVES:
• purpose of land preparation is to achieve one or more of the ffg: 1. To further loosen the soil
1. To develop the proper soil tilth – desirable soil structure for a 2. To break the clods
seedbed or rootbed, granular or crumbly structure with aggregates 3. Refine and smooth the soil
of 3 to 10 mm sizes 4. Kill weeds
2. To control weeds Examples of secondary tillage equipment:
3. To aerate the soil 1. Bamboo or wooden harrows – with a set of teeth that are fixed; can be
4. To mix crop residues and fertilizers with the soil used in wet or dry lands
5. To conserve water- breaking the soil increases pore spaces and 2. Comb-tooth harrow – used in irrigated lowland areas; for puddling
water holding capacity is improved 3. Disc harrow – mainly used after plowing to pulverize large clods
6. To prepare the soil for subsequent farm operations 4. Spike-tooth harrow – if made of steel, angle of teeth can be varied; used in
7. To affect the control of pests and diseases – weeds and residues mellow and friable soil; effective in killing small weeds and covering
are turned under that harbor pests and diseases broadcasted seeds
8. To level the field – low and high spots are to be avoided Other tillage systems / practices:
1. Minimum tillage – there is reduced tillage intensity – depends on field
POWER UNITS: conditions (weedy, soil texture, moisture)
2. Zero tillage – no mechanical manipulation of the soil; also called 1. Direct seeding in the field
conservation tillage • Broadcast
3. Conventional method – traditional system; involves primary tillage • Drilled in rows
operation followed by secondary tillage • Hill method in rows
Zero vs. minimum tillage: Results indicated the possibility of growing crops • Dibbling on unplowed land
like sorghum, cotton, and corn without tillage 2. Transplanting – seeds sown in seedboxes or seedbeds and transplanted
provided weeds are controlled with appropriate within 2-4 weeks
herbicides ADVANTAGES:
For transplanted rice – yields obtained from zero tillage were comparable 1. lesser wastage on valuable seeds
to conventional tillage provided weeds are 2. allow more cropping
controlled with pre-plant herbicides 3. controlled growth during seedling growth but initial transplanting
PLANTING PRACTICES: shock in the field
Methods of planting: PLANTING METHODS FOR LOWLAND RICE
1. Direct seeding – planting materials are seeds, cuttings, tubers, bulbs 1. Transplanting
2. Transplanting – planting materials are seedlings grown in seedbed or Methods of raising seedlings for transplanting:
seedbox a) Wetbed
Factors to consider when choosing the method of planting to be used: • 35-45 kg of seeds per ha
1. Seed size – e.g. small seeds are often transplanted (pechay, tobacco, • 300-500 m2 seedbed area
Mustard, eggplant, tomato) • seedlings transplanted 20-25 days after sowing
2. Rate of root regeneration - e.g. plants with slow rate of root • 2-3 seedlings per hill
Regeneration are usually direct seeded (cucurbits, legumes, b) Dapog method
Root crops, okra, corn, etc) • seeds sown in concrete pavements or bed lined with plastic
3. Price of seed – expensive seeds are usually transplanted • 50-60 kg seeds per ha
4. Availability and cost of labor –if cost of labor is high, use direct • 40 m2 seedbed area
seeding • seedlings transplanted 9-14 days; 5-10 seedlings per hill
c. Drybed method
METHODS OF DIRECT SEEDING: • practiced in rainfed areas
1. Broadcasting – also called ―sabog-tanim‖; seeds evenly spread in an • 35-45 kg seeds per ha
area • 300-500 m2 seedbed area
2. Drill method – with definite spacing with a row or per linear meter • seedlings transplanted 20-30 days after sowing
e.g. soybeans = 18-22 seeds per linear meter during WS • 2-3 seedlings per hill
3. Hill method – definite spacing between plants or hills 2. Direct seeding
e. g. peanut = 25 cm between hills, 3 plants per hill
Row planting – seeding rate is lessened, uniform growth is ensured, facilitates • broadcasting on puddled soil
operations and better space utilization • drilling by multihopper seeded or drum seeder
Examples of row planting: • uses 50-80 kg of pre-germinated seeds per ha
1. list planting – seeds are placed at the bottom of the furrow • uses only inbred varieties; not suitable for hybrids because of high
2. ridge planting – seeds are placed at the top of the ridge cost of seeds
3. surface planting – no furrows; seeds are drilled or hill-planted • dibbling and broadcasting in upland areas ( for upland rice)
4. drill planting – one (1) seed per hill PLANTING METHODS FOR UPLAND CROPS
5. hill planting – two or more seeds per hill 1. Drill method – for legumes, sorghum, upland rice, etc.
2. Hill method – for corn, peanut, etc.
PLANTING METHODS IN ANNUALS PLANTING METHODS FOR VEGETABLES
Examples: onion, leek, lettuce, broccoli, cauliflower, mustard, pechay, arrangement results in a greater number of trees per hectare than the
Chinese cabbage, tomato, eggplant, celery, sweet pepper, etc. square method.
a) Raising of seedlings
• seedbed method – sterilized soil, row spacing of 5-7 cm and 2-3 A (Area)
seeds per 5-7 cm row length Number of trees per hectare = --------------------
• seedbox method – seeds are sown in seedbox S2 x 0.866
- grown until transplanted or sometimes transferred to another seedbox Where: A = area
(pricking) before transplanting S2 = square of planting distance
- Row spacing of 7-8 cm and seeding rate of 2-3 seeds/linear meter
b) Transplanting 4. Contour or terrace system
Pechay and lettuce – 3 weeks old • applied in hillsides or hilly lands
Cabbage, broccoli – 4-5 weeks old • prevents or reduces soil erosion
Tomatoes, eggplant, pepper – 5-7 weeks old • establishes contour lines with the use of A-frame
Pricking – seedlings are transferred to another seedbox or seedbed Contour line – a line that runs across the slope such that the line stays at the
Blocking and hardening – starts at 7-10 days before transplanting same height and does not run uphill or downhill
• cutting soil (5 cm x 5 xcm) at full depth 7-10 days before
transplanting PLANT PROPAGATION
• gradual withdrawal of water
• gradual exposure to sunlight Vegetative propagation had been practiced in the Old World centuries
PLANTING SYSTEMS FOR ORCHARDS OR PLANTATION CROPS before the birth Of Christ. Propagation by suckers, cuttings and layering were
Factors to consider in selection of planting system: already known during those days. However, such methods had been improved
a) number of species/varieties of fruits/plantation crops until the past two decades when research and new techniques were put into
b) whether or not to use fillers practice.
c) topography of the land Plant propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the
d) degree of farm mechanization number of plants of the same species and at the same time perpetuating their
e) preference of grower desirable characteristics.
Types of planting systems: Purposes:
1. Square method – most common and simplest to layout; makes
operations easy by mechanical means 1. To retain the desirable characteristics of the mother plants.
Number of trees per hectare: NP = A/S2 where: 2. To increase or multiply the number of plants rapidly.
NP = number of plants; A = area 3. To shorten the bearing age of plants, especially in fruit trees.
S2 = square of planting distance
2. Quincunx or diagonal – makes use of a square with additional tree in 4. To prevent the plant species from being lost or extinct.
the middle; larger tree populations can be planted; maximum 5. To produce superior strains and disease-resistant plants that will
use of the area during the early growing and fruiting years be best suited under a given climate and soil conditions.
Number of trees per hectare: NP = A (Area) Methods of Plant Propagation
---------------------------------
S2 + (L/S-1)(W/S-1) Plants may be propagated under two (2) general categories: sexual and
2
Where: A= area; S = square of planting distance vegetative or asexual propagation.
L = length of the area; W = width of the area 1. Sexual propagation - is the common method of reproduction and
3. Hexagonal or triangular system - trees are equidistant from one multiplication of plants. This is usually done with the use of
another from every direction to form an equilateral triangle. This seeds and spores. Garden vegetables like tomato, eggplant,
pechay, radish, carrot, mustard and legume crops (cowpea,
mungo and peas) are generally propagated by seeds. Fruit trees Cutting, marcotting and layering are mostly used in
such as caimito, avocado, santol, jackfruit, guava, mango, etc. the multiplication of ornamental plants, grapes and black
are also propagated by the use of seeds, although in some cases, pepper. Inarching, marcotting, grafting and budding are
the resulting plants may not come true to type and do not have generally used in the reproduction of fruit trees which are
the same characteristics as the parent plants. very important to a horticulturist and an orchardist.
Seeds are still the most economical and fastest means in  Aseptic micropropagation-Propagation of plants starting
the reproduction of plants. However, some plants like fruit trees from very small plants grown aseptically in test tube or
produced from seeds vary in their characteristics, hence; we other container.
cannot always expect the desirable qualities as to size, shape, Methods of Artificial Propagation
vigor, quality and yield of the parent plant in their new off-springs
or progenies. 1. Cutting - is a detached portion of the selected mother plants
intended to be multiplied, of which at least one-third to one-
Ferns and mosses are by nature propagated by spores. half of the length is inserted in the soil or rooting media
2. Asexual Propagation - is the development of a new plant natural with the sole purpose of producing new plant. Cuttings may
or artificial without the use of seeds, since it does not involve the be divided into three classes:
function of sex, it is commonly referred to as asexual. Root cuttings – made from matured roots as in the case of rimas
Advantages: Leaf cuttings – as in Begonia
1. Desirable characteristics of the parent plants are Stem cuttings – soft wood cuttings may either be made from
retained. young and immature parts of the plants as in the case of gumammela,
2. Grafted and budded plants bear fruit early. San Francisco and Papua. Hardwood cuttings are made from matured
3. Trees are generally, low, thus labor cost and time in the twigs of the plants intended to be produced as in the case of
maintenance and harvesting are economical. bougainvillea. Lately, success has been made in producing rooted chico
4. There is a uniform appearance of the trees and more and citrus with the use of cuttings dipped in root hormone solution.
number of trees can be planted per unit area. 2. Marcotting - is the process of inducing branch or twigs to produce roots
Disadvantages: while still attached to the parent plant.
1. There is a possibility of disease being transmitted from Procedure:
the parent to the new individual plant.
2. Some source of certified scion or budsticks is a usual -Make a notch or girdle around the branch of about 1-2 cm wide or
problem. depending on the size of the branch.
Methods of Asexual Plant Propagation -Scrape off the cambium layer completely to prevent the re-growth of
the bark. It may help to apply a rooting compound to the exposed stem.
a. Vegetative or natural propagation - is the perpetuation and
multiplication of plants by means of the growing parts like -Wrap the cut surface with about 2 handful of slightly moist sphagnum
crown, suckers, bulbill, tubers, root stock, corms, runners, moss. If the moss is too wet, the stem may decay. Some propagators do
rhizomes, slips, etc. Gabi, sweet potato, Irish potato, not cover the ringed branch for several days. This practice favors
strawberry, pineapple and garlic are some of the plants that rooting in caimito.
may be reproduced vegetatively. -Wrap with a piece of plastic film about 15 x 20 cm around the ball of
b. Artificial propagation - is a method of asexual propagation sphagnum moss and tie all around with cotton twine. The plastic film
in which new plants are produced and multiplied by the use keeps down loss of moisture from the moss.
of parts and buds of the selected mother plants and -As soon as you see enough roots throughout the plastic film, cut the
employing several methods as cuttings, layering, inarching, marcotted branch from the mother plant. This may be from 2-12
marcotting, grafting and budding. months after marcotting depending on the crop.
-Cutting may be done in gradual basis until it attain sufficient roots to This is done in the same manner as cleft grafting. The only
live by itself as indicated by a new flush of growth (a critical period for difference is that with the saddle grafting the longitudinal cut is made on
the new plant). the scion while the wedge is made on the rootstock.
3. Grafting - is the process of joining together a rootstock and a scion until d. Whip or Tongue Grafting
they united permanently. This method has distinct advantage of allowing a much greater
Types of Grafting: area of cambial contact than either cleft or saddle grafting.
 Inarching or Approach grafting
Procedure:
 Cleft grafting
 Saddle grafting -Start in the same manner as cleft or saddle grafting.
 Whip or tongue grafting -After cutting back the rootstock, make a smooth slanting cut about 3-5
 Splice grafting cm long where you intend to make the graft.
Factors to be considered in grafting: -About 1/3 from the cut surface, make a downward cut so it would form
The weather conditions and the stage of plants should be some sort of a tongue that point upward.
considered for the success in grafting. Grafting may be done at the -Make similar but reverse cut on the scion.
beginning of the dry season and the rainy season. The scion should be -Fit them together making sure their tongues interlock snugly and bind
well-prepared from selected pedigreed trees, the characteristics of which with a plastic tape.
are to be perpetuated. In the same manner, the stock should be healthy, e. Splice Grafting
vigorous and free from diseases and insect pests. It is done in the same way as whip grafting except that the
a. Inarching or Approach grafting scion and the rootstock are prepared without the tongue.
Procedure: Procedure:
-Select an actively growing stock and bring it to the branch you intend -To bark graft, cut back the selected rootstock about one meter
to graft. above the ground.
-Cut a longitudinal section about 4-5 cm long and about half its -Cut two vertical incisions as deep as the bark on one side where you
thickness. intend to make a graft.
-Make a similar cut on the scion then fit together.
-Tie firmly with a string or a cotton twine. -Carefully peel off the bark away from the wood but make sure it
-Cut the scion below the point of union of scion and the stock if already remains attended at the bottom.
established. -Then make a smooth slanting cut at the base of the scion. This cut
b. Cleft grafting should match the cut you previously made on the rootstock.
Procedure: -Opposite the first incisions, make a second cut but shorter to remove
-Select a healthy rootstock about the size of the ordinary lead pencil or the section of the bark that may be damaged or would interfere when the
slightly larger. scion is inserted into the rootstock.
-Cut off the top of the rootstock to a desirable height where there is an
active growth. -After making the second cut, insert the scion underneath the bark flap
-Make a longitudinal cut at the center of the cut surface deep enough to of the rootstock.
accommodate the wedge that may be cut on the scion. Budding
-Select healthy scion of the same size as the rootstock and cut about 10- Is a form of grafting that makes use of single bud as the scion
15 cm long. instead of stem bearing several buds.
-Hold firmly and make a wedge cut about 4-5 cm long on the basal Types of budding:
section.  Shield Budding - is widely used in citrus.
-Insert the wedge on the rootstock and secure firmly with a plastic tape. Procedure:
-Select an actively growing rootstock.
c. Saddle Grafting
-Make a vertical incision, 2-3 cm long as deep as the bark (4-6 inches
above the ground level.)
-Make a cross cut above the vertical cut thus forming some kind of a
T. Some propagators make the cross cut below the vertical incision,
thus, forming an inverted T. Choose whichever is convenient to you.
-Slice out smoothly a shield of bud including a thin layer of the
wood from the budstick.
-Insert the shield into the slit made on the rootstock until it is even with
the cross cut.
-Once set in place, tie securely with a plastic tape. Don‘t press the tape
too firmly against the inserted bud, as it will crush and destroy or even
mutilate the growing bud.
 Patch Budding – widely used on fruit trees with thick
bark.
Procedure:
-To chip bud, select surface on the rootstock where you intend to make
the graft.
-On the same spot make a smooth slanting downward incision.
-About 1.5-2 cm above this incision, make an acute angle cut to remove
the chip.
-After removing the chip with the bud, insert it into the notch in the WATER SUPPLY and WATER MANAGEMENT
rootstock.
-Secure firmly in place by a plastic tape. In many tropical countries of Asia and Africa, water need of crops is
PLANTS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING METHODS OF PROPAGATION mainly supplied directly by rainfall. With the exceptions of a few irrigated high
value upland crops. Whereas; lowland rice crops in most cases by irrigation.
Sources of Water:
1. Rainfall
2. Surface water from streams and rivers, 132 major rivers in 73
provinces and 421 principal river basins in the Phil.
3. Small farm reservoirs-water impounding earth dam
4. River diversion system-dam
5. Ground water-use of tube wells, centrifugal pumps.
Water requirements of crops refers to the total amount of water that
is required to bring a crop to complete its growth cycle , from germination to
maturity.
Ex. : to produce one kilo of rice, 5,000 liters of water is required.
1 kg corn grain under irrigation requires about 1,400; liters water.
Evaporation-the loss of water from the soil surface as a result of direct
exposure to solar radiation.
Evapotranspiration- the total loss of water from the soil, including that by
direct evaporation and by transpiration from the surfaces of plants.
Transpiration represents the volume of water (99% of total absorbed by the Overhead/Aerial/ Sprinkler irrigation- water is applied and distributed over the
plant) that is transpired and lost into the atmosphere through the stomatal form of a spray.
openings in the leaves. Drip or localized irrigation- water is applied through (PVC) pipes
Evapotranspiration is largely influenced by atmospheric conditions. with small water dripper directed to the base of the plant.
Seepage- is the loss of water from the field through lateral subsurface Pump Irrigation water is lifted from surface sources as canals, rivers
movement. and streams.
Percolation is the loss of water from the field through vertical or downward Environmental Impact of Irrigation:
subsurface water movement. Environmental impact of irrigation are the changes in quantity
-The rates of evaporation in the Philippines are 2-5 mm per day (WS), and 4-9 and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects
mm/day (DS). on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation
Rain forest-a dense evergreen forest occupying a tropical region having scheme.
abundant rainfall throughout the year.
Water shed- a ridge or strech of high land dividing the areas drained by The impact stems from the changed in hydrological conditions
different rivers or river system. owing to the installation and operation of the scheme.
River- a natural stream of water larger than a creek and emptying into an An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and
ocean, a lake, or another river. distributes it over the irrigated area. As hydrological results it is found that:
Ground water- water found underground in porous rock strata and soils. - The downstream river discharge is reduced
Water table- the level below which the ground is saturated with water. - The evaporation in the scheme is increased
Irrigation Methods: - The ground water recharged is increased
- The level of water table rises
Surface Irrigation- is the technique where water is applied and - The drainage flow is increased
distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far the most common form Water logging and soil salination
of irrigation throughout the world and has been practiced in many areas Irrigation can also be done by extracting ground water by (tube)wells .
virtually unchanged for thousands of years. It is often referred to as flood As a results it is found that the level of water descends .The effects may be
irrigation. water mining, land/soil subsidence, and along the cost salt water intrusion.
Basin Irrigation – Level basin irrigation has historically been used in Irrigation projects can have large benefits, but the negative side effects
small areas having level surfaces that are surrounded by earth banks. The water are often overlooked.
is applied rapidly to the entire basin and is allowed to infiltrate. Basins may be Critical periods at which water is most needed by crops:
linked sequentially so that drainage from one basin is diverted into the next In Rice Crop:
once the desired soil water deficit is satisfied. Land preparation
Furrow Irrigation- is conducted by creating small parallel channels Seed germination
along the field length in the direction of the predominant slope. Water is applied Panicle initiation- water and nitrogen are important in determining the
to the top end of each furrow and flows down the field under the influence of number of spikelets or grains /panicle.
gravity. Grain filling – Important in photosynthesis.In irrigated lowland rice,
Surge Irrigation- is a variant of furrow irrigation where the water proper use of irrigation water is the cheapest means of controlling weeds.
supply is pulsed on and off in planned time periods. The wetting and drying In corn and other upland crops:
cycles reduced infiltration rates resulting in faster advanced rate s and higher Seed germination
uniformities than continuous flow. Early reproductive stage- water and nitrogen determines the number of
Bay/border strip irrigation- could be considered as hybrid of level ovules in the cob.
basin and furrow irrigation. The border of the irrigated strip is longer and the Tasseling stage- water and nitrogen determines the number of pollens.
strips are narrower than for basin irrigation and are oriented to align lengthwise Silking stage- water lengthens silk receptivity. Pollen shedding and
to the field. Water is applied to the top end of the bay, which is usually silk receptivity are synchronized.
constructed to facilitate a free flowing condition at the downstream end.
Water stress during this period delays tassel emergence and may develop moisture, prevent the growth of weeds, make soil temperature moderate, and
problems on pollen shedding and stigma receptivity causing barren ears. etc. These materials are laid over the soil or at the base of the plants. These
Grain filling stage-water and proper nutrients determines size of grain or materials are replaced or left to rot in the soil. Common inorganic mulch
kernels. includes plastic or the new multi-purpose filter cloth from Japan.
Methods of water application for Lowland rice: Green manuring
Continuous submergence  In green manuring, leguminous plants are sown or grown in the field, but as
Intermittent irrigation it reaches the flowering stage they are plowed and incorporated with the
SPECIALIZED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES soil.
Greenhouses
Wind breaks or shelter breaks  Greenhouses modify or control the environment. Other methods of
 Wind breaks are barriers used to reduce and redirect wind. They usually controlling environment for crop production include the use of cold frames,
consist of trees and shrubs. They may be perennial or annual plants. They hotbeds, pit greenhouse, and shadehouse.
can also be manmade structures.  Quonset greenhouse is an example of a greenhouse.
 They protect crops and soil. Hydroponics
o Trees (i.e. Leguminous trees) – In the use of trees be sure to minimize
competition for sunlight, space, water, and nutrients.  This is also termed soilless agriculture.
Contour farming  Simple hydroponics can employ used or recycled containers or pots. This
practice can be employed in urban gardening called container farming.
 Example of a technology with emphasis on contour farming is Sloping
Physical and chemical control of growth and development
Agricultural Land Technology (SALT).
 Contour farming checks the downward movement of water  Physical
o Pruning and rejuvenation
Contour paddies
o Bonzai culture
 Contour paddies involve elevating the soil surface along the contours into o Use of trellises
paddies to control soil erosion.  Chemical
Gen-gen o Growth regulators or growth hormones are often used.
 ―Gen-gen‖ refers to a bank or barrier of turf, trashes, and/or earth o Auxins are used for rooting, ground tuber formation, prevention of fruit
constructed to control or confine water or prevent passage especially of formation, defoliation, and prevention of abscission of leaves and fruits.
something undesirable. Examples of auxins are indole butyric acid (IBA), napthaleneacetic acid
Contour hedges (NAA), and 2,4-D.
 Contour hedges involve the planting of one or two rows of hedges along the o Gibberellins are used for stem elongation, breaking of dormancy of
contour lines to check surface runoff and soil erosion. seeds, buds and tubers, induction of flower, and etc.
Stone walling o Cytokinins works with light to increase cell division and enlargement.
 Stone walling is practiced in areas where the land is stony as in some parts o Growth retardants
of Cebu. The contour lines, together with surface drains, are lined with  Examples of growth retardants are A-Rest, B-Nine, Bonzi, Sumagie,
stones. and Cycocel.
Bench terracing  Growth retardants can be used to control the growth and form of
 Bench terracing involves the construction of earthen embankments across potted plants.
the slopes to carry water to a protected area where it will not cause damage o Pinching agents are used to kill terminal vegetative buds and promote
or erosion. branching. Examples of pinching agents are Off-short-o and Atrimec.
Mulching o Vitamins, particularly B vitamins, stimulants for plant growth, especially
used after transplanting.
 Mulching involves the use of organic or inorganic materials such as cut
grasses or other types of plant residues to control soil erosion, conserve soil
HARVESTING AND POST PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY Physical. This method uses feel, force, sound and smell.
(HORTICULTURE)  Firmness
A.Maturity Indices  Ease of separation from plant
Introduction  Snapping e.g. beans and okra
 There is a loss of 25% to more than 50% of potential fruits and  Tenderness e.g. gourds, patola and upo
vegetable yields because of improper handling and storage.  Tapping – produces a dull, hollow sound. e.g. melon and jackfruit
 Harvesting at the correct maturity is the key to satisfying quality  Floatation Method e.g. mango- the ones that float are immature while
expectations the ones that sink are mature.
Maturity indices=harvest indices Chemical or Objective Methods
 For commodities that are to be shipped or for export, it should be  Measurement of chemical constituents. Determination of the total
harvested or picked in the mature but unripe stage. soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA) ratio between solids or
Overview: stages of development sugars; and acid and oil content. TSS is a measure of the amount of
 Growth is the irreversible increase in physical attributes sugars for its sweetness determined by a Brix hydrometer or
 Maturation is the accumulation of metabolites or food reserves like refractometer. TA is the measure of the amount of acids which is an
carbohydrates, starch and sugars indication of its sourness determined by titrating the juice with sodium
 Ripening starts at the latter stage of maturation up to the early stage of hydroxide. The ratio of TSS/TA of a fruit serve as a better indication
senescence. During ripening, there will be changes in composition like of flavor compared to TSS or TA alone.
starch converted to sugars, color changes, texture (from firm to soft)  Determination of rates of respiration and ethylene production.
and taste characteristics.
 Senescence is the end of development and start of deterioration. Phenological, Computation based on a point of reference which is the time of
Concepts of maturity appearance of a part in the plant‘s life cycle, especially in relation to climate
 Physiological Maturity. The stage of development when a plant part and other environmental factors computation of age of the fruit in terms of:
will continue development even if detached; mature fruits  Number of Days to Harvest from a point of reference such as bud
 Commercial/Horticultural Maturity. The stage of development when a break, anthesis (flower opening), shooting (appearance of
plant part possesses the necessary characteristics for use by consumers. inflorescence), and for bananas – flower induction and heat unit.
Importance of harvesting at the proper stage of maturity  Measurement of the dimensional fullness or diameter of fruits.
 The constituents responsible for full development of flavor are already
present such as esters, aldehydes and ketones. Maturity Indices of Different Perishable Crops
 There will be attainment of maximum respiratory substrate for longer A good index should be quick and easy to determine, reliable, independent of
storage life. ripeness for fruit and show a significant relationship with consumer acceptance.
 There will be development of thicker cuticle therefore, there will be
less moisture loss thus having a longer shelf life.
 For potatoes, there will be full development of suberized skin thus
having longer storage life and resistant to mechanical injury.
 For flowers, better appearance commanding for a higher price.
Methods of Determining Maturity
Visual/Subjective. This method is good for small farmers but tedious to large
plantations
 Skin color
 Shape and size – General Rule: the greater its surface area-to-volume
ratio, the shorter the postharvest life.
 Angularity or fullness of fruit (for bananas)
 Drying of some plant parts
Methods of determining maturity
MATURITY INDICES OF DIFFERENT PERISHABLE CROPS
 For Ornamental Crops
CROP FOR IMMEDIATE USE FOR STORAGE
DAISIES WHEN OUTER ROW OF
FLOWER SHOWS COLOR
ANTHURIUMS SPATHE FULLY OPEN WITH ½ TO

2/3 OF CANDLE WHITE. CANDLE
COLOR CHANGES FROM
YELLOW TO WHITE AFTER
OPENING OF SPATHE.
DENDROBIUM 75% - 80% OF THE FLORETS

OPEN
ORCHIDS
CATTLEYAS AND FLOWER IS FULLY OPEN

OTHER ORCHIDS

 For Fruit Crops
CROP FOR LOCAL MARKET FOR EXPORT
BANANA THE LEAVES BEGIN TO DRY UP. CAVENDISH – HARVEST AT 9 TO 12
THE FLEG LEAF AND THE FINGERS WEEKS OLD FROM THE APPEARANCE
ARE AT LIGHT FULL THREE OF FALSE HAND OR WHEN FINGER IS
QUARTERS FOR DISTANT 38 TO 43 CALIBRATION DEPENDING ON
MARKETS. HARVEST AT FULL THE MARKET.
THREE QUARTERS FOR NEARBY
MARKETS.
(CARABAO) FRUIT HAS ATTAINED FULL SIZE HARVEST 110-120 DAYS FROM
AND FULL CHECKS. FLOWER INDUCTION OR 82-88 DAYS
MANGO FROM BLOOM. MATURE MANGO HAS
6.5 BRIX OR HIGHER AND ITS TSS/TA
RATIO IS 2.0 – 3.0.
PINEAPPLE 10% - 50% OF THE SHELL IS FOR CANNERY: 25% - 65% YELLOW.
YELLOW. TSS IS 15-17 BRIX
(SMOOTH CAYENE)
CITRUS FOR ORANGES: AT LEAST 25% OF FOR CALAMANSI LOCAL MARKET:

THE SURFACE SHOWS PATCHES ACCEPTABLE SIZE WITH 50% MIN
OF YELLOW OR LIGHT GREEN; 8.0 JUICE CONTENT.
%– 8.5% MIN SOLUBLE SOLIDS; 0.5-
0.65 MAX TA ; 10.1 TSS/TA.
Methods of determining maturity Methods of determining maturity
MATURITY INDICES OF DIFFERENT PERISHABLE CROPS MATURITY INDICES OF DIFFERENT PERISHABLE CROPS
 For Vegetables  For Vegetables
CROP FOR LOCAL MARKET FOR EXPORT CROP FOR LOCAL MARKET FOR PROCESSING
CABBAGE A MATURE HEAD IS WINGED BEAN 15-20 DAYS FROM ANTHESIS
COMPACT. “TP-2”
POTATO LEAVES TURN DRY, WATERMELON A DULL HOLLW SOUND

SIZE OF TUBERS, WHEN TAPPED, LEAVES START
TO DRY, GROUND COLOR IS
STARCH CONTENT, CREAM.
PERIDERM GOURDS TENDER WHEN PIERCED
DEVELOPMENT WITH THUMBNAIL
ONION WHEN 50% - 75% OF
THE PLANT LEAVES SWEET CORN KERNELS ARE BIG AND FOR BABY CORN:
FALL DOWN AND EXUDE MILKY SAP WHEN HARVEST 2 DAYS AFTER
NECK IS SMALL. PIERCED. FOR BABY CORN: THE SILK APPEARS.
HARVEST 3 DAYS AFTER
GARLIC WHEN LEAVES TURN THE SILK APPEARS.
YELLOW AND SIZE OF
BULB NO LONGER
INCREASES.

 For Vegetables
 For Vegetables
CROP FOR NEARBY MARKET FOR DISTANT MARKET
TOMATO PINK COLOR STARTS TO HARVEST WHEN FRUITS ARE CROP FOR LOCAL FOR EXPORT
SHOW AT BLOSSOM END CREAM PINK OR YELLOW MARKET
(BREAKER STAGE) OR IS PINK, GREEN.
TO HARD RIPE OR FIRM RIPE. GINGER HARVEST 10-11 FOR FRESH
MONTHS FROM EXPORT,
MUSKMELON FRUITS SHOULD BE AT LEAST FRUITS SHOULD BE AT HALP
¾ SLIP TO FULL SLIP* SLIP PLANTING HARVEST AT 7-
*ABCISSION ZONE SPROUTED 10 MONTHS
RHIZOMES;
HONEYDEW MELONS 40-50 DAYS FROM ANTHESIS FOR PICKLING AND
SALTING HARVEST
5-7 MONTHS
CAULIFLOWER CURD IS COMPACT, CREAMY FOR
WHITE IN COLOR, FLORETS DEHYDRATION
CLOSED HARVEST 6-8
MONTHS.
Color indices for some fruits MATURITY INDICES OF DIFFERENT PERISHABLE CROPS
 For Fruit Crops
banana MANGO CROP FOR LOCAL MARKET FOR EXPORT
 1. LIGHT GREEN PAPAYA TRACE OF YELLOW AT
 2. TURNING FROM APICAL END OF FRUIT.
LIGHTER
GREEN TO YELLOW STRAWBERRY FOR NEARBY MARKET: 75%
OF SURFACE COLOR IS PINK
 3. HALF-GREEN AND OR RED; FOR DISTANT
 1.
GREEN HALF-YELLOW MARKET: HARVEST WITH
 2. LIGHT GREEN (BREAKER)  4. TURNS MORE YELLOW
20% - 40% RED COLOR
 3.MORE GREEN THAN YELLOW RAMBUTAN 90% OF THE FRUIT
 4. YELLOW WITH GREEN STRIPES
OR ORANGE CHANGES TO YELLOW,
 5. FULLY YELLOW  5. GOLDEN ORANGE YELLOW-RED OR RED
DEPENDING ON THE
 6. YELLOW WITH BROWN SPOTS
VARIETY.
(SENESCENT SPOTS)
 7. OVERRIPE WITH INCREASING MANGOSTEEN FRUITS ARE DARK FRUITS ARE RED OR
PURPLE REDDISH-BROWN WITH
BROWN AREAS A TINGE OF PURPLE TO
REDDISH- BROWN.
Color indices for some fruits

TOMATO
chemical stress and lesser
Methods of determining maturity Tubers Thicker cuticle transpiration
MATURITY INDICES OF DIFFERENT PERISHABLE CROPS (potato, yam) Full development of suberized Greater resistance to
 For Fruit Crops And root skin chemical stress
CROP FOR LOCAL MARKET FOR EXPORT crops Greater resistance to
Onion and mechanical stress and
DURIAN MATURE WHEN IT garlic Maximum respiratory substrates rots; no feathering in
FALLS TO THE Full development of papery potato; lesser
GROUND AND RIPE IF scales transpiration
IT GIVES OFF A
Slower senescence
DISTINCTIVE ODOR
Narrow neck Greater resistance to rots;
CHICO GREEN GROUND lesser transpiration
COLOR TURNS Maximum respiratory substrates Smaller entry point for
YELLOW TO LIGHT microorganism
BROWN Slower senescence
GRAPES WHEN THE BARRIER
NEAR THE TIP OF THE
CLUSTER HAVE
DEVELOPED FULL B.Harvesting
COLOR TYPICAL OF  Care in harvesting and handling is necessary to preserve the quality of
THE CULTIVAR. fruits and vegetables. A survey of postharvest wastage shows that 28%
to 42% is lost through improper handling.
 Reckoned from a daily basis, the loss is from 3% to 11% which is
attributed to decay, over ripening, mechanical injury, weight loss,
Characteristic of commodities at proper stage of maturity and their trimming, sprouting and browning (Bautista, 1987).
contribution to quality maintenance  Different kinds of fruits and vegetables may require traditional and/or
Commodity Characteristics at proper stage of Contribution to quality mechanical methods.
maturity maintenance Methods of Harvesting
Cutflowers Full development of color Better appearance 1. Pulling
Maximum size of petals Better appearance Traditional Harvesting Procedure: pods are pulled from the plant causing
Maximum respiratory substrates Slower senescence and tearing of the stem end.
or dry weight full opening of flowers Technical Recommendation: pick by hand using a twisting motion. to prevent
injury to flowers and immature pods, hold the pedicel with one hand and use
Fruit and fruit Full development of chemical Better taste and the other hand for picking.
vegetables constituents responsible for appearance 1a. pulling
aroma and flavor Traditional Harvesting Procedure: pulling the entire plant from the ground.
Maximum respiratory substrates Slower senescence Traditional Harvesting Procedure: pulling the entire plant and washing the
Less stomates and emergences Lesser transpiration soiled parts.
Thicker cuticle Greater resistance to Technical Recommendation: cut off the plant above the ground with sharp
mechanical stress and knife.
Cabbage restricted entry of 2. Twisting / jerking
Compact head microorganism Traditional Harvesting Procedure: citrus fruits are twisted at an angle and then
Greater resistance to jerked downward until it snaps.
Technical Recommendation: clip fruits using a short slightly curved blunt shear • Physical Attributes
for citrus; knife for guyabano, mangoes and papayas are harvested using  Shape - What is the most stable position for
picking poles with hook or cutting knife and a net canvass bag attached at the packing?
end.  Size - What capacity carton should be used?
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: fruits or pods are pulled with a twisting  Density - Can water be used to convey the
motion commodity?
Technical Recommendation: twisting can be done with sufficient care so as not  Color - What tray/liner color enhances presentation?
to injure the plant. fruits can be cut from the plant.  Surface properties - Is brushing/waxing
3. Bending appropriate?
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: the pickers grasp the crown giving it a  Mechanical properties - Are liners/foam pads
downward bend, breaking the peduncle at the base. the fruits are placed in a needed?
basket or a bag that holds 20-25 fruits. All Horticultural Perishables:
4. Cutting • possess the following characteristics
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: cut the fruit stalk (jackfruit) or the whole  need metabolic energy to keep tissues alive
fruiting cluster (grapes and lanzones) using a sharp knife.  have a high water content
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: the trunk is severed and allowed to fall to  undergo programmed changes
the ground then the peduncle is severed.  react to adverse environmental conditions
Technical Recommendation: cut the peduncle with a sickle or hatchet halfway  are rich in nutrients needed by microorganisms
through resulting in the bunch hanging on.  carry out the following physiological processes
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: heads or curds are cut off from the base  Respiration
with knife  Transpiration
Technical Recommendation: cut heads/curds with a sharp knife squarely across  Senescence (growing old!)
the stalk leaving ½ to 1 inch stalk with Common Packinghouse Operations
2-3 wrapper leaves to protect the head from injury. 1. Trimming - removing unwanted, discolored and severely malformed
a. cutting / digging parts or parts that favor deterioration or cause increased likelihood of
Traditional Harvesting Procedure: haulms/vines are cut days before harvest injury.
then the tubers are dug using a spading fork, pointed stick or metal bars. Objectives of Trimming
Technical Recommendation: injury to the tubers can be minimized by placing • Facilitates handling – thorns , stalk of banana, husk of baby corn,
markers to indicate the area covered by thee tubers. crown of pineapple , wrapper of cabbage
C.Post Production Technology • Reduce likelihood of disease – sources of inoculum
The Triangle of Postharvest Interactions • Minimize transpiration – leaves provide greater surface area for
transpiration
- husk draw water from the cob
Physico-chemical Biological environment • Retards sprouting in onion – removal of roots after harvest retards
enviroment Pest and Pathogens sprouting
( temperature, (fungi, bacteria) What parts are trimmed? Why?
RH, light) • Protruding stalks of fruits, leaves of onions, up to 5-8 cm and
damaged parts. The wrapper leaves of cabbages except for 3-4 leaves
Commodity and all leaves of carrots, radish and citrus fruits or of yambean should
also be removed.
• Protruding stalks can damage or puncture the neighboring fruits in a
pack. Extra leaves draw water from the commodity. Damaged parts
Commodity Characteristics Define Handling Requirements become source of microorganisms that will infect the good-quality
commodities. Also, trimming reduces the cost of commodity transport, - washing manually or mechanically by agitating, spraying or soaking in
i.e. minimizing the space occupied by these undesirable parts in a pack water
which can be utilized for other purposes. - dry brushing with nylon brush or coconut coir bristles to remove clods
2. Delatexing – allowing latex to flow or removing latex exuded by the of soil (ginger) and mealy bugs and aphids (lanzones)
crop during harvesting - wiping with cloth (tomatoes, muskmelon, cucurbits, citrus)
• Ill-effect of latex – causes latex burns which are unsightly and lower • Methods of Water Elimination/Drying
the marketability  Drip drying – commodity exposed to low relative humidity at 85°C or
• Alum – readily available, inexpensive and water soluble delatexing higher.
agent  Use of foam rollers and dry heat – produce is passed through a series
• A crown pad with fungicide can be used as a delatexing agent for field of foam rollers and a tunnel of dry air.
packing of bananas  Dry air in tunnels – produce is passed under a canopy which is
• Hot water treatment (HWT) can thoroughly remove fresh latex stains equipped with a fan and heater that blows warm air over the produce.
in mango  Use of high velocity air – high velocity of air is blown to the produce;
3. Curing – holding a harvested commodity for a specified period under used for large volumes of produce in need of fast drying.
defined condition of temperature and relative humidity  Hydrogen peroxide may produce browning or bleaching in some
• Reasons for curing – healing of wounds inflicted during harvesting vegetables
- provision for moisture loss to toughen the outer skin and tighten necks Use sanitizer/ chlorine dioxide (1-5ppm), hydrogen peroxide, (75-
and minimize injury associated with turgid products (e.g. curing of 100ppm) or detergents (o.27-0.54%), peroxyacetic acid (not exceed 80
citrus before packing to minimize rupture of oil sacs) enhancement of ppm) and ozone (0.5-2.0ppm), 40ppm for oranges
flavor Drying of excess/surface moisture – removing excess and unwanted
4. Sorting – grouping produce according to size, maturity, visual quality, moisture
and other physical attributes 8. Waxing – coating products with food-grade wax
Efficient sorting can be attained through provision of Effects of Waxing
- adequate space for sorting - Reduces water loss
- adequate lighting, noise control and adjustable tools or platforms for - Maintains or enhances the natural gloss and increase visual appeal
workers‘ comfort - slow down the respiration rate and ripening process
- rest period to minimize fatigue - seals tiny scratches and injuries on the surface of commodities
- appropriate sorting gadgets/equipment which allow for inspection - reduce chilling injury in sensitive crops (e.g. pineapple and mango)
while minimizing injury (e.g. slanted, foam-padded sorting tables) Materials for Wax Formulation
workers‘ training • Lipids
5. Sizing – the process of classifying into sizes according to criteria that Carnauba – commonly used wax from palm (Copernica cerifera) native
may or may not be recognized or accepted by the industry to Brazil
- allows for proper and more efficient packing - A Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS) chemical
- facilitates trading and marketing minimizes handling and need for re- Paraffin - petroleum – based wax used mainly for making candles
packing Beeswax - secreted by honeybees and is also considered as a GRAS
6. Grading – grouping of commodities according to set standards chemical; gives good control of water loss but provider poor luster
- facilitates marketing Candelilla – an exudate of candelilla plant (Euphorbia cerifera and E.
- grades are basic for pricing communication between supplier and antisphylitica) that grows mostly in Mexico
buyer is facilitated Vegetable oil – examples are oils from palm corn and soybeans
7. Cleaning – removing soil and other foreign materials from product Mineral oil – a mixture of paraffinic and napthenic hydrocarbons
surfaces • Resins
Cleaning operations Shellac – a solution used in high- gloss fruit coatings that come from
the exudate of an insect (Laccifer lacca)
Polyvinyl – acetate- new edible coating made from thermoplastic Basic Parts of a Standard
synthetic polymer  Scope – specifies the commodity covered by the standard, its scientific
Polyethelene wax – for use as a coating component for commodities name and family and use.
that art eaten without the feel such as avocado and banana  Definition of terms – clarifies what is meant by the different terms
• Polysaccharide – based Coatings used
Carboxymethyl cellulose – the most important cellulose derivative for  Minimum requirements – indicate the minimum quality criteria that
food application should be met by all the grades
Chitosan – (2-amino-2-deofy-ß,D-glucan) – water – soluble, high  Grade designations – the names designated for the groups to which the
molecular weight polysaccharide coating obtained as by- product of produce are classified.
the seafood industry  Size classes and limits – specifies the range of sizes that falls under
• Proteins each size classification
• Composite and Bilayer Coatings  Tolerance – allowance for human error in classifying commodities.
 Quarantine treatment – to meet requirements legislated to prevent
 Instructions on packaging and labeling – describes the packing
the entry of exotic pests into a country container and markings or the packages
 Disinfestation treatment types:
 Instruction or sampling – sampling method to be used shall be in
 Chemical: fumigants such as ethylene dibromide (EDB) and methyl
conformance with PNS/IS0874
bormide (MB) which produce gas, vapor or fumes to destroy pests
 Provision on contaminants – indicates the allowable residue level for
- Physical: thermotherapy (use of temperature)
heavy metals and specific pesticides
• cold treatment – exposure to near-freezing temperatures for certain
period  Provisions on hygiene – specifically indicates that the handling and
• heat treatment – vapor heat (high humidity) treatment entails the use of preparation of the produce should follow the relevant Codex document
chambers into which heated air saturated with water vapor is on hygiene.
introduced to raise the temperature of the fruit Standardization – the process of formulating and issuing grade standards
Types of mechanical damage Inspection – the process of measuring, examining and testing samples to
determine whether the grade standards have been interpreted or enforced
 abrasion – common type of damage in potato and tomato in which part
properly.
or all of the skin is scrapped from the pulp
 bruising – external damage to plant tissues without any break in the
FARMING SYSTEMS
skin causing physical changes in texture and/or eventual alteration in
What is a farm?
flavor, texture and color
A farm – is a highly organized integrated set of operation which exist in a
 distortion – change in shape of an intact fruit which is not
complex of natural, social, political and economic environment
characteristic for the variety
What is a farming system?
 cracks – a cleavage without complete separation of parts Farming system – the manner in which a particular set of farm resources is
 cut – penetration or division by the sharp edge of an object assembled within its environment by means of technology for the production of
 puncture – a small hole or wound on the surface of the fruit caused by primary agricultural products, excluding post-harvest handling/processing and
a pointed object or stem of other fruits marketing
 skin break – fracture of the periderm or crack limited to the skin Farming system – a farming pattern or mix of farming enterprises that a family
 Skinning – separation of the periderm from the plant part by scraping, allocates its resources (land, labor, capital) to efficiently exploit the existing
rubbing, etc. environment (rainfall, soil properties, solar radiation, market, credit
 split – division or separation into parts infrastructures, and service institution) for the attainment of the family‘s goal
 stem end tearing – skin break caused by separation of the stem or (increase income, improve quality of life, etc.)
peduncle from the fruit Concepts of Farming System
 internal bruising – watery, soft and translucent pulp
A FS practiced by a farmer is the result of a complex interaction of a number 4. Farming Systems in Rural/Urban Development vis-à-vis
of components at the center of which is the farmer. It is a unique and reasonably Productivity & Market
stable arrangement of farming enterprise that the households manage according The FS as influenced by both natural and socio-economic
to a well-defined practice in response to the physical, biological and socio factors should not be viewed in isolation with rural/urban development.
economic environments and in accordance with the household goals, The activities in both the rural and urban sectors directly and indirectly
preferences and resources. affect FS via the market. When the population does not have sufficient
This system involves the allocation of production resources such as purchasing power, prices of farm products are low which serves as dis-
land, labor, capital and managerial skills to the production of crops, livestock, incentives to farmers to produce more, so agricultural productivity
on farm and off-farm enterprises in a manner that provides attainment of the stagnates.
family‘s goal 5. FS & Its Linkage Relationship with DAR and National
The functioning of a FS requires decisions about the qualities and Industrialization
quantities of inputs to be used to produce a desired combination of products, Farmers were asked why they do not plant intercrops under
which are influenced by the total environment in which a farmer operates coconut and their replies were:
What comprises the total environment of a farm system in which a farmer a. We do not have seeds.
operates? b. Landlords prohibit planting crops
The total environment in which the farmer operates includes: c. We do not have the assurance to be still here when the
A. technical environment (soil, water and climate) crops bear fruits.
B. human environment 6. FS in Relation to Food Systems
What are the factors that composed a human environment? Study of FS should also include the linkage relationships
1. Exogenous factors (community structures, values & external between the domestic and international policies as they influence
institutions for both inputs & outputs) agricultural production. Agricultural production is influenced by
2. Endogenous factors (attitudes, goals, needs and priorities) distribution/consumption. In perspective, FS is the catalyst of agricultural
What are the different perspectives of FS? production
1. FS is strictly technical sense. It is confined to the production of crops 7. FS and Issues on Sustainability
and animals and the interaction of the 2 main components (crops and What is the bottom line issue of FS development in relation to human
animals) kind‘s continued survival?
2. FS Sub-components and its On-farm and Off-farm elements Wealthy nations and poor nations are not equally guilty with respect to
What are components of a farming system? environmental degradation, loss of genetic resources, greenhouse effect
It includes the main components, namely: and overall decline in the quality of life for the whole human kind.
a. farm household Attributes of FS
b. Farming activity (crops + livestock) • FS is Location or Condition Specific
c. Non-farming activities (carpentry work, driving, food  The location impressed upon the topography of the land, moisture
vending, sari-sari store, etc. regime, altitude, latitude, jointly defines climate. Climatic variability
d. On-farm and off-farm elements affects mostly the crops species/variety/breed suitable as well as the
There is supplementary or complementary role of non- management practices that would be employed
farming to farming activities. • FS is Farmer-based or Farm Driven
3. Farming/Agricultural Systems Hierarchy  The main actor or protagonist is the farmer. His goals/aspirations in
Within farm systems, there is a farming system which leads to the life, his skills and capabilities, and his ways of making decisions in a
perspective of hierarchical systems or systems sub-systems. In a given given situation are crucial to the designs and mixtures of commodity
farm, there are socio-economic subsystems, crop and animal agro- and our enterprise in the farm. The farmer & his household is the
ecosystem. A crop agro-ecosystem is composed of soil, weeds, pests and central features of the farm. The farmer is the ―boss‖.
crop sub-systems • FS is Participatory
 Farming is a dynamic and constantly evolving/changing human • Integrated Crop + Aquaculture FS
venture (ad-venture0. As a system, it needs change or improvement of • Integrated Livestock + Aquaculture FS
existing parts. While FS is farmer-driven, farmers need to interact 6. Evolving Type of FS
with one another, also need non-farmers (scientists, etc) who shall look -Recreational or hobby farming FS
at the science and technology dimension of farming. -Agrotourism-oriented FS – farm resort & Open farm-farm level marketing
• FS is Process-oriented 7. Specialized FS
 In carrying out activities or planned change of improvement, • Production of high value cutflowers (anthurium, orchids, etc)
modifications should be done in due process which means that a • Aquaculture – fingerlings production, aquarium fish, etc.
farmer has the right to be heard. Modifications envisioned should Elements of a System
incorporate the practical need for learning new 1. Objective: All system (Natural or Artificial) are designed to achieve
innovations/technologies to be correctly adopted. certain objectives (single, multiple objectives). Objectives are achieved by
• FS is Integrative or Wholistic in nature employing resources within a framework of constraints. Objectives,
 This may refer to the farm activities of enterprises components in the resources and constraints interact to make the system operational.
farm (crops+livestock+aquaculture). The integrative aspects relate to 2. Interaction – is a dynamic, hence, the system will co-evolve or change
how the outputs (by-products, e.g. crop residues) could be inputs to with different objectives, resources combinations and a new set of
other components (feed or source of fertilizer). The holistic attribute constraints
of FS relates to the operationalization or joint action of the 3. Resource – are at the same time, constraints when they occur in limited
components. quantities or when their quality deteriorates
 Farming system is a means of utilization of land resources involving General Types of Farming Systems
the culture of crops and animals, from establishment to utilization. 1) Lowland Farming System – generally refers to crop or animals
Thus, there are several types of farming systems (including fish) production in paddy fields or swampy areas, where
 Adoptable to farmers. there is a continuous or regular availability of water e.g. lowland rice
TYPOLOGY OF FARMING SYSTEMS 2) Upland Farming System – refers to the growing of crops and/or
1. Based on Enterprise Mix(es) – monocropping or diversified farming animals in relatively flat or plain areas where water is not regularly
(multiple cropping systems) available except through precipitation (rainfall) or irrigation.
2. Based on the Dominant Crop(s) which form the major enterprise 3) Hilly Farming System – the production of crops/and or animals in areas
(Rice-based, coconut-based, etc) with slope of more than 18%. In classification of natural resources, these
3. Based on Agro-environment areas are identified as Agroforestry. But the definition of Agroforestry
a. Moisture regime/water source - rainfed or irrigated today is made simple to cover a wide range of areas without reference
b. topography – lowland or hilly farming to their slope.
e.g. Agroforestry & SALT 4) Agroforestry – involves the culture of crops and animals in any
c. elevation/altitude – High land, Hilly Land, Low Land combination, together with a woody perennial. This includes areas
4. Based on Use of Farm Inputs whether flat or sloping.
• High External Input (HEI) FS – associated with modern 5) Highland Farming System – this is oftentimes interchanged with hilly
agriculture (green revolution) characterized by the use of chemical lands, because of their similar topographic features, but this is concerned
fertilizers, pesticides & HYV seeds more on agricultural areas of higher elevation of at least 800-1000
• Low External Input (LEI) FS – biodynamic farming, permaculture, m above sea levels. These are characterized with relatively lower
nature farming, etc. which are purest and pursue farming chemical temperatures throughout the year.
free 6) Others – dryland, wetland
5. Based on the Central or Unique Feature of the Farm Cropping System
• Crop Centered FS Cropping System refers to the pattern or arrangement of crops in time and
• Livestock Centered FS (ruminants, non- ruminants) space, as well as the process of growing them.
• Integrated Crop + Livestock FS
Polyculture Farming System involves the mixture of annuals crops with Types of Monoculture
other annuals, annuals with perennials, or perennials with perennials, or a) Perennial monoculture – this involves the planting of trees especially
perennials with perennials planted in spatial pattern on steep slopes and heavy clay soils. Rubber, ipil-ipil and coconut are
Cropping Pattern – The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops suitable trees under this system.
or of crops and fallows on a given area. b) Annual crop monoculture – this system utilizes both upland and
Monocropping – a method of crop production in which only one crop is lowland annual crops like rice, corn and vegetables
grown annually in the same parcel of land (perennial monoculture and Types of Multiple Cropping
annual crop monoculture) Sequential cropping – growing of two or more crops in sequence on the
Multiple Cropping – growing of more than one crop on the same land in same field within a 12 month period, with the succeeding crop planted only
one year. after the preceding crop has been harvested such that a farmer managed
Determinants of Cropping System: only one crop at any time on the same field. A sequential cropping is
1. Rainfall (moisture) denoted by a hyphen (-) between two succeeding crops.
2. Soil and topography Double cropping – growing two crops in sequence, seedling or
3. Market accessibility transplanting one after the harvest of the other – also called sequential
Benefits of Multiple Cropping cropping
a) Increased erosion control Triple cropping – growing three crops in sequence, seedling or transplanted
b) Insurance against crop failure one after the harvest of the other
c) Labor & harvesting are spread more evenly during the cropping season Ratoon cropping – the development of a new crop without replanting from
and storage problem may be minimize buds on the root system, stubble or stems of the preceding
d) Results to an efficient utilization of resources by plants of different crops, a harvest not necessarily for grains. Rice under
heights, rooting system & nutrient requirements certain conditions can be a ratooned crop.
e) Diseases & pests do not spread rapidly in mixed cultures as in pure Selection of Crops for Sequential Cropping
cultures since all crops involved are not susceptible to the same extent  Marketability
Problems of Multiple Cropping  Family benefits
1) Soil fertility – Since more crops are grown per unit area, a bigger drain  Environmental requirements of crops
of nutrients from the soil is expected. Greater input is required.  Skills required
2) Chemical stability of the soil – As cropping intensity is increased; the  Stability of crops
CEC of the soil becomes crucial. The frequent tillage combined with  Cost and risk of each crop
high levels of chemicals may cause rapid shifts in soil pH General considerations in sequential cropping
3) Weeds  Change in maturity of varieties (early or late)
4) Insects  Earlier planting or direct seeding, and
5) Diseases  Rapid turnaround between crops
6) Nematodes Intercropping
7) Crop Management – different species planted together may require Intercropping is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the
different farm inputs, cultural practices, etc. same field such that the period of overlap is long enough to include
Types of Cropping System vegetative stage. Intercropping is denoted by a (+) sign between any two
a) Slash & Burn crops grown simultaneously.
b) Monoculture Selection of crops for intercropping
c) Multiple Cropping 1. The crop should not be a host to any pests and diseases that will attack
Monoculture – only one crop is grown in a given area throughout the year both crops
Types of Monoculture: 2. The growth of one crop especially the shorter crop should not be faster
1. Perennial Monoculture or earlier than the other crop
2. Annual crop monoculture 3. Nutrient preferences of crops should be different
4. Should not heavily shade the other crop a) Select component crops that do not produce too much shade or tolerant
Relay Intercropping (relay cropping) to shade
Relay intercropping/relay cropping – growing of two or more crops b) B) use crops with contrasting maturity periods
together, but seedling or transplanting the succeeding one after flowering c) Plant the shorter crop earlier than the taller crop
and before the harvest of the former crop. If the planting of the second d) Modify the row arrangement or spacing to enhance more light
crop is done before the flowering stage of the first crop, the cropping penetration
pattern is intercropping. Relay cropping is denoted with a slash (/) between Crop rotation - The growing of different crops in a definite order of
crops. succession on the same land.
Other types of Cropping Patterns Advantages of crop rotation:
 Strip cropping – the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in  Increased yields
separate plots arranged in strips that can be independently cultivated  Better control of weeds, pests and diseases
 Sorjan cultivation – system of crop cultivation in parallel beds and  Maintenance of organic matter content of the soil
sinks wherein lowland crops are planted in the sinks and upland crops  Balanced utilization of nutrients in the soil
are grown in beds. Two successive upland crops can be grown in beds  Better distribution of farm labor and less economic crisis
during the year and the rice crops in the sinks. Integrated rice farming - It refers to a system of growing rice in
 Alley cropping – the system follows an alternate succession of the combination with other crops and other components of production outside
strips or hedgerow croppings of perennial crops established along the the crop such as fish culture and livestock raising. The various component
contour of the slope and an open space or alley which is devoted to of production that are integrated into the system are those that complement
annual agricultural crops. There are two types of alley cropping: the or intersupport each other so as to maximize total productivity
terraced and unterraced. Hilly Farming System
Types of alley cropping Hilly lands or sloping uplands are rugged terrain with 18% slope or greater
1) Unterraced slope – the hedgerows of trees are planted along the and in elevations ranging from near sea level to above 1000m. These are
contour and the alleys devoted to agricultural crops that also follow the prone to excessive erosion and productivity is limited unless soil
contours. conservation measures are observed and practiced.
2) Terraced slope – the hedgerows of trees are planted near the outer Systems of Hilly Farming
edges of terrace benches to serve as erosion control and windbreaks.  Contour hedgerows and alley cropping system
Strips of agricultural crops are grown along the terrace benches.  Contour bunding with hedgerows
Limitations of Multiple Cropping  Hedgerows planting on terraced slopes
a. Allelopathy – refers to the detrimental effects of higher plants of  Grass strips as contour vegetative barriers for soil erosion
one species on the germination, growth or development of plants Cropping Systems for Hilly Areas
of another species. The primary effects of allelopathy on crop Harold R. Watson and Warlito A. Laquihon of the Baptists Rural Life
production are associated with the toxins released or exuded by Center at Bansalan Davao del Sur developed a cropping system for hilly
plants which are either products of metabolism of waste product areas. They termed it SALT (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology)
to prevent autotoxicity. which won a 1985 TOYM award for Watson.
b. b)Morphological differences – the difference in form or structure SALT Cropping System
of the component crops especially in terms of height, leaf SALT system can prevent soil erosion, improves soil fertility and provides
distribution, and formation of the branch will greatly influence the a continuous income from diverse crops planted on the hilly land.
degree of competition (light, water, nutrients) between and among Basically, SALT involves planting field crops and perennial crops in
species. The morphological difference is primarily related to bands 3-5 m wide between double rows if N2 fixing shrubs 7 trees planted
―mutual shading‖ which in turn is directly related to along the contour. These minimize soil erosion and maintain soil fertility.
photosynthesis. Field crops include legumes, cereals, and vegetables while the main
Solutions to solve morphological problems perennial crops are cacao, coffee, banana, citrus and fruit trees.
SALT Cropping System
SALT help considerably in the establishment of a stable environment. The “Gubas” (Endosperma peltatum)
double hedgerows of leguminous shrubs or trees prevent soil erosion. “Banlag” (Xylopia ferruginnea
Their branches are cut every 30-45 days and incorporated back into the soil Integrated Farming (IF) System - The linking together of two normally
to improve its fertility. The crop provides permanent vegetative cover separate farming systems which become subsystem of a whole farming
which aids the conservation of both water and soil. The legumes & systems (Edwards, 1985)
perennial crops maintain soil 7 air temperatures at levels favorable for MAJOR FEATURES OF IF
enhanced growth of different agricultural crops. • Waste or by-product utilization – waste of one subsystem becomes an
Steps of SALT input to other subsystem.
1. Making of A-frame • Improved space utilization – two or more subsystems essentially
2. Determining the contour lines occupy part or all of the space required for an individual
3. Cultivating the contour lines subsystem
4. Planting seeds of different N2 fixing trees & shrubs Advantages of IF
5. Cultivating alternate strips • Increased productivity
6. Planting permanent crops • Greater income
7. Planting short-term crops • Improved cash flow
8. Trimming of N2-fixing trees • Fuller employment
9. Practicing crop rotation • Better diet for the farmer and his family
10. Building green terraces • Spread of both biological and economic risk
SALT 2 Technology Design Criteria for IF
It was developed for small-scale low-income farmers on slope 1. Crops – The choice of crops depends on a number of factors: soil
land in tropical Asia, combines crop production with the raising of small condition, water availability, temperature, market, seeds, capital and
livestock (dairy goat). A farm of one-half hectare is divided into two parts, its complementation to other subsystems
one for forage crops, the other for food and cash crops. Livestock are fed 2. Livestock – The choice of livestock depends on: culture, species of
on the forage crops, mainly leguminous shrubs, which are planted in animals, feeds and feed conversion, capital and market
hedgerows along the contour and around the boundary of the farm. Twelve 3. Fish - The rationale of integrating fish with crop and livestock is the
does raised under this system for dairy provided an annual net income of large amount of wastage on crops, specifically vegetables, before and
more than $1000. during harvest and of nutrients present in the feed that is recovered
Agroforestry and Tree Farming from the manure: 72-89% N, 61-87% P and 82-92% K.
Agroforestry is a land-use system in which agricultural crops/and or MODELS OF THE DIFFERENT IFS
livestock and forest trees are raised on the same land either sequentially A. CROP-BASED FARMING SYSTEMS
through rotational use or simultaneous. The forest trees are grown for use 1. Rice-Based Farming Systems
as pulp, timber, fiber board and electric posts. In the hedgerow alley • Rice-Fish Culture
system, the hedgerows may be occupied by fast growing trees which are • Rotational Rice Fish
left to grow until they are harvested at the right age.The trees provide the • Taro Fish Culture
barrier to soil erosion and the alleys are utilized for food crop production. 2. Coconut-Based Farming Systems
The disadvantage of the use of forest trees as hedgerows is the shading 3. Sugarcane-Based Farming System
effect on the alley crops. 4. Corn-Based Farming Systems
Examples of tree species for agroforestry: B. LIVESTOCK-BASED FARMING SYSTEMS
Falcata (Albizzia falcataria) • Pig-Fish
“Kaatongan bangkal” (Anthocephalus chinensis • Chicken-Fish
Mahogany (Sweitenia macrophylla) • Duck-Fish
Yemane (Gmelina arborea) • Buffalo-Fish
Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta) C. MULTIPLE CROPPING SYSTEMS
Multiple cropping refers in a system of cropping in which as many LER = Xi/Xj + Yi/Xj
crops as possible are grown on the same land within a year. It is Where: Xi and Yi are intercrop yields
geared towards maximizing productivity per hectare by keeping the Xj and Yj are sole crop yields
land occupied with crops throughout the year. LER - it is the sum of the fraction of the yields of the intercrops relative to
Factors to consider in Multiple Cropping their corresponding sole crop yields.
• Availability of irrigation water A LER index value higher than 1 indicates the advantage of intercropping.
• Use of quick maturing varieties Multi-storey Cropping - It is a combination of perennials and/or the
• Change from traditional methods of growing crops to a new system of growing of annuals with perennials of different stature in a row or
cropping mixed intercropping
• Availability of labor LOW EXTERNAL INPUT AGRICULTURE (LEISA) - It is a low
• Liberal use of fertilizers and adequate pest control resource (OTA, 1988), resource-poor (WCED, 1987), undervalued-
Crop Rotation (Sequential) and Allelopathy resource agriculture (Chambers, 1989) wherein properties of the physical
• Crop rotation is the growing of different crops in a definite order of environment and/or commercial infrastructure do not allow widespread
succession on the same land. The crops in rotation form mutual and purchased of inputs.
beneficial allelopathic relationships. Features of LEISA
Advantages: • Optimize use of locally available resources
• Increased yield • Combining different components of the FS such as plants, animals,
• Better pest control soil, water, climate and people
• Maintenance of organic matter content in the soil • Complementary and synergistic effects
• Balanced utilization of nutrients in the soil • If external inputs are used, maximum recycling and minimum
• Better distribution of farm labor and less economic risks detrimental impact on the environment is given emphasis
CROPPING PATTERN
A. Cropping Pattern in Irrigated Lowland SEED TECHNOLOGY
Rice Farming System  The art and science of growing, processing, testing, storage and
• Rice-Rice (R-R) Pattern distribution of seeds to farmers and other stakeholders.
• Rice-Rice-Rice (R-R-R) Pattern Seed Structure and Germination
• Rice Garden – a cropping pattern in which rice is planted in small Seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule that possesses an
garden-like plots within the farm and harvested continuously at regular
embryonic plant, stored food, and a protective coat or coats, wherein the
intervals throughout the year
B. Cropping Pattern in Rainfed Lowland Rice FS embryo is made up of one or more cotyledons, a plumule (embryonic bud),
1. Rice-Rice Pattern hypocotyls (stem portion) and a radicle (rudimentary root) (Kozlowski and
2. Rice & Upland Crops Sequential Cropping Pattern with Gunn, 1972).
2 approaches: Seed is a matured ovule in the ovary of the flower (Pili, 1973).
2.1 Rice-Upland Crops – crops after rice In general, the seed is made up of three essential parts, namely:
2.1 Upland Crops-Rice – crops before rice
1. The Embryo
3. Rice-Rice-Upland Crop and upland Crop-Rice-Upland Crop – fitted for
areas with evenly distributed rainfall the year round. It makes use of early The generative part of the seed which develops from the union of the
maturing varieties. egg and sperm cell and during germination becomes the young plant.
Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) 2. Supporting Tissue
• It is used to measure the yield advantage of intercropping wherein the This serves as reservoir or storehouse for food material to support the
yield of the crops in mixed culture is compared with that grown in embryonic axis.
pure stand. a. Kinds of supporting tissues
• Formula of LER:
1) Endosperm – this is formed from the fusion of the polar nuclei Special form of crop production
(2N) and the sperm cell (N) a. Seed classes
2) Cotyledons – part of the embryo but do not grow 1) OECD Scheme – Organization of Economic Community and
3) Perisperm – derived from the nucleus as in pigweed, beets and Development (Europe)
spinach. a) Pre-basic seed
b. Materials stored b) Basic seed – handled by the plant breeder
 Major materials include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins c) Certified seed – used for commercial production
 Other chemical compounds in seeds are phytin, tannin, alkaloid, 2) AOSCA Scheme – Association of Official Seed Certifying Agency
glucoside, growth regulators (auxin, GA2, cytokinins, inhibitors (US and Canada)
and vitamins). a) Breeder seed
3. The Protective Covering b) Foundation seed
This refers to the testa, skin or seedocat which performs the following c) Registered seed
functions: d) Certified seed
a. Maintains the integrity of interior components; b. Types of seed production
b. Protects seed against impacts and abrasions and other mechanical 1) Official – oldest type of seed production where all activities starting
injury and damage; from variety development down to seed distribution are performed by
c. Regulates rehydration of interior components like destructive stresses government personnel.
as imbibition, absorption, etc.; 2) Semi-official – established by the government but given to private
d. Maintain fairly sterile condition inside the seed by preventing entry of sector.
organism; 3) Private – operated by non-government agencies.
e. Regulates the exchange of metabolically active gases from the interior c. Practices in seed production
environment to the exterior environment of the seed; and 1) Source of planting materials
f. As a mechanism of dormancy. - government agencies (DA, SCUs)
Germination - private sector (seed growers)
The resumption of the active growth by the embryo culminating in the 2) Isolation
development of a young plant in the seed (Copeland, 1976). - when planting two or more varieties in a given piece of land
a. Pattern of seed germination a) Physical isolation – distance between varieties
(1) Mungo, peanut, soybean – 5 meters
1) Imbibition – entry of water into the seed
(2) Corn, cotton, sorghum – 200 meters
2) Enzyme activation – breakdown of stored materials (3) Tobacco – 500 meters
3) Initiation of embryo growth – results in the transfer of nutrients from
b) Time isolation – In corn, at least 21 days planting interval should
food storage tissues to the growing points.
be observed when two corn varieties are planted side by side.
4) Rupture of seedcoat and emergence of seedling – due to swelling or
3) Roguing- removal of off-types, diseased and damaged plants including
increase in seed size
volunteer plants from the seed fields.
5) Seedling establishment.
4) Field inspection- check on isolation distance, presence and incidence
b. Kinds of germination of off-types and pests
1) Epigeal – cotyledons are raised above the ground. Seed Testing
2) Hypogeal – cotyledon remains in the soil
Science of evaluating the planting value of seeds for agricultural
c. Requirements for germination
purposes.
1) Seed maturity
2) Environmental factors – this include water, air, temperature and light a. Reasons for seed testing
Seed Production 1. Seed lots eligibility for certification;
2. Determine the planting value of seeds;
3. Evaluate research 7. Cross-pollination - a breeding system in which the plant is pollinated by pollen
4. Determine the pricing of seed in selling and buying; from a separate genotype either because of flower structure or artificial control
5. Determine the disposition of seed; and during pollination.
6. Enforce seed legislation 8. Hybrid vigor – vigor expressed by a seedling population which exceed that of
b. Major activities either of the parents.
1. Obtaining the sample- truthfully represents the quality of the seed lot 9. Perfect flower – a flower with both male (anthers) and female (ovule) parts
2. Subsampling- Reduction of the submitted sample into a working present.
sample 10. Pollen sterility – genetic phenomenon in which the pollen is nonviable.
c. Laboratory analyses 11. Hybrid seed - seed produced by the crossing of two dissimilar parents, usually
1) Purity analysis- separate the working sample into: produced when made between species.
a) Pure seed – include all botanical varieties of the species 12. Sexual incompatibility – genetic trait in which the pollen either fails to grow
b) Other seeds include seeds of any plant species other than that of down the style or does not germinate on the stigma of a plant with the same
the pure seed incompatibility alleles.
c) Inert matter consists of 13. Dioecious plant - trait in which male and female flowers are produced on
- broken seeds less than half of its original size different plants.
- empty seeds 14. Monoecious plant – trait in which male and female parts are in different
- soil, sand, stone, chaff, leaves, stems, cone scales, pieces of flowers but on the same plant.
bark, flowers, nematode gall, fungal bodies 15. Dichogamy – genetic trait in which male and female flowers on the same plant
2) Germination test bloom at different times.
- Use 400 seeds, 100 seeds in four replicates 16. Apomixis – a breeding system in which the embryo is apomictic (i.e. produced
- Evaluate seedlings two times (1st and 2nd count) from a vegetative cell and not as a result of reduction division and fertilization).
Ex. Corn 17. Obligate apomictic – a plant in which all the embryos are apomictic.
18. Facultative apomictic – a plant in which both sexual and asexual embryos are
1st count – 4 days after sowing
produced by the same ovule.
2nd count – 7 days after sowing 19. Landrace – primitive varieties developed and maintained before the modern era
3) Moisture determination- Use primary or secondary method of of genetics.
determination 20. Line – term used to designate a population of seedling plants whose genotype is
4) Tetrazolium test- rapid method of determining seed viability using maintained to a specific standard in consecutive generations.
tetrazolium salt. 21. International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants – set of rules
developed by plant scientists to classify and name plants in cultivation.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 22. Inbred line – a population of seedlings which produced a consecutive series of
self-pollinations.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF SEED SELECTION 23. Synthetic line – a cultivar seedling population which is produced by combining
a number of separately developing lines to produce a heterozygous but
1. Heterogenous - a population of seedlings that are phenotypically dissimilar. homozygous cultivar.
2. Homogenous - a population of seedlings that are phenotypically similar. 24. Hybrid line – seedling population that is produced by cross-pollinating two or
3. Homozygous - a population of seedlings whose genotypes are very similar. more parental lines.
4. Heterozygous - a population of seedlings whose genotypes are dissimilar. 25. Transgenic cultivars – cultivars that have been developed by use of
5. Self-pollination - a breeding system in which the plant flower is pollinated by recombinant DNA or by some form of genetic engineering.
itself because of flower structure or isolation. 26. Transformation – alteration of a plant genome by the insertion of a foreign
6. Fixing - the process of stabilizing the genotype of a seedling population to gene by recombinant DNA or by modification by genetic engineering
make it homozygous so that it will ―breed true‖. techniques as antisense technology.
27. Biolistics – procedure in which DNA coated metal fragments are introduced 47. Nursery row selection – a system of selection where specific progeny trees can
into cells at high velocity in which some enter the genome. be identified in the nursery row due to phenotype.
28. Botanical variety – a population of plants originating in nature which are within
one species but are phenotypically distinct. TECHNIQUES OF SEED PRODUCTION AND HANDLING
29. Ecotype – a genetically distinct group of plants within a species that is adapted
to a specific ecological location. 1. Vernalization – a period of cold temperature required by plants to induce
30. Cline – continuous genetic variation from one area to another in ecological flowering.
adaptation. 2. Harvest maturity – the time during seed development when the seeds can be
31. Provenance – forestry term used to indicate the climatic and geographical harvested without significant reduction in seed quality for germination.
locality where the seed originated. 3. Standard Germination – the most common test for seed quality
32. Elite tree – an individual tree with outstanding phenotypic characteristics to be 4. Normal Seedlings – described for the major crops (often in pictures) in the
used as a seed source. rules for seed testing. In general, normal seedlings have elongated, radicle and
33. Clonal seed source – Cultivar maintained as a clone selected for producing hypocotyl and least one enlarged cotyledon.
outstanding seedlings. 5. Purity – a determination assess in a seed lot by a seed analyst who is certified
34. Selected families – consecutive groups of progeny trees related by origin and for purity test. It involves meticulous evaluation of a seed lot for any foreign
showing superior characteristics. material including seeds.
35. Roguing – the act of removing off type plants, weeds and plants of other 6. Noxious weeds – weed species that must be identified in the seed lot and may
cultivars in seed production fields. cause the whole seed lot to be unsaleable.
36. Genetic drift – change in the frequency of specific genes as a result of 7. Vigor of a seed lot – an estimate of the seeds ability to germinate when the
environmental or other types of selection. environmental conditions are not ideal for germination. Seed lots with high
37. Pure stand – an interbreeding group of phenotypically similar plants of the vigor show a high germination percentage and uniform seedling emergence.
same kind growing in a given site. 8. Seed protectants – seed treatment used most often for field seeded crops that
38. Phenotypic selection – selection of a seed source based on the phenotypic are prone to insect and disease attack.
appearance of the source tree. 9. Beneficial microbes – an alternative to chemicals for seed protection against
39. Genotypic selection – selection of a seed source based on the phenotypic soil-borne diseases. These microbes compete with pathogenic microbes to help
appearance of the seedling progeny. seedlings emerge before they are attacked.
40. High additive heritability – high correlation between phenotypic traits of the 10. Seed priming – a controlled hydration seed treatment that induces faster
offspring with the phenotypic traits of the parents. uniform germination.
41. Low additive heretability – low correlation between phenotypic traits of GERMINATION PROCESS
offspring with the phenotypic traits of the parents. 1. Germination - the committed stage of plant development following
42. Pedigreed stock system - a controlled seed-production system of consecutive radicle emergence from the seed coverings, which leads to a seedling.
generation with standards to maintain genetic purity leading to commercial 2. Water potential – as it relates to seed germination, is a measure of the
distribution. potential for a cell to take up water from its surrounding environment.
43. Seed certification - a system of seed production utilizing pedigreed stock Changes in the seed‘s water potential are the driving force behind
principles, which provides for legally enforceable standards of quality and germination.
genetic purity. 3. Growth potential – the relative force generated by the radicle during
44. Seed collection zone – naturally occurring zone (forest plants) designated by germination. Conceptually, a seed germinates when the radicle force is
elevation, latitude, and longitude that identifies a specific seed source. sufficient to penetrate the seed coverings. This is accomplished by an
45. Seed production area – an area of source plants specifically utilized for seed increase in radicle growth potential and/or weakening of the seed
collection. coverings.
46. Seed orchard – a planting used in forestry or in fruit tree nurseries to maintain 4. Imbibition – the initial stage of water uptake in dry seeds.
seed sources either as seedling populations of selected seed families or of a 5. Epigeous germination – when the hypocotyl hook is first to emerge.
clone (fruit and nut trees) or collections of clones (forestry). 6. Hypogeous germination – when the shoot tip emerges first.
7. Aleurone – a special layer of cells that surrounds the endosperm in 6. Field nurseries – contain seed sown at high density in the field for future
monocot seeds. It is responsible for making the enzymes used to degrade transplanting to a wider spacing.
storage materials in the endosperm to be used by the embryo for 7. Time of year – that seeds are sown in the field depends on the required
germination. temperature for germination, need for satisfying dormancy
8. Germination percentage – is not the same as germination rate. conditions, or the time the seed crop matures for recalcitrant seeds.
Percentage is a measure of the number of seeds that germinate, while rate 8. Scarification – a treatment that allows water to penetrate seeds with a hard
is a measure of how fast the seeds. seed coat. Scarification may be physical, chemical (acid), or involve
9. Priming – a pregermination treatment that enhances germination. It is a high temperature.
controlled hydration treatment that allows seeds to begin the germination 9. Stratification – a period of moist-warm or moist-chilling conditions that
process, but prevents radicle emergence. satisfies dormancy in seeds with endogenous, physiological
10. Germination models – mathematical equations based on a seed‘s dormancy.
response to available water and temperature. They are useful for 10. Plugs – are small-celled transplant flats used to produce many seedlings in
determining the time required for germination to occur under viable a small greenhouse area.
environmental conditions. 11. A Cold frame – uses passive solar heating to protect transplants. Cold
11. Damping-off – the collective term for the process where various disease frames are often used as a transition environment for transplants
organisms cause early seedling death. between greenhouse and field conditions. They are used to ―harden‖
12. Quiescent seeds – are dry seeds that have the ability to germinate, but transplant shock.
are limited by their environment (i.e. temperature and water). 12. Large beeding plant producers use Growth rooms – to control germination
13. Dormant seeds – seeds will not germinate even when the environment is condition to optimize seedling emergence in plug flats.
suitable for germination. 13. Mechanical seed sowing – is a method required for large-scale production
14. Macrosclereid cells – cells in the seed coat that are responsible for of vegetable and flower seeds for greenhouse production. This is
preventing water uptake in seeds with exogenous, physical dormancy. because seed size is small and large quantities of seeds must be
An older term for these cells was malpighian cells. This was in honor of precisely sown in each small plug in the flat.
the early seventeenth-century Marcello Malpighi of Italy. 14. Automated watering system – reduces labor costs and can provide more
15. Seeds with Morphological dormancy – have an embryo that is less than even moisture to plug trays.
one-quarter of the size of the seed when it is. 15. Height control – during transplant production can be provided by treating
16. Physiological dormancy – a condition mainly controlled by factors seedlings with height-controlling chemicals.Controlling the
within the embryo that must change before the seed can germinate. environment can also reduce seedling height. This may simply be
17. Phytochrome – a photoreceptor that allows plants to receive light. done by manipulating temperature and water. DIF is the difference
between the day and night temperature for plant growth. A negative
SEED PREPARATION DIF (cooler day than night temperature) will reduce plant height.
1. Field seeding – a common propagation method for agronomic, forestry, 16. Transplant shock – a check in plant growth that is observed following
vegetable crops, and woody plants for liner production. transplanting compared to direct seeded crops. It is more severe if
2. Seed bed – the area where seeds will be planted and seedlings will emerge. the transplants are too large and have confined root systems in the
It may be an entire field for field-seeded crops or a smaller area for plug tray, or if the weather is unfavorable in the field.
future transplants. Principles of Propagation by Cuttings
3. Coated seeds – seeds with an altered shape that makes them easier to sow 1. Adventitious roots – arise from any plant part other than by the normal
with precision seedling machines. The coating may also improve development and ontogeny of the seedling root and its branches;
flowability, which is the ability for seeds to flow out of the seeder. adventitious roots can also be regenerated from root-pruned seedlings.
4. Random seeders – used gravity an tractor speed to place seeds in the ground. 2. Adventitious buds (and shoots) – arise from any plant part other than
5. Precision seeders – use belts, plates, or vacuum to place single seeds at terminal, lateral, or latent buds on stems. Adventitious buds form
selected seed spacing. irregularly on older portions of a plant and not at the stem tips or in the
leaf axils. Unlike dormant buds, adventitious buds do not have a bud 18. Rhizocaline – a hypothetical chemical complex, including auxin, that
trace all the way to the pith. An adventitious bud is an Embryonic shoot. was considered important in the biochemical events leading to root
3. Adventitious organs – arise from the dedifferentiation of parenchyma formation.
cells; when they originate from-callus (also composed of parenchyma 19. Rest period – a physiological condition of the buds of many woody
cells) their organogenesis is termed indirect. perennial species beginning shortly after the buds are formed. While in
4. Cutting Propagation – the clonal multiplication of plants with this condition, they will not expand into flofwers of leafy shoots even
propagules of stems, leaves, or roots. under suitable growing conditions. After exposure to sufficient chilling
5. Clonal regeneration – the asexual reproduction of genetically uniform hours (0 to 5 0C), however, the ―rest‖ influence is broken, and the buds
copies (clones) of plants using propagules such as stem, leaf and root will develop normally with the advent of favorable growing
cuttings. temperatures.
6. Dedifferentiation – the early stage of adventitious root or bud formation 20. Root morphogen – an endogenous substance (s) that stimulates rooting.
when differentiated cells are triggered to form new meristematic regions. It may be auxin or a combination of substance (s) with auxin that
7. Burr knots – preformed roots that are not desirable and are selected promote rooting.
against in modern apple rootstock breeding programs. Though rooting 21. Recalcitrant plants – plants that are difficult –to-root from cuttings.
of cuttings is easier, clusters of burr knots can later girdle the stem. They lacka rooting morphogen(s) and/or lack the cell sensitivity to
8. De novo adventitious roots – roots that are formed ―anew‖ (from respond to morphogen(s), even though natural auxin may or may not be
scratch) from differentiated cells that experience a stimulus, such as present in abundance. External application of auxin gives little or no
through wounding, to dedifferentiate into roots. rooting response.
9. Parenchyma cells – the basic cells from which all other differentiated 22. Rooting bioassay – the use of a plant organ or tissue to respond
cells and tissues are derived, including adventitious organs. morphologically to chemical stimulation, such as the rooting response of
10. Wound periderm – a mass of callus cells that forms a protective layer mungbean hypocotyls cuttings to various chemicals.
behind the wounded surface of a cutting. 23. Plasmids – small molecules of extra-chromosomal DNA that carry only
11. Meristemoid – a cell or group of cells constituting an active locus of a few genes and occur in the cytoplasm of a bacterium.
meristematic activity in a tissue composed of somewhat older, 24. T-DNA – the portion of the root-inducing(Ri) plasmid (i.e. from
differentiated cells; they can developed into root primordial or Agrobacterium rhizogenes) that is inserted into the plant genome (i.e., of
adventitious buds. a difficult –to-root species) and stabilized; hence this normally difficult –
12. Anticlinal division – occurs when the cell wall plate is formed to-root species is potentially ―transformed‖ to an easy-to-root clone.
perpendicular to the circumference of the stem. 25. Serial Propagation – the annual harvesting and rooting of cuttings from
13. Sclerenchyma ring – composed of sclereid cells that are highly lignified previously rooted, containerized plants to help maintain a high rooting
and used for structural support of the stem. In some rare occasions these potential from generation to new cutting generation.
cells may impede the rooting process. 26. Etiolation – the development of plants or plant parts in the absence of
14. Callus – an irregular mass of parenchyma cells in various stages of light. This results in such characteristics as small unexpanded leaves,
lignification. elongated shoots, and lack of chlorophyll, resulting in a yellowish or
15. Meristem tissue – primarily concerned with protoplasmic synthesis and whitish color.
formation of new cells by division. 27. Plagiotropic – a horizontal branchlike growth that is generally not
16. Meristematic cells – cells that synthesize protoplasm and produce new horticulturally undersirable.
cells by division. They vary in form, size, wall thickness, and degree of 28. Orthotropic – an upright growth allowing production of symmetrical
vacuolation, but have only a primary cell wall. plants.
17. Correlative effect – is the control of one organ over the development of 29. Intermittent mist – the periodic application of small amounts of water or
another, which is mediated by phytohormones. Auxin produced from ―mist‖ of the leaves and shoots of cuttings during propagation.
axillary bud is transported basipetally down shoo and is important in 30. Advection – the horizontal movement of a mass of air that causes
subsequent root formation at the base of a cutting. changes in temperature or in other physical properties of air (i.e.,
movement of cool air mass).
31. Fog systems – similar to intermittent mist, except the p[article size of the 1. Cloning – the process of vegetatively propagating a clone.
water applied in mush finer and water does not condense on the surfaces 2. Clone – the vegetative progeny of a single genotype such as an individual
of the cutting. seedling, a mutant branch, a single plant of a clonal population, or a
Techniques of Grafting recombinant DNA segment.
1. Vascular cambium – the tissue responsible for the formation of new 3. Propagule – any plant part used as the starting point of a propagation process.
xylem and phloem in the development of a successful graft union. 4. Clonal selection – the process of selecting an individual plant or plant part to
2. Detached scion graftage – a type of graft used when a section of the create a clone.
shoot of the scion is removed and grafted to the apex or side of the 5. Clonal forestry – a system of forestry management that utilizes clones in the
rootstock. It is also used in grafting roots (root graftage). planting.
3. Appraoch graftage – the root system of the scion and shoot system of 6. Clonal “fixing” – the concept of a clone as stabilizing a genotype for
the rootstock arenot remved until after successful graft union propagation.
formation occurs. 7. Monoculture – the planting of a commercial cultivar that contains only a single
4. Repair graftage – used in repairing or reinforcing injured or weak genotype.
trees. 8. Seedling selection – selecting a single plant of a seedling population to be the
5. Grafter- the person cutting the stock and scion and inserting the scion start of a new clone cultivar.
piece. 9. Propagation generation – the sequence of plant cycles between vegetative
6. Tier – the person who completes the grafting process by tying and propagation events
sometimes waxing the area. 10. Mutation – a genetic change in genotype.
7. Scion rooting – the development of adventitious roots from the grafted 11. Mutant – a plant part with a changed genotype resulting from a mutation.
scion. This is desirable in nurse-root grafting, which is a temporary 12. Bud-sport - a sudden change in a single branch due to a mutation apparently
graft, but problematic in other grafts where the size control of disease- arising from a single bud.
resistant characteristics of the rootstock may be lost. 13. Point mutation – a change in genotype brought about by alteration of the four
8. Hot waxes – generally are paraffin based and must be heated to melt bases of a single locus.
and apply 14. Deletion – a loss of a part of a chromosome.
9. Cold waxes – contain a volatile solvent that keeps the wax liquid. 15. Duplication – a duplication of part of the chromosome.
After application the solvents evaporate and the wax hardens. 16. Translocation – shift of one part of the chromosome into another.
10. Carpal tunnel syndrome – nerve damage in the wrist caused by the 17. Inversion – the reversal of a segment of the chromosome.
stress of repetitive hand-arm movements. 18. Aneuploidy – the condition where the chromosome number is not an exact
11. Piecework – a bonus system awarded to workers when they exceed multiple of the haploid set.
daily graft production quotas. 19. Polypploidy – the duplication of entire sets of chromosomes within the nucleus.
12. Crippling of lopping – bending (restriction) or cutting halfway 20. Ortet – the original seedling tree in a vegetative propagation sequence.
through the rootstock stem above the bud union. This helps to force 21. Ramet – the vegetative progeny of a single seedling tree.
out the bud and maintain growth of the grafted plant. The rootstock 22. Mutagenic agent – a chemical or radiation treatment that creates mutations.
tops are later cut off. 23. Mutation breeding – a system of plant breeding that creates new cultivars by
13. Crown grafting – grafting that is done at the crown of the rootstock, mutations.
which is the junction of the root and shoot system. In earlier times it 24. Cell and tissue culture technology – laboratory procedures by which cells and
referred to grafting several scions in a crown like circle onto a n tissue are grown in in vitro culture including clonal selection at the cell level.
established larger rootstock. 25. Recombinant DNA technology – the process by which DNA from different
14. Topworking – using either top grafting or top-budding when a scion is origins are combined and cloned to be inserted into a separate genome.
grafted or budded onto an established plant in the orchard. 26. Transgenic clone – clone created by the introduction of recombinant DNA into
15. Stenting – a Dutch term for simultaneously grafting and rooting the its genome.
rootstock at the same time. 27. Genotype by environmental interaction – variation in phenotype due to the
Principles and Practices of Clonal Selection effect of different environments on the same genotype.
28. Ontogenetic aging – the process by which the plants shifts from embryonic to 50. Reversion – a shoot emerging from inner tissue of a chimera which shows the
adult phases. genotype of the inner tissue.
29. Phase change – shifts in phenotype associated with shifts from embryonic to 51. “Fixing” a mutation – continuous vegetative selection toward the chimera
juvenile to adult. phenotype.
30. Epigenetic control - cellular mechanisms that determine the expression of 52. Chimeral breakdown – reversion toward the inner tissue genotype, particularly
genes. during tissue culture propagation.
31. Chimera – a plant that is composed of a mixture of tissue with different 53. “Aging” - Phenotypic changes with age due either to ontogenetic or to
genotypes. chronological change, or both.
32. Somaclonal decline – a unique kind of genetic variation in which an 54. Homoblastic – phase changes that involve little obvious change in phenotype
incremental genetic change occurs during annual shoot growth cycles that with development and age.
produces a progressive change in phenotype with age and consecutive cycles of 55. Heteroblastic – phase changes that show distinct change in phenotype during
propagation. development.
33. Variegation –cellular-based contrasting genetic expression in different parts of 56. Determinate – growth habit with shoot apex ending in flowering.
the same organ 9as a leaf) due to a chimera. 57. Senescence – physiological aging associated primarily with reduced vigor.
34. Patterned genes – differential gene expression (as a color pattern) not due to 58. Juvenile phenotype – characteristics associated with the juvenile phase in
cell arrangement. specified species, usually upright growth, vigor sometimes thorniness, and lack
35. Transposons – a unique kind of genetic element in cells of some organisms that of flowering.
have the capacity to change position within the chromosome. 59. Adult phenotype – characteristics associated with the adult phase, typically
36. Transposable elements – a synonym for transposons. bushy growth, reduced vigor, no thorns, and profuse flowering.
37. Somaclonal variation – generic variation that sometimes appears from cell and 60. Trueness to type – corresponding to phenotypic characteristics of the source
tissue culture. plant.
38. Systemic pathogens – pathogens that infect the cells of a plant and spread 61. “Bulking up” – in forestry propagation this term refers to using vegetative
throughout the plant where they remain infective. propagation to multiply the supply of selected genotypes.
39. Histogen – structured layers of cells in the plant growing points. 62. Epicormic – a shoot emerging from a latent bud on the base of a tree;
40. Tunica – the outside layers of cells in the growing point. synonymous with watersprout.
41. Anticlinal – the direction of cell division in an end-to-end position to produce a 63. Cone of juvenility – a cone-shaped area comprising the trunk and lower
continuous layer. branches of a seedling tree, which tends to remain juvenile.
42. Periclinal – the direction of cell division in a side-to-side position to increase 64. Stump sprouts – vigorous shoots that are produced from the stump when a tree
numbers of cell layers. is pruned back severely.
43. Corpus – the randomly distributed cells in the growing point underneath the 65. Sphaeroblasts – masses of adventitious buds produced on the lower trunk of
tunica. some tree species.
44. Periclinal chimera – type of chimera in which mutated tissue consists of a 66. Hedge row – a row of trees or bushes pruned back to a hedge to stimulate
layer of cells on the outside completely surrounding a core of inner nonmutated shoots for propagation.
tissue. 67. Serial propagation – propagation of seedling or clonal material for several
45. Mericlinal chimera – type of chimera in which the mutated tissue occupies consecutive generations in containers, each propagated after pruning.
only a part of the outside layer. 68. Rejuvenation – shift from the adult phase to the juvenile or transitional phase.
46. Sectorial chimera – type of chimera in which the mutated tissue occupies a 69. Topophysis – the effect of position of the propagule in the source plant on the
sector that encompasses all layers. phenotype of the progeny plants.
47. Displacement – cells in the outer layer shift into inner layers. 70. Orthotropic – upright growth of the progeny plant, which comes from
48. Replacement – cells in the inner layer shift into outer layers. collecting the source from an upright growing branch.
49. Graft chimera – a chimera sometimes created when an adventitious shoot 71. Plagiotropic – lateral growth of the progeny plant, which comes from collecting
emerges from callus at a graft that has tissues of both the stock and the scion. the source from a laterally growing branch.
72. Virus – microscopic organisms that replicate as obligate parasites within plant 95. Shoot tip grafting – in vitro grafting of the shoot apex to a rootstock plant when
cells or the bodies of insect vectors, multiplying and growing in collaboration roots do not form in shoot tip culture.
with chromosomes. 96. Heat treatment – subjecting a plant part to high temperatures of short duration
73. Causal agent – a pathogen (or other agent) that produces a specific disease. to kill specific pathogens.
74. Etiology – identifying the characteristics of a causal agent. 97. Hardening-off- the practice of growth reduction or reducing moisture to
75. Phytoplasma – a class of extremely small parasitic organisms that cause disease increase resistance to high temperature.
in plants. 98. Thermotherapy – exposure of the plant to long periods of moderately high
76. Fastidious bacetria - single-celled bacteria-like organisms that cause specific temperatures to inactivate viruses.
diseases in plants. 99. Virus-free – the concept of complete absence of viruses, which actually means
77. Viroid – extremely small organism composed mostly of RNA, which produces only to those for which test were made.
specific infectious disease in plants. 100. Virus tested – the concept that only test for specific harmful viruses were made.
78. True-to-name – the characteristics of being the specified cultivar. 101. Clonal selection – the practice of making single plant selection within a clone
79. True-to-type – conforming to the phenotypic expectations of the specific whether for virus elimination or for genetic potential.
cultivar. 102. Nuclear plants – the initial source of a cultivar following its clonal selection in
80. Isozyme – genetic variants of specific enzymes, which act as alleles, can be a Registration and Certification program.
identified by biochemical tests and used as genetic markers. 103. Foundation block – group of plants that serve as the primary propagation
81. Phenotypic selection – source selection based on phenotypic appearance of the source maintained under appropriate standards of isolation, indexing tests, and
source plant. inspection.
82. Genotypic selection – source selection based on phenotypic appearance of the 104. Registration – the practice of registering individual source plants, from which
vegetative progeny. collection is to be made, with a Registration agency such as a State Department
83. Vegetative progeny test – the practice of vegetatively propagating progeny to of Agriculture.
test their ability to reproduce the source plant. 105. Increase block – a temporary block produced to multiply the quantity of
84. Base-pairs (bps) – the combinations of bases, such as thymine;adenine (TA) propagules.
guanine:cytosine (GC), which make up base sequences of genes. 106. Elite Block – a group of plats of superior quality either in relation to disease or
85. Nonrepeats – areas of the chromosome in which base-pairs are not repeated, genetic characteristics.
apparently marking specific areas where genes are present. 107. Mother block – a group of plants maintained by a nursery as a source planting.
86. Repeats – areas of the chromosome in which the same base-pairs are repeated, 108.Repository – a collection of plants maintained either to preserve genetic
the length of which determines specific genetic markers, and its characteristic diversity or to maintain their virus status.
of specific genotypes. Principles of Tissue Culture and Micropropagation
87. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) or microsatellites – areas of repeating base- 1. Aseptic – refers to growth of plant tissues under conditions free of microbial
pairs which act as makers in DNA fingerprinting. contamination.
88. Culture indexing – the practice of inserting a bud into an indicator plant to test 2. In vitro – the culture of plant cells or organs in culture vessels (like test tubes)
the presence and transmissibility of unknown viruses. under controlled environment and nutritive growth medium.
89. Indicator plant – a plant that is hypersensitive to speciific viruses. 3. Totipotent – the concept that a single cell has the genetic program to grow into
90. Serology – an indexing procedure that identifies specific proteins by the an entire plant.
production of antibodies in the blood of a test animal such as a rabbit. 4. Microshoots – small shoots grown in vitro.
91. ELISA – a specific serological test to determine the antibody reaction to 5. Microcuttings – microshoots used as small cuttings induced to regenerate roots
specific viruses. and finally a plantlet.
92. Polyacrylamide – a kind of gel used in electrophoresis tests. 6. Explant – the piece of the plant (propagule) used to initiate the
93. Hoot apex culture – the micropropagation of the shoot apex primarily for virus micropropagation or tissue culture process.
elimination. 7. Disinfestation – the chemical removal of surface contaminants that would
94. Micrografting – same as shoot tip grafting. otherwise grow in the tissue culture environment and kill the explant.
8. Agar – an algal extract that solidifies after heating. It is used as a support for Techniques for Micropropagation
explants in tissue culture.
9. Subculture – the process of dividing stems or tissue from a tissue culture into 1. Cryopreservation – the storage of seeds or vegetative organs at ultrlow
smaller pieces and then transferring to a fresh medium to multiply the tissue temperature. This most common in liquid nitrogen at –1960C.
culture. 2. Peristaltic pumps – equipment available from tissue culture supply
10. In vitro rooting – occurs entirely in the culture vessel; while companies, which makes it easy to dispense media into tissue culture
11. Ex vitro rooting – occurs outside the culture vessel. vessels.
12. Acclimatization – the preferred term for the process of gradually moving tissue 3. Laminar flow hood - a cabinet that filters air through a HEPA filter to
culture grown plantlets to open air conditions. eliminate fungal and bacterial spores on the work surface for tissue
13. Axillary shoots – form from existing buds at each node on the stem. culture.
14. Adventitious shoots – arise from places where buds do not normally from, such 4. Stock solutions – concentrated solutions used to store inorganic and
as roots, leaves, flowers, and stem internodes. organic ingredients for tissue culture media preparation.
15. Meristem culture – a procedure used to eliminate diseases from plants. It uses National Organic Agriculture Program – aims to develop an appropriate
a very small piece of tissue from the shoot tip as the initial explant. production system which could sustainably provide the food and nutritional
16. Seed culture – a procedure primarily used for orchid seed germination because needs of farmers, enable farmers to increase their productivity and profitability,
the seed is so small and contains no seed storage reserves. and provide options in mitigating climate change
17. Embryo culture – a procedure involving tissue culture of immature embryos  Grain crops: rice - Oryza sativa
that require controlled conditions to complete development. It is most Corn – Zea mays
commonly used by plant breeders for genetic crosses that would not form seed Adlai – Coix lacryma jobi
on the plant. Adlai is an alternative crop to rice and corn; a very promising
18. Ovary and Ovule culture – a procedure that allows for plant breeders to crop for its potential as food and feed, medicinal properties and used as body
pollinate and fertilize plants in tissue culture. Pollen is added to the ovary enhancing material
while it is forming in tissue culture and results in fertilized embryos.  Plantation crops: cacao – Theobroma cacao
19. Callus- results from cell division in nondifferentiated parenchyma cells. Coffee - Coffea sp
Eventually, a callus culture does form stratified cell layers with outer Coconut – Cocos nucifera
meristematic layers and inner cells that can form vascular tissue. Sugarcane – Saccharum officinarum
20. Organogenesis – the process of developing adventitious shoots and/or roots. Abaca - Musa textilis
Changes take place in the cells that lead to the development of a unipolar  Indigenous medicinal plants
structure (stem or root primordium) whose vascular system is often connected  Black pepper - Piper nigrum
to the parent tissue.  Vegetables & Root Crops:
21. Suspension cultured – Callus cells grown in liquid culture that is constantly A. Chopsuey – cabbage, baguio beans, carrots, cauliflower, pechay
agitated. B. Pinakbet – tomato, eggplant, ampalaya
22. Protoplasts – plant cells without a cell wall. The cell wall is removed by C. Export commodity – okra, asparagus, shallot, garlic
microbial enzymes. D. Indigenous vegetables – malunggay (horse radish), alugbati,
23. Somatic embryogenesis – the development of embryos from vegetative cells saluyot (Chorchorus)
rather than from the union of male and female gametes to produce a zygote. In E. Legumes – soybean
this process, a bipolar structure is produced with a root-shoot axis and a closed F. Rootcrops – sweet potato, white potato, yam, cassava
independent vascular system. G. Fruits – mango, banana, pineapple
24. Synthetic seeds – somatic embryos enclosed in an artificial seed coat. This may H. Livestock & Poultry
be a way of sowing somatic embryos for mass propagation. Poultry - duck egg and meat
25. Direct somatic embryogenesis – embryos from cells of the explant; while Swine – native pigs, commercial breeds
26. Indirect somatic embryogenesis – embryos arise from callus induced to form Dairy
from the initial explant. Large ruminants – carabao/buffalo
I. Fisheries – seaweeds (Kappaphycus, Gracillaria, Porphyra, Malunggay - Moringa spp
Caulerpa) Pako - fern
Tilapia Saluyot - Corchorus spp
Milkfish Talinum - Talinum triangulare
Shrimps Groups of Local Food Plant Sources rich in phytochemicals:
Mudcrab Red - examples : tomato, watermelon, strawberry. These contain
Rabbitfish lycopene, reduces risk of cancer; anthocyanin - delays several diseases
Sea cucumber associated with ageing)
Grouper Yellow - examples: squash, mango, oranges, cantaloupes, carrots
Tuna which are sources of carotene and flavonoids that reduce the risk of heart
Pangasius disease, some cancers and slow down ageing
Shellfish – abalone, oyster Green - vegetableslike pechay, kangkong, gabi leaves, mustard,
Banak/Ludong - Cestraeus plicatilis spinachs, alugbati, saluyot and malunggay are rich in lutein which help
-Freshwater mullet endemic to Cagayan River and the Santa-Abra river system maintain good vision
Tikod-ama - Osyster species found in the coastal water of Surigao del Sur Blue/purple – examples: eggplant, grapes, plums, duhat and
Lato – oval sea grapes (Caulerpa racemosa), translucent green grape-like blueberries which contain anthocyanin and phenolics
seaweed which abundantly grows in Bicol, Cebu and Siquijor Brown /white/tan - banana, garlic, ginger, onions, mushrooms,
Sea urchin - T. gratilla (tuyom) potatoes, white corn that contain allyl sulfides, polyphenols, that reduce heart
Sea cucumber (Holuthuria scabra) - soft bodied tubular disease
invertebrate found in the bottom of coastal waters Philippine Oils & Local Essences
- Important in cycling of sediments in marine ecosystems 1. Sampaguita (Jasminum sambac) – for treating skin diseases, ulcers and
 Biofuels – sweet sorghum, jatropha, cassava, camote fever; awakens inner emotions like purity, innocence and sweetness
 Climate Change 2. Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) – scent in products like paper towels,
AFMA of 1997 - RA 8435 laundry detergents and air fresheners; hair conditioners for dreadlocks
Indigenous crop species: 3. Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) - relieves high blood pressure,
Adlai - Coix lacryma jobi normalize sebum secretion for skin problems
Sapinit - Rubus rosifolius – found in Mr. Banahaw, Quezon Province 4. Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citrates) – a medicinal herb ad perfume
- Similar to strawberry ingredient
Bignay - Antidesma bunius -- a tree native to the Philippines and often grows 5. Citronella (Cymbopogon nardus) – helps relive nervous tension and
in the mountains stress with its calming effect .A major ingredient of insect repellants,
Wild banana species: soaps and perfume
Musa acuminata (saging matsing) = thrive in a second storey vegetation under Sesame (Sesamum indicum) – yields sesame oil; contains lignans and sesamins
sparse forest cover Sesamins are phytoestrogens with antioxidant and anti-cancer properties; used
Musa balbisiana (butuhan) – grow in open grasslands and jungle clearings as dietary fact reduction supplement
Pili - Canarium ovatum Engl. – Like coconut, it is a tree of life Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) – grown for its leaves as a sweetener and sugar
Pili kernel – a source of edible oil for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics substitute
Some 10 promising indigenous vegetables Lemon grass/tanglad - Andropogon citrates
Alugbati - Baselia alba Calamansi – Citrus microcarpa
Amapalaya – Momordica charantia Yacon – Smallanthus sonchifolius
Himbabao - Allaeanthus luzonicus/Broussonetia luzonica Banaba – Lagerstroemia speciosa
Kulitis - Amaranthus spinosus/Amaranthus viridis Yerba Buena – Mentha cordifolia
Labong - bamboo shoot - Lagundi – Vitex negundo
Upo/bottle gourd - Lagenaria siceria Talinum – Talinum paniculatum
PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY (NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF 15. In terms of total agricultural production (2021 statistics) one of the
AGRICULTURE) following information is not correct
A. Crop sub-sector= 45.47 %; B. Livestock sub-sector=12.69%
1. The Philippines has a land area of about million hectares. C. Poultry sub-sector=; 14.93% D. Fisheries= 26.91%
a. 20 b. 30 c. 40 d. 50 16. Crop production, as a science, is very much related to:
2. The average annual rice consumption in the Philippines per capita is A. Botany, zoology, physiology and biology;
A. 93 kg; B. 103kg; C. 123kg; D. 133 kg B. Botany, soil science, breeding and genetics;
3. The author of the law on Philippine Agriculture Modernization Act is C. Soil science, Chemistry, and biology
A. Chito Lorenzo; B. Arthur Yap; D. Chemistry, and biology
C. Proceso Alcala; D. Edgardo Angara 17. Corn (Zea mays) has originated from:
4. The Philippines is still primarily an A. Africa; B. Europe; C. India; D. Mexico
A. agricultural country; B. agro-industrialized country; 18. The event(s) that led to the development of agriculture:
C. industrialized country; D. under-developed country A. food shortage; B. collections of plants;
5. GATT-WTO is about C. power and prestige; D. all of the above
A. Joint military exercises; B. Agriculture trade liberalization; 19. Peanut is a plant native to:
C. Mutual defense treaty; D. Agriculture subsidy A. South America; B. Mexico; C. Europe; D. Indonesia
6. At present the human population in the Philippines is around (in millions) 20. In order of importance of world cereal grains, sorghum ranks 4th behind:
A. 71; B. 81; C. 91; D. 101. A. wheat, rice and maize; B.wheat, rye and barley;
7. The major agricultural export product of the Philippines include C. barley, sesame and rye; D. any of the above
A. rice and corn; B. coconut products and bananas; 21. In the Philippines, the existence of artifacts particularly, the human remains
C. sea weeds and carrageenan; D. soybeans and wheat found in Tabon cave of Palawan in 1962 was dated back to about
8.The total land area planted to rice in the Philppines ( in millions Has.) A. 12,000 yrs; B 22,000 yrs; C. 32,000 yrs; D. 200,000 yrs
A. 1.7; B. 2.7; C. 3.7; D. 4.7 22. The collapse of many great civilizations (Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman,
9. The average national rice production in the country (in metric tons) Mayan) empires in the past has been attributed to:
A. 1.19; B. 2.19; C. 3.19; D. 4.19 A. salinization and soil erosion;
10. A typical rice farmers is only 50% efficient as the best rice farmer. This B. salinization and acidification;
means that, C. soil erosion and migration;
A. 50% of Filipino rice farmers have yields of 4t/ha or less D. soil degradation and migration
B. 25% of Filipino rice farmers have yields of 4t/ha or less 23. The famous economist who predicted that if human population is not
C. 25% of Filipino rice farmers are able to attain a yield of 4t/ha or checked by war, sickness and diseases hunger and malnutrition will occur is
more A. Thomas; B. Garfield; C. Malthus; D. Mendel
D. all of the above 24. The 2021 NSO report of the Philippine human population is
11. The group of people considered as the first agriculturist A. 71 millions ; B. 81 millions ; C. 91 millions ; D. 101 millions
A. Africans; B. Canaans; C. Cushites; D. Indians 25. In the year 2000 BC the greatest achievement of man was the development
12. The early civilization of Asia has established a diet consisting mainly of: of
A. sorghum and beans; B. rice and soybeans; A. crop varieties; B. botanical insecticides;
C. maize and peanut; D. wheat and beans C. commercial fertilizer; D. wooden plow
13. The Indochinese-Indonesian region of which the Philippines belongs to is 26. The first corn hybrid was developed and commercialized in the year
believed to be the center of origin of: A. 1920‘s; B. 1930‘s; C. 1940‘s; D. 1950‘s
A. rice; B. corn; C. coconut; D. garlic 27. The development of agriculture may be associated with the development of
14. The center of origin of rice is: metallurgy and consequent improvements in tool-making in a sequence starting
A. Thailand B. Vietnam C. Philippines D. India from:
A. stone age, iron age to bronze age;
B. stone age, bronze age to iron age; A. road; B. mushroom; C. field; D. market
C. stone age, wooden age to bronze age; 43. The Greek word ―nomos‖ means
D. all of the above A. manage; B. plow; C. eat; D. plant
28. As global farm productivity intensifies along with heavy use of inputs like 44. If the Philippines aim to fast track its development into newly industrialized
fertilizers and pesticides, now emerges the concern for: country (NIC) it has to hasten its development of
A. health and environment; B. supply and demand; A. Tourist spots; B. Foreign relation;
C. war and peace; D. all of the above C. Trade relation; D. Agriculture
29. GATT_WTO resulted to: 45. The US president who described agriculture as ―… the mother of all
A. reduced trade barriers; B. global competitiveness; industries and the maintainer of human life‖ is
C. reduction in price of imported goods; D. all of the above A. Clinton; B. Bush; C. Kennedy; D. Garfield
30. Peanut crop originated from 46. Because crop production is a regular activity of people in the rural areas and
A. South America; B. Asia; C. China; D. India if taken away they will never have a normal life because farming is
31. The Filipino scientist who was awarded the World Food Prize Award for A. an art; B. a business; C. a way of life; D. a technology
developing the C4-63 variety of rice 47. Trade liberalization could result to decrease demand for locally produced
A. Dr. Jose Rizal; B. Dr. Pedro Escuro; products as shown by
C. Dr. Sebastian Santiago; D. Dr. Glenn Gregorio A. Increasing tendency to buy imported food products;
32. One of the pioneering agricultural scientists who developed the widely B. Greater utilization of modern technologies;
adapted high yielding varieties of wheat is C. Greater patronage of advertized products;
A. Dr. Pedro Escuro; B. Dr. Gurdev Kush; D. increase income of small farmers
C. Dr. Henry Beachell; D. Dr. Norman Borlaugh 48. Rapid industrialization has resulted to increase in the value of agricultural
33. The present Secretary of Agriculture is lands in the urban areas because of
A. Luisito Lorenzo B. Arthur Panganiban A. more workers work abroad;
C. Arthur Yap D. William D. Dar B. massive conversion of agricultural land to industrial sites;
34. The present Bureau of Plant Industry Regional Director is C. greater utilization of technologies;
A. J. Volante ; B. J. Neri ; C. J. Rudinas ; D. none of the above D. Excessive pollution
35. The Philippines has a total land area of about 49. High population growth rate could mean
A. 20 million has;. B. 30 million has.; A. more mouth to feed; B. more unemployment;
C. 40 million has.; D. 50 million has. C. more pressure in the environment D. all of the above
36. Land area devoted to crops is about 50. Rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines is difficult to achieve because
A. 5 million has.; B. 10 million has.; A. area planted to rice is small; B. irrigation facilities is insufficient;
C. 15 million has; D. 25 million has. C. high rate of increase in population; D. all of the above
37. Total rice area harvested in a year in the Philippines is about 51. The Philippines is a tropical country in Asia consisting of two distinct
A. 1.2 million has.; B. 2.2 million has.; seasons such as:
C. 3.2 million has.; D. 4.2 million has.338. A. wet and dry seasons; B. very wet and very dry seasons;
39. Of the total area devoted to rice, the irrigated area is only about C. wet and very wet seasons; D. dry and very dry seasons.
A. 30%; B. 40%; C. 50%; D. 60%
40. The 2010 contribution of the crop sub-sector to the total Agricultural output CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS
is about 1. Durian (Durio zibethenus) belongs to family
A. 45%; B. 40%; C. 35%; D. 20% A. Annonaceae; B. Bombaceae; C. Rosaceae; D. Myrtaceae
41. The 2010 contribution of the livestock sub-sector to the total agricultural 2. Strawberry (Fragaria Vesca) belongs to family
output is about A. Annonaceae; B. Bombaceae; C. Rosaceae; D. Myrtaceae
A. 13%; B. 23%; C. 25%; D. 30% 3. Annona muricata ―guyabano‖ belongs to family
42.The Greek word ‖agros‖ means A. Annonaceae; B. Bombaceae; C. Rosaceae; D. Myrtaceae
4. One of the following fruits belongs to family Myrtaceae A. Roman Goddess Ceres; B. Goddess of love Aphrodite ;
A. guava; B. grapes; C. pineapple; D. rambutan C. Goddess of milk;Cerelac D. Goddess Ceresoy
5. One of the following fruits belongs to family Sapindaceae 20. One of the following is a crop mainly intended for industrial processing
A. guava; B. grapes; C. pineapple; D. ―rambutan‖ A. Saccharum officinarum; B. Sorghum bicolor;
6. Cultivar is a short term for C. Ipomea batatas; D. Arachis hypogea
A. variety; B. species; C. cultivated variety; D. culture 21. One of the following is a pulse crop
7. The name of the plant that is common everywhere is A. Centrosema; B. Triticale; C. cowpea; D. arrowroot
A. common name B. local name 22. Which does not belong to the group?
C. English name D. scientific name A. Sambong; B. Lagundi; C. Ulasiman; D. Siratro
8. A group of individual plants within specie that differs from the rest of the 23. Which of the following is not a root crop ?
specie A. arrow root; B. yam; C. ground nut; D. ―palao‖
A. variety; B. class; C. family; D. genus 24. Which of the following crops can be considered a horticultural crop and
9. An annual herbaceous plants that are grown in a farm in large scale agronomic crop under Philippine conditions?
A. agronomic crops; B. horticultural crops; A. peanut; B. mungbean; C. sorghum; D. rice
C. pasture crops; D. forage crops 25. Which does not belong to the group of forage crops?
10. Annual and perennial species which are grown under a system of intensive A. B. decumbens ; B. C. pubescens ; C. S. humilis ; D. M. textiles
culture 26. Analyze the following statements:
A. agronomic crops; B. horticultural crops; I. Examples of family Fabaceae are: A. hypogea, G. max, D. alata;
C. pasture crops; D. cover crops II. Examples of family Gramineae are: S. vulgare, S. bicolor, S. humiles
11. Agronomic classification of crops that belongs to family Fabaceae A. Statement I and II are correct
A. Cereals; B. Legume seed crop; C. Root crops; D. Fiber crops B. Statement I and II are not correct
12. Crops belonging to the grass family which are utilize as staples C. Statement I is correct but statement II is not correct
A. tuber crops; B. pulses; C. cereals; D. oil D. Statement I is not correct but statement II is correct
crops 27. Which does not belong to the family Dioscoreaceae
13. One of the following crop is not a cereal A. yautia; B. nami; C. togue; D. ube
A. Triticum sp; B. Eleusine corocana; 28. An example of aggregate fruits is:
C. Saccharum officinalis; D. Zea mays A. strawberry; B. tomato; C. grape ; D. coconut
14. One of the following does not belong to the group 29. An example of multiple fruits is:
A. Arachis hypogea; B. Glycine max ; A. tomato; B. pineapple; C. star apple; D guava
C. Vicea fab ; D. Ipomea batatas 30. An example of a dry-dehiscent fruit is:
15. One of the following is a legume A. squash; B. coconut; C. pea pod; D. Star apple
A. Manihot utilissima ; B. Beta vulgaris ; 31. Plants that grow on live trees or dead trunks but do not obtain its
C. Oryza sativa ; D. Pachyrhizus erosus nourishment from the tree is:
16. The scientific name of yam is A. Terrestial; B. Acquatic; C. Epiphytes; D. Xyrophytes
A. Dioscorea alata ; B. Vigna radiata ; 32. Crops which mature within a period of 1 year or less is descriptively
C. Colocasia esculenta ; D. Ipomea batatas classified as
17. The scientific name of peanut is A. Annual; B. Biennial; C. Perennial; D. Residual
A. Arachis hypogea; B. Glycine ma;x 33. Cereals have leaf venation called
C. Vicea faba; D. Beta vulgaris A. Netted; B. Parallel;
18. The scientific name of yam bean is C. Combination of netted and parallel; D. Both.
A. Phaseolus vulgaris ; B. Vigna radiata ; 34. Cabbages have root system called
C. Pachyrhizus erosus ; D. Colocasia esculenta A. Fibrous; B. Taproot; C. Fabulous; D. Tap out
19. The word cereal is derived from the name of the most important grain deity 35. The inflorescence of rice is called
A. Spike; B. Raceme; C. Panicle; D. Head d. It has compartmentalization/ membrane-bounded structures.
36. Flowers with pistil, stamen, sepals and petals is called 3. It is one of the components of the cell wall that is largely composed of
A. Complete; B. Incomplete; C. Perfect; D. Imperfect pectic substances and has originated from the cell plate.
37. The modified structures present in gourd is called a. Primary wall b. Secondary wall
A. thorn; B. tendril; C. ligule; D. auricle c. Middle Lamella d. Pits
38. The modified stem of ginger is called 4. The most important organelle which bears the hereditary characteristics
A. tuber; B. stolon; C. rhizome; D. corm of the plants
39. The modified root structure found in corn plant is called a.Cell b. Nucleus c. Protoplast d. Nuclear membrane
A. Fleshy underground root; B. fleshy aerial root; 5. The primary wall first formed by the protoplast is composed mainly of
C. brace root; D. arrow root what structure?
40. Corn plant exhibits a type of germination called a. Protoplasm b. Cytoplasm c. Cellulose d. Pectin
A. epigeal; B. hypogeal; C. inverted; D. diverted 6. It is an organelle that develops into a pigment system responsible for
41. Peanut exhibits a type of germination called imparting color in plants.
A. epigeal; B. hypogeal; C. inverted; D. diverted a. Vacuoles b. Plastids c. Ribosome d. Mitochondria
42. Cole crops belong to family 7. The long threads of DNA associated with proteins which are sites of
A. Fabacea; B. Gramineae; C. Cruciferae; D. Coleaceae hereditary information
43. Coconut palm belongs to family a. Ribosome b. Golgi apparatus
A. Gramineae; B. Anacardiaceae; C. Musaceae; D. Palmae c. Chromosomes d. Chloroplasts
44. Squash belongs to family 8. The structures of the cell containing chlorophyll, found in the plant cells
A.Convolvulaceae; B Cucurbitaceae; and in algae
C. Liliaceae; D.Solanaceae a. Nucleolus b. Nucleus c. Ribosome d. Chloroplasts
45. Grasses used for lawns or greens such as used in golf courses is called 9. These are membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes, involved in
A. pot plants; B. Cut foliage; C. landscape plants; D. the digestion of various molecules.
turf a. Lysosomes b. Mitochondria c. Chlorophyll d. Cytoplasm
46. Eggplant belongs to family 10. A network of filaments and fibers within the cytoplasm that helps
A. Leguminoceae; B. Poaceae; C. Solanaceae; D. maintain the shape of the cell, move substances within cells and anchor
Caricaceae various structures in place.
47. Bulb onion belongs to family a. Cytoplasm b. Cytoskeleton c. Plasma membrane d. Cell Wall
A.Liliaceae; B. Apiaceae; C. Brassicaceae; D. Cucurbitaceae 11. It is a viscous fluid containing all cell organelles except the nucleus
48. Vitis vinifera belongs to family a. Mitochondria b. Ribosome
A. Araceae; B. Vitaceae; C. Moraceae; D. Moringaceae c. Cytoskeleton d. Cytoplasm
49. Pine apple belongs to family 12. These are bound or free organelles which are involved in the protein
A. Meliaceae; B. Basellaceae; C. Anacardiaceae; D. Bromeliaceae synthesis of the cell.
50. Citrus grandis belongs to family a. Mitochondria b. Vacuoles c. Ribosome d. Plastids
A. Sapindaceae; B. Sapotaceae; C. Vitaceae; D. Rutaceae 13. It is where the ribosomes are bound and also provides inter-connection
among organelles.
NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS a. Vacuoles b. Reticulum c. Mitochondria d. Plastids
1. It is the simplest unit of a living structure of all organisms 14. It is characterized as thick walled and highly specialized element often
a. Organelles b. Tissues c. Cell d. Nucleus heavily lignified and non-living when mature having clustered stone cells
2. The following are the characteristics of Eukaryotic plant cell except: and fiber cells.
a. It possesses a true nucleus. a. Parenchyma cells b. Sclerenchyma cells
b. Its respiratory apparatus is attached to the plasma membrane c. Collenchyma cells d. Food-conducting cells
c. DNA is enclosed in the nucleus.
15. This is composed of tracheids, vessel elements, fiber cell, ray cell and 30. When grasses are being trimmed, after some time they grow back. This
parenchyma cell and it is used for water conduction. due to:
a.Xylem b. Phloem c. Cortex d. Vascular Cylinder a.the presence of the stomata b. the presence of meristem
16. This is the region between stele and epidermis and it acts as storage c. the presence of the vascular cambium d. all of the above
structure of a stem 31. What is the term for the cluster of flowers in plants?
a.Xylem b. Phloem c. Cortex d. Vascular Cylinder a. Floral stalk b. Inflorescence
17. The following are the above ground modifications EXCEPT the: c. Spiking d. None of the above
a. Crowns b. Stolons c. Spurs d. Bulb 32. It is the reduction division process undertaken by the microspore in the
18. The following are accessory parts of the flower ,EXCEPT the: anther and the megaspore mother cells in the ovary.
a. Receptacle b. Sepal c. Stamen d. Peduncle a. Mitosis b. Meiosis
19. It is the expanded part of the blade and is the most important part of true c. All of the above d. None of the above
leaves 33. These are cells that functions as storage of water and food and for the
a. Leaf Veins b. Stipule c. Petiole d. Lamina conduction of materials,characterized as thin walled and are spherical
20. It is a fertilized ovule. cells.
a. Seed b. Fruit c. Shoot d. Flower a. Parenchyma Cell b. Collenchyma Cells
21. It is a mature or ripened ovary. c. Sclerenchyma Cells d. None of the above
a. Seed b. Fruit c. Shoot d. Flower 34. These are rosette stems surrounded by fleshy leaves that store nutrients.
22. Kangkong, ampalaya, and camote tops are easily chewed because of the When these nutrients are removed, the fleshy leaves collapse into papery
absence of the supporting and strengthening tissue called: scale leaf.
a.Parenchyma b. Collenchyma c. Schlerencyma d. Sclerids a. Corms b. Bulbs c. Tubers d. Meristems
23. A leaf is held to the stem by a petiole and a flower in a cluster by: 35. The underground stems that grow parallel near the soil surface which
a. Pedicel b. Style c. Filament d. Receptacle typically have shorter internodes and scale leaves
24. Stems of a monocot plants are generally small compared to the dicot a. Corms b. Bulbs c. Tubers d. Rhizomes
plants because of the absence of meristematic primary tissue called 36. These are enlarged roots that grow underground and stores nutrient of the
a. Cork cambium b. Cortex plants and are considered as their economic products
c. Phellogen d. Vascular cambium a. Corms b. Bulbs c. Tubers d. Cladodes
25. An indication that corm and rhizomes are stems although these are 37. It is known as the rest phase. It reflects the influence of environmental
generally below the ground is the presence of conditions such as drought or inadequate light.
a. Node and internode b. Nodes and buds a. Dormancy b. Quiescence
c. Node and leaf sheaths d. Node and roots c. Germination d. None of the above
26. The merestimatic tissue found in the periderm responsible for the 38. This is the main avenue for gas exchange on leaves and fruits and the
production of the cork and the parenchyma is major exit of water from organs.
a. Phellem b. Phelloderm c. Phellogen d. Exocarp a. Epidermis b. Cortex c. Stomata d. Vascular Bundle
27. Tiny undeveloped side shoots that develop at the angles between the 39. The following are meristematic tissues except :
plant‘ leaves and of its stem. a. Apical b. Lateral c. Intercalary d. Dermal
a. Nodes b. Lateral buds c. Stems d. Internodes 40. A dicot plant is characterized by :
28. It is the inner part of the fruit which is composed of the locular a. Parallel venation, Fibrous root system
membrane and the juice sacks. b. Netted venation, Taproot system
a. Exocarp b. Endocarp c. Mesocarp d. Pericarp c. Parallel venation, Taproot system
29. The way in which the length of the night triggers flowering involves a d. Netted venation, Fibrous root system
pigment called 41. The term for fruits that develop even without fertilization of the egg and
a.Statolith b. Phytochrome c. Slantons d. Photochrome sperm cell;
a. Pathogenic Fruits b. Abnormal Fruits
c. Polycarpic Fruits d. Parthenocarpic Fruits 55. The structure in plants located at either the upper, lower or both
42. It is the angle formed between the leaf and the stem. epidermis of the leaves which are responsible for exchange of gases is
a. Leaf Scar b. Leaf Axil known as
c. Lenticles d. None of the above a. Root hair b. Crystal c. Stomata d. Trichome
43. It refers to flower variation where the staminate and the pistillate flowers 56. A point or location on the stem of a plant where leaves arise
are located on separate plants. a. Internodes b. Node c. Lateral bud d. Leaves
a. Monoecious b. Dioecious c. Regular d. Irregular 57. Highly colored part of a flower, collectively called corolla
44. It refers to flower variation where the staminate and the pistillate flowers a. Receptacle b. Bracts c. Receptacle d. Petals
are located on the same plant. 58. Tissues at the cell elongation region are
a. Monoecious b. Dioecious c. Regular d. Irregular a. Protoderm, epidermis and cortex
45. It is a type of inflorescence which has a dry or flesh spike and the whole b. Procambium, cortex and pith
commonly surrounded by an enveloping organ called the spathe. c. Protoderm, ground meristems and procambium
a. Cyme b. Fascicle c. Head d. Spadix d. Procambium, phloem and xylem
46. A type of fruit whose pericarp splits opens when it reaches maturity. 59. A flower that lacks either an androecium or a synoecium is called
a. Indehiscent Fruits b. Dehiscent Fruits a. Incomplete flower b. Pestilate flower
c. Stone Fruits d. None of the above c. Staminate flower d. Imperfect flower
47. This is a type of fleshy fruit with a hard rind. Most of the Cucurbitaceae
fruits fall under this type of fruit PLANT GROWTH
a. Pome b. Pepo c. Drupe d. Hesperidium 1. Which is not true about plant growth:
48. A fruit that is formed from the accessory parts of the flower aside from a. It is a reversible process
its ovary. An example to this is the Cashew nut. b. The plant increases in size
a. Simple b. Aggregate c. Multiple d. Accessory c. The plant increases in length
49. These fruits are derived from flowers that have many pistils on a d. The plant increases in volume
common receptacle as in the strawberry. 2. Where does growth in plants primarily occur?
a. Simple b. Aggregate c. Multiple d. Accessory a. Root system b.Vascular bundle
50. Based on texture of the prericarp, the coconut is classified into which c.Shoot system d.Meristems
type of fruit? 3. The biological process that provides new cells for plant growth.
a. Nut b. Pome c. Drupe d. Achene a. Krebs Cycle b.Meiosis c.Mitosis d.Photosynthesis
51. A type of indehiscent fruit that one or two seeded fruit has a wing-like 4. Plant growth is basically due to:
outgrowth like that of the Narra. a. Increase in cell number
a. Nut b. Achene c. Samara d. Caryopsis b. Elongation or enlargement of cells
52. What part of a germinating seed where it acts as specialized seed leaves c. Differentiation of cells
for dicots? d. A and B only
a. Scutellum b. Plumule c. Radicle d. Hypocotyl 5. Plants that continue to add new tissues and organs are called:
53. A type of schlerenchyma that is short and more or less cuboidal in shape a. Perennials b. Annuals
that imparts gritty feeling when fruits containing them are eaten are c.Determinate species d. Indeterminate species
called 6. The shift of plants at vegetative stage to reproductive stage of most
a. Fibers b. Strings c. Sclereids d. Trichome angiosperms is a response to the changing length of day or night, and
54. The tissue is made up of parenchyma cells and is able to undergo cell this phenomenon is referred to as:
division to produce branch roots. a. Development b.Photoperiodism
a. Pericycle b. Cortex c. Parenchyma cells d. Casparian strip c. Vernalization d.Respiration
7. Which statement is correct?
a. Plant growth is affected by internal factors.
b. Plant growth is affected by external factors. 22. Which is not a type of meristems in plants?
c. Plant growth is affected by both internal and external factors. a. Apical meristems b. Intercalary meristems
d. Plant growth is affected by neither internal nor external factors. c.Lateral meristems d. Nodal meristems
8. The internal controls of plant growth are all the product of: 23. To effect plant growth through cell enlargement, such phenomenon
a. Hormones b. Plant nutrition should occur:
c.Plant compounds d.Genetic instructions a. Cell walls should be ―loosened‖ by secretion of acids into the cell
9. Chemicals produced by plants that regulate growth processes walls so cells could ―stretch‖
a. Photoassimilates b. Secondary metabolites b. Cell vacuoles should be filled with water to promote cell
c.Plant hormones d.Plant growth regulators expansion by positive turgor pressure
10. Chemicals applied by agriculturists to control growth of plants such as c. A and B
in stimulating root development d. None of the above
a. Photoassimilates b.Secondary metabolites 24. Organic molecules that are synthesized in one plant part that affect
c.Plant hormones d.Plant growth regulators other parts of the plant
For numbers 11 to 14, the choices are: a. Flavonoids b. Hormones c.Proteins d.Vitamins
a. Abscisic acid b. Auxins c. Cytokinins d. Gibberellins 25. There are how many major groups of plant hormones?
11. Plant hormones that are responsible for lengthening of internodes and a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6
influence developing embryos in seeds For questions no. 26 to 30, these are your choices:
12. Considered a multi-functional plant hormone but which primarily a. Lag phase b.Logarithmic phase c. Declining phase
affects the rate of cell division and flowering of plants. d.Steady phase e. Senescence
13. Plant hormones that promote cell division and influence cell 26. Considered as the fastest phase of plant growth
differentiation and aging of leaves 27. The stage when plant growth ceases and leaves start to abscise
14. Considered as the ―stress‖ hormone because it inhibits the effects of 28. A phase when plants have attained their maximum number of leaves,
other hormones to reduce growth during times of plant stress size of leaves, height and girth
15. A phenomenon wherein high levels of auxins at the shoot tips inhibit 29. Phase of plant growth in which internal changes occur in plants in
the growth of lateral buds preparation for growth (e.g. vegetative growth)
a. Allelic dominance b. Apical dominance 30. The phase when pods, seeds or grains fill up with photoassimilates and
c.Lateral dominance d. Shoot dominance approach ripening and maturity
16. High auxin levels were detected at the right side of a plant stem. 31. The following are examples of synthetic auxins, except:
Which direction will the stem bend towards to? a. 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
a. Towards the right b. Towards the left b. Α-napthaleneacetic acid (NAA)
c.Will grow straight d.None of the above c. Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA)
For questions no. 17 to 21, the choices are: d. paclobutrazol
a. Abscisic acid b.Auxins c.Cytokinins 32. The following are naturally-occurring plant growth inhibitors, except:
d.Ethylene e.Gibberellins a. Benzoic acid b. Coumarin
17. What was the first plant hormone to be identified? c.Gibberellic acid d. Cinamic acid
18. What plant hormone whose main function is to promote cell division 33. The following are examples of synthetic growth retardants that
and organ formation? produce dwarf, compact, and fuller plants, except:
19. What plant hormone is synthesized in mature leaves, root caps and a. Daminozide b. Cytokinins
fruits and is often involved in the dormancy of buds and seeds? c.Chlormequat d. Paclobutrazol
20. What plant hormone inhibits growth, closes stomata during water 34. Which is not a use of auxins in horticulture?
stress, and counteracts breaking of dormancy? a. Rooting hormones for cuttings
21. What is the simple gas that promotes fruit ripening and aging of b. Prevent fruit drop in trees shortly before harvest
tissues? c. Fruit thinning to reduce excessive fruiting to produce large fruits
d. Promote fruit ripening 9. Plant traits that are generally influenced by environmental factors such
35. The correct order of plant growth stages is: as temperature
a. Lag phase  log phase  declining phase  steady phase  a. Multiple traits c. Qualitative traits
senescence b. Single traits d. Quantitative traits
b. Log phase lag phase  declining phase  steady phase  10. One gene that governs for a desirable trait in crops (e.g. resistance to a
senescence disease) may also influence another trait that has a negative effect on
c. Lag phase  log phase  steady phase  declining phase  yield
senescence a. Polygenic trait
d. Log phase  lag phase  steady phase  senescence phase  b. Pleiotropic gene (or Pleiotropy)
declining phase c. Epistasis (or epistatic genes)
d. Duplicate genes
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION 11. Which is most correct?
1. Considered as the most important economic crop trait that is the focus a. Low-yielding variety + well-prepared farm = good harvest
of crop production b. High-yielding variety + poorly-prepared farm = good harvest
a. Plant height b. Days to maturity c. Low-yielding variety + poorly-prepared farm = good harvest
c. Yield d. Resistance to pests and pathogens d. High-yielding variety + well-prepared farm = good harvest
2. Yield components that may contribute to corn grain yield 12. Which is not an environmental factor that affects plant growth?
a. Number of ears per plant, plant height, & leaf area a. Air b. Moisture c. Temperature d.Photosynthesis
b. Number of ears per plant, plant height, & days to maturity 13. Plants that can continue to photosynthesize even when CO2 is limiting
c. Ear length, ear diameter, & leaf area due to closure of stomata:
d. Ear length, ear diameter, & number of kernel rows per cob a. C3 plants b. C4 plants c. CAM plants d.C4 and CAM plants
3. Movement of air that could influence pollen transfer and consequently 14. Which is not correct?
fruit formation of cross-pollinating crops and even some self- a. There are 7 essential macro-elements and 9 essential micro-
pollinating crops elements for plant growth and development for most plants
a. Insects b. Wind c. Humans d. All of the above b. Some plants require more than 16 essential elements for good
4. The genetic constitution of an organism production
a. Phenotype b. Genotype c. Ecotype d. Biotype c. Some plants have more than 16 elements in their system of which
5. The physical expression of a plant trait some are not needed for growth and development
a. Phenotype b. Genotype c. Ecotype d. Biotype d. The element gold can be found in some plants.
6. Any phenotype is the sum of: 15. In the visible light spectrum, which colors or wavelengths correspond
a. Genotype + environment to high photosynthetic activity among most plants?
b. Genotype + environment + hormones a. Blue and green
c. Genotype + environment + interaction of genes & environment b. Red and blue-violet
d. None of the above c. Yellow and orange
7. Simple plant traits that are usually controlled by one or a few genes d. Green and red
and therefore, such traits show simple inheritance 16. A crop that needs more hours of the dark period in order to initiate to
a. Multiple traits c. Qualitative traits flower is called:
b. Single traits d. Quantitative traits a. Long day plant b.Short day plant
8. Complex plant traits that are usually controlled by many genes and c. Intermediate plant d. Day neutral plant
therefore, such traits show complex inheritance 17. The ability of the plant to endure low internal water content and being
a. Multiple traits c. Qualitative traits able to recover and grow when soil is replenished is called:
b. Single traits d. Quantitative traits a. Drought avoidance b. Drought evasion
C. Drought resistance d. Drought tolerance
18. Plants that grow in soils that need to be saturated all the time with a. Corynebacterium c. Rhizobium
moisture b. Ralstonia d. Agrobacterium
a. Xerophytes b. Mesophytes 12. The relationship existing between a nitrogen-fixing bacteria and a legume
c. Hydrophytes d. None of the above plant
19. Air, an important factor for crop growth, has the following a. commensalism c. parasitism
components, except: b. symbiosis d. predation
a. Carbon dioxide b.Sulfur 13. The anaerobic enzyme responsible for fixing nitrogen gas into ammonia
c.Oxygen d.Relative humidity a. nitrilase b. carboxylase c. nitrogenase d. oxygenase
20. Which is/are an anthropogenic factor(s) that affect(s) crop production? 14. Gall-like protrusions on the roots of legumes which contain the N-fixing
a. Labor and capital b.Cultural beliefs and traditions bacteria
c. Distance to market d. All of the above a. mycorrhiza b. nodules c. cortex d. roothairs
15. The photosynthetic product supplied by the legume to the N-fixing bacteria
BIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION a. sucrose b. glucose c. malate d. maltose
1. All life forms existing and within the immediate vicinity of the crop 16. The product donated by the N-fixing bacteria to the host legume plant
a. edaphic factors c. biotic factors a. ammonium b. histidine c. nitrate d. glucose
b. abiotic factors d. climatic factors 17. The plowing-under of a legume plant at early reproductive stage to increase
2. Biotic factors which aid in the transfer of pollen from one flower to another the nitrogen content of the soil
a. decomposers c. nitrogen fixers a. green manuring c. green revolution
b. pollinators d. pests b. green pharming d. green augmentation
3. Plants whose male and female flowers are borne on separate plants 18. These organisms are also called the ‗final consumers‘ or the ‗recyclers‘
a. monoecious b. dioecious c. perfect d. complete a. producers b. consumers c. decomposers d. pests
4. This describes the evolution of the flower with its pollinator to make them 19. In composting, which is not true about the ‗browns‘???
better adapted to each other a. high nitrogen content c. high carbohydrate content
a. homoestasis b. equilibrium c.. balance d. coevolution b. high source of energy d. dried materials
5. Moths are more adapted to pollinate flowers which… 20. Still on composting, which is true about the ‗greens‘?
a. bloom during the day c. emit a foul smell a. high nitrogen content c. high carbohydrate content
b. do not bloom d. bloom at night b. high source of energy d. dried materials
6. Flies are more adapted to pollinate flowers which… 21. Which is not true about mycorrhizae?
a. bloom during the day c. emit a foul smell a. bacterial associations with plants b. fungal association with plants
b. do not bloom d. bloom at night c. can enter the roots of plants d. enhances better absorption of phosphorus
7. An agent which facilitates the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma 22. The regulation of pest population using living organisms
of a flower a. biological control c. chemical control
a. pollinator c. nitrogen fixer b. mechanical control d. physical control
b. pollination d. decomposer 23. A pest management practice which uses plants that release chemicals to the
8. Which is not true about insect-pollinated flowers soil which are antagonistic to soil-borne pests
a. sweet-smelling c. colorful a. chemical control c. biofumigation
b. with nectaries d. odorless b. physical control d. bioremediation
9. This bee product is made from the nectar collected by the bees 24. The gaseous substance in cruciferswhich, when acted upon by an enzyme
a. bees wax b. honey c. propolis d. royal jelly produces a biocidal compound
10. This bee product is produced from the abdomen of the worker bees a. glutathione c. glucose
a. bees wax b. honey c. propolis d. royal jelly b. glucosinolate d. glycolysis
11. The genus of the bacteria which live in close association with legumes and 25. The biocidal compound produced after glucosinolate (GSL) is acted upon
fix atmospheric nitrogen by an enzyme
a. isothiocyanate c. glucose 2. Hereditary unit that is transmitted from one generation to the next.
b. thiocarbamate d. myrosinase a. cell b. gene c. nucleus d. plastid
26. Arthropod pests with three pairs of legs and three body segments 3. Chemical basis of heredity.
a. rodents b. fungi c. snails d. insects a. cell b. protein c. carbohydrates d. DNA
27. Unicellular or multicellular, achlorophyllous disease-causing organisms 4. Threadlike structure of DNA coiled around a protein core found in the
which exist as saprophytes or parasites nucleus.
a. fungi b. biological control agents c. bacteria d. insects a. cell b. plastid c. chromosome d. mitochondria
28. Single-celled microorganisms belonging to Class Schizomycetes 5. Type of dominance relationship where the heterozygotes exceed the
a. fungi b. biological control agents c. bacteria d. insects phenotypic performance of the homozygous parents.
29. Rats belong to what Order? a. complete b. incomplete c. overdominance d. co-dominance
a. Rattus b. Rattudetus c. Rodentus d. Rodentia 6. The complete sets of chromosome of an organism is called ____.
30. The substance which gives the pink color in nodules a. genotype b. phenotype c. genome d. ploidy
a. leghaemoglobin c. anthocyanin 7. Which is not a somatic cell?
b. chlorophyll d. xanthophylls a. pollen b. leaves c. stem d. fruit
31. The glandular structure of a flower which secretes a sugary liquid 8. The process of gamete formation.
a. petal b. pollen c. nectary d. stigma a. pollination b. fertilization c. gametogenesis d. all
32. The most common pollinators among the animals 9. Part of the cell cycle where DNA duplication occurs
a. insects b. man c. birds d. bats a. G1-pahes b. S-phase c. G2-phase d. M-phase
33. The harmful effect of one plant on another plant due to the substances that it 10. Rice has 2n = 24 chromosome number. How many chromosomes will there
secretes be in the product after meiosis I?
a. allelopathy b. interference c. competition d. symbiosis a. 6 b. 12 c. 18 d. 20
34. Among the insects, which group pollinates the most number/kinds of 11. Cell type that contains only half the number of chromosome set.
flowers? a. somatic cell b. sex cell c. diploid cell d. none
a. flies b. beetles c. bees d, moths 12. The fusion of male and female gametes is known as?
35. The use of living organisms to remove contaminants from the environment a. pollination b. fertilization c. mutation d. selection
and restore it to its natural state 13. The process of transferring pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower
a. biofumigation b. biosynthesis c. biogas d. bioremediation a. pollination b. fertilization c. mutation d. selection
36. Eel- or worm-like organisms, which inhabit the soil and invade plants 14. Fertilized egg is called
through roots a. embryo b. zygote c. endosperm d. all
a. snails b. bacteria c. nematodes d. worms 15. Which is not a sex cell or gamete?
37. Pomaceacanaliculata is the scientific name of what organism? a. flower b. pollen c. egg d. sperm
a. nematode b. weed c. golden apple snail d. insect 16. Model plants of the geneticist
38. Amaranthusspinosus is … a. Oryza sativa b. Zea mays
a. an insect b. a fungus c. a bacteria d. a weed c. Vigna radiata d. Arabidopsis thaliana
39. This is the most important enzyme in biological nitrogen fixation 17. Proposed method of DNA replication.
a. synthase b. oxygenase c. nitrilase d. nitrogenase a. semi-conservative b. Despersice c. Conservative d. none
40. This pests are leaf feeders. They haveunsegmented body structure and they 18. Products of transcription process
usually have shells a. m-RNA b. t-RNA c. r-RNA d. all
a. rats b. snails c. bacteria d. nematodes 19. Which is a female organ of a flower?
a. sepal b. petal c. stamen d. pistil
FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 20. Which is the male organ of a flower? (use the choices in # 19)
1. Branch of Biology that is concerned with the study of heredity and variation. 21. Assembly of genes possessed by an individual.
a. Botany b. Zoology c. Genetics d. Molecular Biology a. phenotype b. allele c. genotype d. gene
22. Alternate form of a gene 43. If the gene has complete dominance relationship, how many kinds of
a. phenotype b. genotype c. allele d. all genotypes will be produced in an individual with a Tt genotype during selfing?
23. Trait that will only be expressed when two recessive alleles come together. a. One b. two c. three d. four
a. quantitative b. qualitative c. Recessive d. dominant 44. How many kinds of phenotypes will be produced? (Same condition in # 43)
24. Any measurable or distinctive traits of an organism. a. One b. two c. three d. four
a. genotype b. recessive c. phenotype d. all (45- 46.)Using the same condition in #43 but this time there is a partial or no
25. Gene that control two or more traits/characters in an organism. dominance type of relationship between alleles that exist.
a. dominant b. recessive c. pleiotropic d. epistatic 45. How many kinds of genotypes will be produced?
26. Genes located in the same chromosome are known as? a. One b. two c. three d. four
a. dominant b. epistatic c. linked d. 46. How many kinds of phenotypes will be produced?
complementary a. One b. two c. three d. four
27. Specific position in the chromosome where the genes are located 47. In plant, the male reproductive spore is called
a. centromere b. arm c. locus d. none a. embryo sac b. pollen grains c. endosperm d. none
28. Type of gene interactions where two dominant genes are required for the 48. Type of dominance relationship where the F1 progenies are intermediate
expression of a certain trait. between the two parents
a. epistatic b. dominant c. complementary d. recessive a. complete b. incomplete c. overdominance d. co-dominance
29. Part of male reproductive organ where pollen is produce 49. Another type of dominance relationship where dominant gene masked the
a. filament b. petal c. anther d. ovary effect of recessive gene.
30. Part of the female flower where the pollen will land during pollination. a. complete b. incomplete c. overdominance d. co-dominance
a. pistil b. anther c. stigma d. style 50. Which best describe meiotic type of cell division
GIVEN: wheat (2n = 6x = 42); Choices: a. 21 b. 7 c. 42 d. 6 a. Produces two identical daughter cells
31. What is the diploid chromosome number of wheat? b. Occurs in any type of cells
32. What is the basic chromosome number of wheat? c. Cells produced are still capable of undergoing another round of cell cycle
33. Gametic or haploid chromosome number of wheat. d. Crossing over between non-sister chromatids further contributes to the
34-37 CHOICES: recombination of paternal and maternal heredity traits in the gametes
a. metacentric b. telocentric c. acrocentric d. p-arm e. q-arm
34. Chromosome with approximately equal arm size. CROP IMPROVEMENT
35. Chromosome with centromere located at or very near one end of the 1. Components in plant being changed during crop improvement
chromosome. a. genetic b. environment c. both a & b d. none
36. Shorter arm of the chromosome is called? 2. Which of the statements below is not true about plant breeding?
37. Longer arm of the acrocentric chromosome is called? a. A multidisciplinary approach of improving crop
38. Two identical functional strands of chromosome produce during the b. Crop improvement is mainly based on the needs of the plant
replication is called? c. It is an art, science and business of changing the genetic structure of plant
a. chromatids b. kinetochore c. spindle fiber d. centromere d. All of the above
39. Constriction point which divide the chromosome into 2 section or ―arm‖. 3. Superiority of the F1 over the two parents
a. satellite b. spindle fiber c, kinetochore d. centromere a. selfing b. heterosis c. inbreeding depression d. backcrossing
40. Phase of the cell cycle where the cell undergoes cell division. 4. Filipino breeder that developed the C4 variety of rice
a. G1 b. S c. G2 d. M a. Dr. Lantican b. Dr. Franje c. Dr. Escuro d. Dr. Hernandez
41. An organism with a DD genotype will produce how many kinds of gamete? 5. Infiltration of the genetic constituency of one species with genes from
a. One b. two c. three d. four another species through natural hybridization.
42. An individual with Bb genotype when selfed will produce how many kinds a. divergence b. self-incompatibility
of gamete? c. introgressive hybridization d. all
a. One b. two c. three d. four 6. Plant breeding is synonymous to
a. animal production b. crop improvement 21. The sum total of hereditary materials or genes present in a species.
c. crop production d. all a. improved crop b. germplasm c. landraces d. hybrids
7. Manipulation of genetic make-up in plant can be through? 22. Consider as the origin of natural variability
a. controlled pollination b. genetic engineering a. selection b. hybridization c. mutation d. fertilization
c. both a and b d. none 23. Bringing in exotic crop species that will eventually be adapted to the area.
8. The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower a. selection b. introduction c. hybridization d. domestication
a. pollination b. fertilization c. selection d. hybridization 24. Oldest method of plant breeding and an integral part of any crop
9. Occurs when the male and female gametes of the same individual unite to improvement program.
produce seeds. a. selection b. introduction c. hybridization d. domestication
a. half-sib mating b. selfing c. full-sib mating d. backcrossing 25. Important contributions of Plant breeding to Agriculture except
10. Consist of first generation progenies from a cross between two pure lines, a. improved crop productivity b. improved quality and stability
inbreds, open-pollinated, etc. that are dissimilar. c. improved profitability d. increase crop vulnerability to stress
a. hybrid cultivars b. line cultivars c. clone d. multilines 26. Essential categories of scientific knowledge needed by all plant breeders
11. Reduction in the performance of the progeny that is associated with an except
increase in homozygosity due to inbreeding a. principles and practices of plant breeding c. Mendelian genetics
a. hybrid vigor b. heterosis c. inbreeding depresión d. all b. applied statistics & experimental design d. none
12. Purpose of crop improvement is to change genetic make-up of plant for the 27. Variety of rice developed by IRRI that is popularly known as ―miracle rice‖
benefit of a. IR-36 b. IR-8 c. IR-64 d. mestizo rice
a. human b. plant c. both a and b d. none 28. Involves the selection of homozygous single plant and growing the
13. Which is not true about plant breeding as a business? progenies of each selected plants.
a. requires personnel b. involves time a. introduction b. mass selection c. pure line selection d. all
c. money is not important d. all 29. The process of crossing two genetically different plants to combine the
14. Reason why there‘s a need to improve crops except. desirable traits of the parent plants
a. to feed the ever increasing population a. selection b. introduction c. hybridization d. domestication
b. great demand for specialty crops for non-food use 30. Mating process which involves a cross between an inbred lines and a
c. abundance of food supply cultivar
d. transformed plant to be used as ‗reactors‘ for the production of large a. top cross b. double cross c. 3-way cross d. Polycross
amount of plant -derived pharmaceuticals. 31. Mating of a hybrid to one of its parent
15. Major goals of crop improvement except a. top cross b. backcross c. double cross d. 3-way cross
a. increase production 32. Portion of the phenotypic variance among individuals that is due to genetic
b. improved resistance to biotic and abiotic factors differences among them.
c. improved quality d. none a. hybrid vigor b. heterosis
16. Important type of variation that is basic in any plant breeding works. c. inbreeding depresión d. heritability
a. environmental b. genetic c. both a and b d. only a 33. Reasons of using recombinant DNA technology in crop improvement
17. Visible appearance of a plant that can be measured except.
a. genotype b. phenotype c. both a and b d. only a a. Continuous increase of population
18. Plants that possessed like alleles in a locus b. limited available land and water resources
a. homogenous b. homozygous c. heterozygous d. heterogeneous c. Over production of agricultural commodities
19. Early cultivated form of a crop species that evolved from wild species d. none
a. improved variety b. landraces c. hybrids d. OPV‘s 34. Is a form of biotechnology that can create novel genetic combinations by
20. Important things to consider in crop improvement except biochemical means through the insertion of foreign DNA into a vector molecule
a. farmers needs and preferences b. growing condition of the intended area and introducing this gene construct into an organisms
c. cropping pattern in the growing areas d. plants needs a. Genetic engineering b. selection
c. introduction d. conventional PB a. broad sense b. narrow sense c. non-sense d. common
35. Transformation in plant that uses gene gun to transfer foreign gene to the sense
host. 50. Feature of a quantitative trait?
a. biological b. biolistic c. physical d. all a. segregation is continuous b. classes are distinct
36. Benefits derived from genetic engineering except c. not affected by environment d. govern by major genes
a. long shelf-life of fruits, vegetables and flowers
b. increase nutritional component of plants SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
c. increase needs of inputs for production 1. Which of the following best defines sustainable development?
d. all a. a conceptual framework c. a new development strategy
37. Another term for additive effect of the gene. b. an intellectual approach d. all of these
a. breeding value b. dominance deviation c. epistasis d. all 2. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) which
38. Interaction of alleles and genotypes at different loci was formed by the UN in 1983 is better known as
a. breeding value b. dominance deviation c. epistasis d. all a. Montreal Protocol b. Sustainable Development Commission
39. Measures of resemblance between relatives c. Brundtland Commission d. Environment Commission
a. heterosis b. heritability c. hybridization d. all 3. The report of the WCED which was issued on April 1987 is entitled
40. Autogamous is another word for a. Sustainable Development c. Sustainable Agriculture
a. cross-pollination b. self-pollination b. Our Common Future d. Conserving the Earth
c. domestication d. fertilization 4. Economic development that meets the needs of the present generation
41. In hybrid development using male sterility factor as in hybrid rice, that line without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
is responsible for the restoration of male fertility is WCED‘s definition of
a. R-line b. A-line c. B-line d. all of the above a. Sustainable Agriculture c. Development Economics
42. Group of individuals from which superior lines or varieties are extracted or b. Sustainable Development d. Intergenerational Economics
used as initial population in a recurrent selection. 5. Equity between the interest and rights of different social groups within a
a. genepool b. base population c. germplasm d. land races generation is known as
43. Name of the plant that is produced through recombinant DNA technology a. intragenerational equity c. intergenerational equity
a. hybrid b. transgenic c. ordinary d. biogenic b. both a and c d. none of these
44. Agencies that work closely with National Committee on Biosafety in the 6. Equity between the interest and rights of present and future generations is
Philippines known as
a. CHED b. DepEd c. DOH-BFAD d. DTI a. intragenerational equity c. intergenerational equity
45. Constraints to Biotechnology development in the Philippines except b. both a and b d. none of these
a. Insufficient and inconsistent research fund 7. The ethical dimension to equity refers to
b. Satisfactory R and D infrastructure programs a. equity between the interests and rights of different social groups within a
c. Propriety rights generation
d. Very modest number of scientist trained in modern biotechnology b. equity between the interests and rights of present and future generations
46. Method use to handle segregating generations after hybridization in self- c. equity between the interests and rights of human beings and other species
pollinated species. d. all of the above
a. full-sib selection b. pedigree c. half-sib selection d. all 8. The attitude that regards the value of nature merely as a pool of exploitable
47. The sum of the average effects of genes at all loci controlling a character resources to be used for the satisfaction of human wants
a. breeding value b. dominance deviation c. epistasis d. all a. profitable attitude c. biocentric-holistic attitude
48. Mechanism that promotes self-pollination b. anthropocentric attitude d. none of these
a. protygyny b. protandry c. cleistogamy d. dioecy 9. What are the roots of unsustainable development?
49. Type of heritability where the additive variance is divided by the a. Green revolution c. Market Economics & Market Agriculture
phenotypic variance b. a and c d. none of these
10. The ―Earth Summit‖ held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 refers to the a. biological stability c. management stability
a. UN Conference on Environment & Development (UNCED) b. production and economic stability d. all of these
b. Global Forum on Environment & Development 21. The evenness of distribution of the productivity of the agricultural system
c. World Conference on Environment & Development among the human beneficiaries is referred to as
d. None of these a. sustainability b. stability c. equitability d. resiliency
11. Sustainable agriculture is any practice, method, technique/technology, 22. Which is NOT a method employed in sustainable management for lowlands
philosophy or system of production that makes agriculture and uplands?
a. economically feasible and ecologically sound a. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) b. Conventional farming
b. socially just and humane c. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) d. none of these
c. culturally appropriate and grounded on holistic science 23. Which of the following is/are forms of green manuring?
d. all of these a. improved fallow and alleycropping
12. The scientific basis for sustainable agriculture is b. Integrating trees into croplands
a. ecology b. agro-ecology c.green revolution d.farming systems c. Minus-One-Element Technique (MOET)
13. Which of the following are characteristics of Sustainable Agriculture? d. Azolla and blue green algae
a. SA is flexible and experiential c. SA is participatory 24. Which of the following is NOT a natural pest control (repellent crops) for
b. SA is proactive and forward looking d. all of these an organic garden?
14. Sustainable agriculture is ____ because it is not prescriptive of a defined set a. Basil and Garlic b. Neem tree
of practices, methods, techniques/technologies or policies that would restrict the c. Marigold and Peppermint d. Rosemary
option of the farmer 25. Sustainable agriculture focuses on the
a. flexible b. experiential c. proactive d. participatory a. farmer b. environment c. production d. income
15. Because sustainable agriculture is a process of learning and not the 26. A major strategy in Sustainable Agriculture is to restore the agricultural
imposition of a simple model or package, it is said to be diversity in time and space through
a. flexible b. experiential c. participatory d. proactive a. crop rotations and intercroppig c. polycultures and cover cropping
16. The practitioner of sustainable agriculture considers himself b. crop-livestock mixtures d. all of these
a. the master of nature b. a part of nature 27. The pillars of sustainable development are:
c. an outsider of nature d. all of these a. respect & concern for people b. both a and c
17. Which of the following are resource conservation and regeneration c. respect and concerns for ecosystems d. none of these
methods? 28. Some of the external costs that are avoided in sustainable agriculture are
a. multiple cropping (multi-storey, intercropping, relay cropping. etc.) and a. soil erosion, pollution, lower food quality
cover cropping b. loss of biodiversity, species/varieties/breeds and indigenous knowledge
b. organic residue management c. erosion of human health and social knowledge
c. tillage practices-conservation tillage d. all of these
d. all of these 29. Which of the following practices are sustainable?
18. Which of the following is NOT a farmer-oriented approach to resource a. recycling of nutrients and use of compost, green manures, etc.
conservation and regeneration? b. non-pesticidal control of pests
a. in situ collection of seed supply c. diversified and integrated farming
b. in situ evaluation and improvement of seeds d. all of these
c. in vitro collection of indigenous seeds 30-37, Write A if the practice contributes to sustainable agriculture and B if
d. distribution of indigenous genetic resources (seeds) otherwise.
19. A farmer can increase the productivity and stability of his farm through 30. Rice-fish culture
a. nutrient and fertilizer management c. efficient farm power 31. Injecting cattle with hormone
b. crop diversity and management d. all of these 32. crop-animal integration
20. Which of the following are sources of stability of production systems? 33. Using land owned by others
34. monocropping 44. It is a management strategy that is also called site specific farming which
35. Use of Bt corn employs detailed information to precisely manage crop production inputs using
36. Use of synthetic chemicals & fertilizers computers, telecommunications and global positioning systems (GPS).
37. Organic residue management a. Integrated Farming c. Precision Farming
38. This is a holistic system of agriculture started by Rudolf Steiner that aims to b. Holistic Management d. Natural Farming
connect nature and cosmic forces (formative life energies) to farming. It 45. It is a mini farming system introduced by Alan Chadwick about the concept
follows the principle that heavenly bodies (stars, etc) influence the growth and of double dug method of making raised beds, intensive planting, composting,
development of plants. companion cropping and whole system synergy.
a. Natural farming c. Sustainable Agriculture a. Bio-intensive gardening (BIG) c. Site Specific Farming
b. Bio-dynamic farming d. Permaculture b. Integrated Farming d. Biodynamic Farming
39. LEISA is a farming system or philosophy in which most of the inputs used
originate from the farm. Deliberate action is taken to ensure sustainability SITE CHARACTERIZATION
however; it is open for a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer. 1. Site characterization and selection of crop production in the Philippines
LEISA means require knowledge of
a. Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture a. geographical characteristics of the area
b. Low-External-Input and Subsistence Agriculture b. botanical characteristics of crops
c. Liberalized Economy, Industry & Strategic Agriculture c. Indicators of land, climate, crops, ecology, culture and market dynamics
d. all of these d. geography, soil & climatic characteristics only
40. Australian philosopher named Bill Mollison that combines quality of plants 2. A component in crop production system that cannot be controlled by human
and animals with the natural characteristics of the landscape and structures to beings.
produce a life-supporting system for humans. It is the ―conscious design and a. Technological factor c. Environmental & Climatic factors
maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems that have the diversity, b. Biological factor d. all of these
stability and resilience of natural systems and trees are the important feature of 3. Which of the following climatic components directly affect the type and kind
this system‖. of crop to grown in a specific area?
a. Natural farming b. Ecological farming a. wind velocity b. temperature c. solar radiation d. rainfall
c. Permaculture d. Agroforestry 4. What crop is best recommended when accessibility to market is not possible?
41. This is a system of agriculture devised by a Japanese farmer named a. grain crops b. vegetables c. rootcrops d. fruit crops
Masanobu Fukuoka that seeks to follow nature by minimizing human 5. Which of the following is NOT a shade-tolerant crop?
interference. It follows the ―no plowing, no weeding, no fertilizers and no a. gabi b. ramie c. coffee d. rice
chemicals‖ or ―do nothing‖ farming. 6. Climate zone to which the Philippines belong is
a. One-straw revolution b. Permaculture a. humid tropics b. tropical highlands
c. Ecological Farming d. Natural Farming c. semi-arid d. sub-humid tropics
42. It is a farming system where trees are grown together with annual crops 7. Characteristic climate of the tropics (Philippines) is
and/or animals. a. erratic b. variable c. low d. high
a. Agroforestry b. Organic Agriculture 8. Characteristics of farms in the tropics are
c. Biodynamic Agriculture d. Permaculture a. well-managed b. small and resource limited
43. It is a farming system developed by Teruo Higa of Japan which means c. sustainable d. plantation type
saving the world which involves the use of beneficial organisms and inoculants 9. The reason for longer period of maturity of crops in tropical highlands is
to increase microbial diversity, health and yield of crops. a. erosion b. poor seeds
a. Kyusei Nature Farming c. Organic Farming c. high rate of photosynthesis d. lower temperature
b. Precision Farming d. Regenerative Agriculture 10. The most destructive consequence of high rainfall intensity in the tropics is
a. soil erosion b. low productivity
c. plant diversity d. rainfall pattern
11. It is generally more rainy in 23. The staple crops in Ilocos region are:
a. Mountainous regions b. lowland areas a. rice and tobacco b. rice and corn
c. Seashore areas d. crop lands c. tomato and tobacco d. rice and tomato
12. Based on temperature requirement, rice is a 24. The most perishable crops in Ilocos Region are:
a. cool-season crop b. warm season crop a. rice and grain corn c. tomato and green corn
c. subtropical crop d. temperate crop b. rice and tobacco d. grain corn & tobacco
13. As a factor in crop production, edaphic factor refers to 25. In areas that are said to be ―typhoon belts‖, the suitable crops to be grown
a. climate b. man c. soil d. microorganisms by farmers are
14. The desirable soil texture for crops is a. cereals b. rootcrops c. pulses d. plantation crops
a. heavy soil b. loamy soil c. light soil d. sandy soil 26. Davao and Bukidnon become the preferred sites for planting export crops
15. Which activity listed below contributes to soil erosion in hilly areas? such as banana. The reason for this is/are
a. plowing along the slope c. growing of vegetation a. the areas are typhoon-free c. estate farms are available
b. mulching d. contouring b. port facilities are accessible d. all of these
16. Solar radiation is a very important component in increasing crop yield. 27. Setting up of a new production enterprise in areas where certain crops have
Which of the following physiological processes is greatly affected? become dominant would be advantageous because of
a. transpiration b. photosynthesis c. respiration d. absorption a. proven adaptation of the crop c. a and b
17. Which of these areas are vulnerable to soil erosion? b. experience of the farmers d. none of these
a. arable land b. hillyland c. upland d. lowland 28. Which of the following crops will you plant if you have low labor supply
18. Corn production in Bukidnon and Cebu are primarily as staple food. In and low capital input?
growing corn, the most feasible nutrition management for the crop is: a. root crops b. vegetable crops
a. Use of Bio-N (Azosperillium) plus chicken manure c. non-food crops d. grains crops
b. mulching with plastic sheet 29. A farmer has enough labor and capital but with a very limited land. What
c. foliar spray of micronutrients crop will you recommend him to raise?
d. applying burnt leaves for its ash a. root crops b. vegetable crops
19. If you are a pioneer in the Mindanao Region, site selection and choice of c. non-food crops d. grains crops
appropriate crop require your knowledge of 30. A farmer inherited from his parents an arable land that is near an irrigation
a. soil and rainfall pattern only system. He plans to convert that into a ricefield. What method of rice culture
b. soil, climatic and biological indicators of the crop will he adapt?
c. soil and climatic characteristics, biological and economic characteristics, a. direct seeding b. transplanting c. dry land seeding d. a and b
culture of the community
d. soil, rainfall, population and technology of the crop CROP PRODUCTION
20. In the agroforestry system in Mindanao, some good practices are: 1. Major climatic factor which influence the distribution of plant species except
a. sloping agriculture for fruit trees a. soil b. temperature c. rainfall d. relative humidity
b. industrial tree farming for paper products 2. Type of cultivation which brought the soil towards the base of the plant
c. cattle raising under coconuts with legume trees a. plowing b. harrowing c. off-barring d. hilling-up
d. papaya and pineapple intercropping 3. Which is not a post-harvest operation?
21. In Ilocos Region, the principal crops are rice or corn during rainy season a. threshing b. shelling c. plowing d. drying
followed by tobacco or tomato. These crops grow well in this area because it 4. Type of germination exhibited by corn
has distinct wet and dry seasons. The most probable land preparation is a. epigeal b. hypogeal c. both a &b d. none
a. plowing b. kaingin system c. chemical d. biological sprays 5. Refers to the non-seed material component in purity analysis
22. In that same region, the most probable cropping system is a. pure seeds b. other crop seeds c. dead seed d. inert matter
a. monocropping b. greenhouse cropping 6. Mature ovule consisting of an embryonic plant, endosperm and a seedcoat
c. multiple cropping d. plantation a. fruit b. seed c. flower d. pod
7. Which plant has a tendril? a. threshing b. shelling c. drying d. packaging
a. sweet potato b. gabi c. squash d. string beans #26-30 Choices:
8. Characteristic of an upland area a. conventional tillage b. clean tillage c. mulch tillage
a. submerged b. waterlogged c. poor drainage d. well-drained d. zero tillage e. reduce tillage f. secondary tillage
9. Modified stem that grows horizontally above the soil surface exemplified by 26. Tillage which only necessary operation is done.
grasses. 27. Tillage which employs plant residues or other materials to cover the ground
a. tubers b. corms c. rhizome d. stolon surface
10. Type of inflorescence exhibited by sorghum plant 28. Employs the combination of primary and secondary tillage operations.
a. raceme b. panicle c. solitary d. spadix 29. Tillage which do not allow any plants to grow except for the desired crops.
11. The female flower of corn is popularly called as 30. Tillage operation which follows after the primary tillage.
a. hair b. ear c. brow d. eye 31. Which have a recalcitrant type of seed?
12. Which crop grows best in upland condition? a. corn b. durian c. papaya d. soybean
a. yam b. gabi c. rice d. kangkong 32. It is the growing of different food or feed crop one at a time in succession in
13. Which among the plant has a perfect type of flower? same area
a. corn b. squash c. coconut d. peanut a. Relay cropping b. intercropping c. crop rotation d. all
14. Modified stems usually found in viny plants use for support. 33. Which of the equipment is not used for secondary tillage?
a. tendrils b. corms c. rhizome d. stolon a. furrower b. disc harrow c. plow d.
15. Type of leaf venation exhibited by sorghum, corn and sugarcane planter
a. parallel b. netted c. narrow d. broad 34. Which is not an index to determine crop maturity?
16. Another name of corn male flower a. change in color b. defoliation c. stay green d. black layer
a. panicle b. ear c. tassel d. spadix 35. The process of removing corn kernels from the cob
17. Crop that thrives well in a poorly drained environment except a. cleaning b. threshing c. harvesting d. shelling
a. Oryza sativa b. Ipomoea aquatica #36-40 Choices: a. self-pollinated b. cross-pollinated
c. Colocassia esculenta d. Vigna radiata 36. Arachis hypogea
18. Plant that complete their life cycle for more than two years and beyond 37. Saccharum officinarum
a. annual b. biennial c. perennial d. all 38. Zea mays
19. Plant that can be propagated either by seeds or cuttings? 39. Vigna radiata
a. soybean b. rice c. corn d. sweet potato 40. pea
20. Any substance which is added or supplemented to the soil will supply the 41. Which of the following is a tomato variety?
necessary nutrients needed by the plant for its growth and development a. Matatag 11 b. Marikit c. Dumaguete long purple d. Magbunyi
a. fertilizer b. fertilizer analysis c. fertilizer recommendation d. all 42. Which is not a variety of mango?
21. Indicators of crop maturity except a. Pico b. Red Spanish c. Carabao d. Katchamita
a. change in color b. evergreen c. black layer formation d. none 43. Sett, seed pieces, and cane points are the term use of the planting material in
22. Mechanisms that prevents the occurrence of insect pests and diseases ____?
except. a. pineapple b. cassava c. sugarcane d. strawberry
a. use of resistant variety b. planting anytime 44. System of planting fruit trees where trees are set equidistant to one another
c. seed treatment with appropriate chemicals d. timing of planting from every direction, forming an equilateral triangle.
23. Which of the following methods of planting is not applicable for upland a. hexagonal b. rectangular c. Quincunx d. contour/terrace
rice? 45. Refers to the physical removal of the surface soil by the action of water.
a. broadcast b. hill c. drill d. transplanting a. surface run-off b. soil erosion c. percolation d. none
24. Fertilizer is applied when the seedlings are already established. 46. What is the seeding rate of sorghum if there are 15 plants/linear meter at 1
a. broadcast b. band c. localized d. topdressing m spacing between rows?
25. Which operation is not applicable to rice after harvest? a. 120,000/ha b.130,000/ha c. 140,000/ha d. 150,000/ha
Question: The farmer has a one hectare area and he wants it to be planted with b. control weeds and other pests
corn at a distance of 70 cm x 20 cm with one (1) plant per hill. Before sowing c. aerate the soil
he tested the germination percentage of his planting materials and found to have d. all of the above
90% only. 7. The operations involved in newly open area includes:
47. What is the population density of the corn plant per hectare if the % a. clearing/cutting down the tall trees
germination is 100? b. filing and burning of cut trees and grasses
a. 69,500 b. 70,300 c. 71,429.00 d. 72,100 c. plowing, harrowing and furrowing
48. If the area to be planted is only half-hectare, what is the population density? d. all of the above
(Same given) 8. In flat land, the direction of plowing follows in the longer side
a.34,750 b. 35,150 c. 35,715 d. 36,050 direction for:
49. If the population density per hectare is 53,333 and the germination a. faster operation b. minimize wear and tear of machineries
percentage is only 90, What is your adjusted seeding rate per hectare? c. reduce fuel and oil cost d. all of the above
a. 58,700 b. 59,259 c. 60,050 d. 60,150 9. In plowing slightly sloping areas, which of the operation is not
50. Based from your answer in #49, what is the equivalent in kilo of the seed recommended?
needed when the weight of 1000seeds is equal to 250.g? a. plowing along the contour of the land
a. 14.7 kg b. 14.8 kg c. 15.0 kg d. 15.2 kg b. plowing across the slope of the land
c. plowing in a downward direction
PRODUCTION PRACTICES d. both a and b
1. The practice of working the soil for the purpose of bringing about 10. The process of preparing the land into a condition ready to receive any
more favorable conditions for plant growth. planting materials
a. tillage b. pricking c. furrowing d. rotavating a. harrowing b. plowing c. land preparation d. hauling
2. The tillage operations where primary and secondary tillage are 11. Which method of planting is not included under direct seeding?
employed. a. broadcast b. drill c. hill d. transplanting
a. plowing b. harrowing 12. The placement of any planting material in the permanent location is:
c. conventional tillage d. minimum or economy tillage a. sowing b. seeding c. planting d. all of the above
3. A tillage operation wherein the only necessary tillage operation is 13. A part of a seed that develops into a new plant from the union of the
employed. male and female gametes
a. plowing b. harrowing a. embryo b. endosperm c. cotyledon d. seed coat
c. conventional tillage d. minimum/reduced/economy 14. Which of the following characteristics is not included in seed
4. The degree of tillage varies widely depending on these considerations, selection?
namely: a. susceptible to pest and diseases
a. the type of crop being planted b. adaptable to the locality
b. the type of farming techniques being practiced by farmers c. high yielding
c. the type of climate and weather conditions d. high percentage of germination)
d. both a and be. all of the above 15. Any materials or substances added to the soil that supply the necessary
5. Which of the following operations is not included in primary tillage nutrients for plant growth and development
operation? a. water b. insecticides c. fertilizers d. herbicides
a. the first breaking of the soil surface 16. Characteristics that do not describe an organic fertilizer
b. inverts cuts or shatters the soil surface to a depth of 12-14 inches a. low element content
c. harrowing to break the clods into smaller particles b. does not promote good physical soil condition
d. sub-soiling c. unlimited supply
6. The fundamental purposes of land preparation are: d. slow release of nutrients
a. develop proper soil structure
17. A process of cultivating at a desired depth and turning the soil away 31. Sexual propagation is common among most agronomic crops like
from the rows of the plant cereals/grains and legumes. Which of the following is not included in
a. off-barring b. hilling-up c. plowing d. tillage the group?
18. The removal of excess plants in a hill is called: a. rice b. corn c. sorghum d. sugarcane
a. sorting b. grading c. thinning d. pricking 32. A good choice of planting material is imperative since
19. Which of the following competes with the main crop for light, water, a. they carry the genes that will dictate for good performance
nutrients and space? b. adaptation and good yield potential of the crop under favorable
a. insects b. weeds c. diseases d. pests conditions
20. The process of bringing the water from the source to the place of c. contributes more than 50% of the success in crop production
application is known as: d. all of the above
a. sub-irrigation b. irrigation 33. The planting method not commonly employed for cereals and
c. drainage d. sprinkler irrigation legumes.
21. The right soil condition for fertilizer application in an upland soil is a. square b. row planting
when: c. broadcast method d. triangular or rectangular method
a. soil is too dry b. soil is too wet 34. Method of starting seedlings wherein farmers use banana leaves to
c. soil has sufficient moisture d. none of the above hold the soil medium where the seeds are sown.
22. To minimize losses of grains(mungo) due to shattering of pods, a. seedbed method b. ―lukong method‖
harvesting should be done: c. seed box method d. all of the above
a. early in the morning b. late in the afternoon 35. It is an outdoor area. This method of raising seedlings when large
c. at noon time d. a and b number of seeds is to be produced.
23. The percentage nutrient element content of the fertilizer material is: a. seedbed method b. ―lukong method‖
a. rate of recommendation b. analysis grade c. seed box method d. all of the above)
c. fertilizer content d. element) 36. The method of starting a seeding wherein seedling may be raised in
24. The application of nitrogenous fertilizer like urea during the panicle seed boxes.
initiation stage of the rice plant a. seed box method b. seed bed method
a. side dressing b. top dressing c. ―lukong method‖ d. all of the above)
c. basal application d. none of the above) 37. The process of thinning seedlings by transplanting them into flat or
25. The characteristics of a soil with a good soil tilth is: bed to give more and equal space before final planting. It can be done
a. sticky when wet b. easy to plow and cultivate when seedlings have already two pairs of leaves including the
c. easy to drain d. none of the above) cotyledonary leaf
26. The amount of seeds planted or required in a given area. . a. hardening b. pricking c. blocking d. rouging
a. seeding rate b. population density 38. A treatment that makes the plant tissue tough and firm prior to field
c. percentage germination d. none of the above) setting so as to enable the young plant to withstand adverse condition
27. The number of seeds planted in a given hill or linear meter. and vigors of transplanting
a. seeding rate b. population density a. hardening b. pricking c. blocking d. rouging
c. percentage germination d. all of the above) 39. Separating the seedlings by cutting the intertwined roots in between,
28. The planting materials for legumes and cereals. done same as in hardening using a very sharp knife to minimize
a. sees pieces b. setts c. seed d. stalks/stem setback of seedlings during transplanting
29. The planting materials for root crops and tuber. a. hardening b. pricking c. blocking d. rouging
a. vines b. stems or stalks c. tubers d. all of the above 40. An irrigation system that require a dam to divert the water from the
30. The planting materials for sugarcane. streams.
a. seeds b. stem/stalk c. tubers d. none of the above a. pumping b. gravity
c. subsurface irrigation d. none of the above
41. A general method of irrigation wherein water is applied in controlled 8. The most common method of irrigating corn and sugarcane is ___
state with fertilizer. a. Surface irrigation/flooding; b. Furrow irrigation;
a. gravity b. pumping c. Localized irrigation; d. Sprinkler irrigation
c. fertigation/drip irrigation d. none of the above 9. Because of water scarcity, pump irrigation is recommended for lowland rice
42. A system of irrigation with the use of pumps to draw water from and corn only if ____
nearby stream and underground water supply. a. Feasibility indicates an increase in production and profit;
a. gravity b. pumping b. Stage of the crop is at milking stage that coincides with adequate
c. surface irrigation d. none of the above rainfall;
43. Water is applied in the form of spray or artificial rain c. High value crops are to be harvested dry;
. a. gravity b. pumping d. All of the above
c. surface irrigation d. sprinkler irrigation 10. In mango and lanzones, irrigation after dry months can induce _
44. The process of breaking the surface soil at exact depth using a tractor a. Flowering; b. Defolation; c. Leaf abcision; d. Ripening of fruits
cultivator or an animal drawn plow. 11. Surface irrigation is recommended in ____
a. plowing b. harrowing c. furrowing d. sub-soiling a. Flooding, furrow or basin irrigation of crops when there is plenty of
45. Provide deep root penetration, good plant anchorage and a room for water;
getting food and water. b. Furrow irrigation of tomatoes during the rainy months;
a. soil tilth b. soil depth c. soil texture d. soil pH of 5.3 to 7.3 c. Drip irrigation in rice terraces;
IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT d. None of the above
1. The irrigation method where water is applied and distributed over the soil 12. Pump irrigation is most feasible for ____
surface by gravity is called _____ a. Rice when water source is stagnant;
a. surface irrigation; b. strip irrigation; b. High value crops and method used is by drip irrigation;
c. surge irrigation; d. basin irrigation c. Coconut grown from tissue culture;
2. The method of irrigation whereby water is applied to the top end of each d. All of the above
furrow and flows down the field under the influence of gravity is called ___ 13. In determining when to irrigate:
a. furrow irrigation; b. strip irrigation; a. When upon calculation the amount of evapotranspiration is less than
c. surge irrigation; d. basin irrigation the natural precipitation;
3. The issue associated with surface irrigation where water can cause the plant b. When transpiration from the soil surface is greater than evaporation
to shut down delaying further growth until sufficient water drains from the root from the soil;
zone is __ c. When evaporation from the leaves is lesser than the amount of water
a. waterlogging; b. deep drainage; the roots can absorb;
c. salinization; d. all of the above d. Using sand-scum-soil miniplot technique, when the plant in the
4. As irrigation draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated miniplot shows wilting
area, hydrological results such as the downstream river discharge is reduced and 14. The loss of water in the rice field that irrigation is needed is by
a. the evaporation in the scheme is increased b. the level of water table rises a. Seepage and precipitation in the paddies;
c. the drainage flow is increased d. all of the above b. Percolation and precipitation in the paddies;
5. Surface irrigation is often referred to as ____ c. Transpiration of water from the wet soil surface and evaporation from the
a. furrow irrigation; b. strip irrigation; leaves;
c. surge irrigation; d. flood irrigation d. Evaporation from the paddies and transpiration from the leaves of the rice
6. Irrigation can also be done by extracting ground water using plant
a. plumes b. sprinklers; c. tube wells; d. flexible hose 15. Sprinkle irrigation is also called ____
7. The most common method of irrigating a lowland rice field is ___ a. Trickle irrigation; b. Drip irrigation;
a. Surface irrigation/flooding; b. Furrow irrigation; c. Overhead irrigation; d. Localized irrigation
c. Localized irrigation; d. Sprinkler irrigation 16. Localized irrigation is also called ____
a. Sprinkle irrigation; b. Drip irrigation; c. transpiration; d. percolation
c. Surface irrigation; d. Furrow irrigation 29. The method of irrigating lowland rice field whereby the field is alternately
17. The comprehensive development of a basin so as to make productive use of flooded and drained
all its natural resources is called _____ a. continuous submergence; b. intermittent irrigation;
a. watershed; b. earth dams; c. reservoirs; d. drainage c. trickle irrigation; d. sprinkler irrigation
18. In using spiles as a means of withdrawing irrigation water from the canal, 30. There are about 132 major rivers in the Philippines while the principal river
this material is used basins are ____
a. wedge; b. bamboo tubes; c. flexible tubes; d. rotary nozzles a. 121; b. 221; c. 321; d. 421
19. The method of irrigation whereby water is applied and distributed over the 31. To produce a kg of corn grain, ____of water is needed
field in the form of a spray is called _____ a. 1400 liters; b. 2400 liters; c. 3400 liters; d. 4400
a. localized irrigation; b. sprinkler irrigation; liters
c. drip irrigation; d. surface irrigation
20. Banaue rice terraces where human element is integrated into the system is SPECIALIZED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CROP
an example of ____ PRODUCTION
a. reservoir of knowledge; b. earth and stone dams; 1. The system of farming in which a piece of land is planted with different
c. overhead irrigations; d. watershed and land management crops in succession in order to control crop pest and diseases
21. The National Irrigation Administration (NIA) uses the method called ____ a. multiple cropping; b. intercropping; c. mono cropping; d. crop
a. sub-surface irrigation; b. surface irrigation; rotation
c. localized irrigation; d. sprinkle irrigation 2. A soil conservation method of farming that avoids the use of plow to till or
22. Refers to a regulatory or control system employed in the farm in which turn the soil
water is made available to crops at the time it is needed a. Conservation tillage; b. No tillage;
a. Irrigation; b. Water management; c. Zero tillage; d. All of the above
c. Drainage; d. Water requirement 3. A protective covering of organic material laid over the soil around the plants
23. Refers to the amount of water that is required to bring a crop to complete its to prevent soil erosion, retain moisture and sometimes enriched the soil
growth cycle from germination to full maturity a. crop rotation; b. cover cropping;
a. Irrigation; b. Water management; c. mulching; d. conventional tillage
c. Drainage; d. Water requirement 4. The cultivation of plants in liquid nutrient solutions
24. The rates of evapotranspiration in the Philippines during the dry season is a. greenhouse; b. trellising; c. hydroponics; d. Sorjan farming
between ____ 5. The method of farming recommended for mountainous terrain or Steep
a. 2-5 mm/day; b. 4-9 mm/day; c. 8-12 mm/day; d. 10-15 mm/day Mountain slopes
25. A water-impounding earth-dam structure designed to collect rainfall and a. terrace farming; b. contour farming ;
runoff water is called ____ c. strip farming; d. all of the above
a. groundwater system; b. small dam reservoir; 6. A lattice of wood, metal, or plastic to provide support to plants like vines
c. river diversion system; d. shallow well system a. trellis; b. fence; c. props; d. post
26. To produce 1 kg of rice, ____ of water is required 7. A tillage operation whereby plowing and furrowing are made across the
a. 6000 liters; b. 5000 liters c. 4000 liters; d. 3000 liters slope, the waterways stay in the furrows and sink into the soil rather than
27. The loss of water in the field through lateral subsurface movement is called running off.
____ a. terrace farming; b. contour farming ;
a. seepage; b. percolation; c. strip farming; d. all of the above
c. evaporation; d. evapotranspiration 8. Crop grown solely to be plowed under and serves to increase the organic
28. The loss of water from the wet soil surface as a result of direct exposure to matter of the soil
solar radiation and other atmospheric factors is called ____ a. green manure; b. white manure;
a. evaporation; b. evapotranspiration; c. black manure; d. none of the above
9. A glass or transparent plastic structure often on a metal or wooden frame in 23. The organic substances responsible for the precise integration and
which plants that need heat, light, and protection from weather are grown coordination of the developmental processes in plants is the
a. greenhouse; b. white house; c. dark house; d. wax house a. plant hormones; b. amino acids;
10. A natural or artificial barrier to protect the crops or field from strong wind, c. pigment; d. none of the above
encroaching sand, sand dunes 24. The naturally occurring plant growth regulators are referred to as
a. sand block; b. sand storm; c. wind vane; d. wind break a. defoliators; b. organic substances;
11. A system of soil conservation whereby a crop is planted between main c. phytohormones/plant hormones; d. none
crops to prevent soil erosion and is to be plowed in to enrich the soil 25. Which of the following plant hormones is a growth inhibitor?
a, multiple cropping; b. cover cropping; a. gibberellins; b. auxin; c. Cytokinin; d. abscissic acid
c. mono cropping; d, crop rotation 26. Which of the following PGR is for rooting, tuber formation, and prevent
12. The judicious removal of plant parts with a purpose is called fruit formation
a. Propping; b. Desuckering; c. Pruning; d. Reforming a. gibberellins; b. cytokinins; c. ethylene; d. auxin
13. The process of providing physical support to the branches with fruits or to 27. One of the following is not an example of the auxin containing PGR
the tree itself is a. indole acetic acid (IBA); b. Napthaline acetic acid (NAA);
a. Pruning; b. Pooling; c. Training; d. Propping c. 2,4-D ester; d. B-nine
14. The process consisting of cutting or removal of the growing tips to allow 28. The function of Cytokinin is
the development of lateral buds is a. stem elongation, breaks dormancy of seeds, buds and tubers
a. Heading back; b. thinning out; c. pinching; d. topping b. works with light to increase cell division and enlargement
15. The process of removing some flowers or fruits to allow the remaining ones c. kill terminal buds and promote branching
to increase in size is called d. rooting, ground tuber formation, prevent abcision of leaves and fruit
a. Thinning; b. Budding ; c. Deflowering; d. Rejuvenation 29. Which of the following PGR formulation is a growth retardants
16. The art of shaping plants into animals, basket, building etc is called a. A-Rest; b. vitamins; c. Calcium carbide; d. Indole acetic acid
a. configuration; b. rejuvenation; c. disbudding; d.Topiary 30. Which of the following PGR promotes bolting and flowering in rosette
17. The process involving the physical interruption of the flow of flowering plants
photosynthates from the leaves to the root system is called a. abscisic acid b. napthalene acetic acid
a. Girdling; b. Propping; c. Pinching; d. None of the above c. ethylene d. gibberellic acid
18. The practice of cultivating plants not in the soil but in a in a nutrient
solution is called HARVESTING AND POST PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
a. Urban agriculture; b. Mulching; c. Hydroponics ; d. Green house HORTICULTURE
19. The practice of using organic or inorganic materials such as cut grasses, or 1. Characteristics of horticultural perishables:
other type of materials to control soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, prevent a. need metabolic energy to keep tissues alive
the growth of weeds etc. is called b. undergo programmed changes
a. contour hedges b. urban farming; c. mulching; d. ―gen-gen‖ c. react to adverse environmental conditions
20. The physical method of flower regulation that initiate flowering in guava d. all of the above
and atis 2. Horticultural commodities carry the following physiological processes
a. pruning and defoliation; c. Thinning and desuckering; except:
b. Propping and girdling; d. Girdling and disbudding a. Respiration b. transpiration c. photosynthesis d. senescence
21. The purpose of pruning 3. The process of converting sugars, fats, proteins and other food reserves
a. control or reduce in size; b. develop a strong and open framework; into metabolic energy needed to keep tissues alive and functioning.
c. control general configuration; d. All of the above a. Respiration b. transpiration c. photosynthesis d. senescence
22. The process of subjecting the seeds or seedlings to cold treatment to trigger 4. Oxygen depletion during respiration does not lead to
the process of flowering is called a. off-flavors b. prolonged shelf life
a. vernalization; b. freezing; c. refrigeration; d. conditioning c. disorders d. abnormal ripening
5. Tissues with low respiration rate: a. puncture b. crack c. cut d. split
a. actively growing points b. storage organs 21. A naturally occurring toxicant in specific fruits and vegetables which
c. fruits starting to ripen d. immature tissues interferes with calcium absorption and metabolism.
6. An internal factor affecting respiration a. Solanine b. oxalic acid c. dioscorine d. phasin
a. physiological status b. temperature 22. Products or metabolites of fungal organisms which infect food
c. composition of the atmosphere d. injury products.
7. Undesirable effect of excessive transpiration a. Isocoumarine b. salmonella c. mycotoxins d. linamarin
a. wilting and shriveling 23. Wrapping flower bunches at least 2 inches above the head and greater
b. toughening, discoloration and flavor changes than half of the stem with the top open
c. accelerated senescence a. tying b. pulsing c. bunching d. sleeving
d. all of the above 24. Why should crops be harvested at the proper stage of maturity?
8. Adrenalin is to human as ______ is to plants a. chemicals responsible for flavor and aroma of fruits have
a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide c. ethylene d. sulfur dioxide fully developed
9. It reacts with water and produces acetylene b. there is maximum accumulation of reserve food
a. carbon monoxide b. calcium carbide c. protective layer of fruits and vegetables will be thicker while
b. c. ethylene d. carbon dioxide stomates will be lesser
10. A non-climacteric fruit d. all of the above
a. Pineapple b. banana c. mango d. papaya 25. A gas given off by injured cells that causes rapid ripening of most
11. Greening in potato is caused by fruits.
a. Temperature b. solanine c. gasses d. waxes a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide
12. A subjective method of determining maturity of perishables c. ethylene d. carbon monoxide
a. Phonological b. visual c. chemical d. physiological
13. A physiological maturity index J. FARMING SYSTEMS
a. heat units b. days from anthesis 1. An organizational structure that interlinks the various activities of a farmer
c. respiration rate d. light intensity and the distribution of resources
14. Grouping of commodities according to set standards a. cooperativism b. NGOs c. GOs d. farming system
a. sorting b. sizing c. grading d. curing 2. The crop production activity of a farm is referred to as
15. It is done to meet requirements legislated to prevent the entry of exotic a. rice production c. cropping system
pests into a country b. corn production d. sub-system
a. Quarantine b. thermotherapy c. irradiation d. vapor heat 3. A production system which avoids or excludes synthetically compounded
16. A component of quality which may arise from unfavorable growing fertilizers and additives
conditions, abnormalities, injury or disease. a. obsolete farming b. organic farming
a. texture b. defects c. gloss d. flavor c. subsistence farming d. crop production
17. It refers to taste and aroma 4. A means to maintain the chemical stability of the soil is
a. texture b. color c. shape d. flavor a. addition and maintenance of organic matter b. addition of fertilizers
18. Functions of a package: c. addition of chemical d. addition of clays
a. it should inform b. it should sell the product 5. A cultivation system in the tropics which could become destructive because
c. it should protect d. all of the above the fallow period is no longer observed
19. A type of mechanical damage wherein there is a change in shape of an a. subsistence b. shifting cultivation
intact fruit. c. permanent cultivation d. agroforestry
a. Distortion b. abrasion c. puncture d. bruise 6. A farmer has a wide track of land and wishes to raise fruit trees, cereals,
20. A mechanical damage resulting to cleavage without complete vegetables and livestock. Which of the following farming system is adaptable?
separation of parts. a. coco-based b. hilly farming
c. lowland rice d. upland crop-based 17. Which of the statements below is NOT a salient feature of multiple
7. What type of farming system minimizes tillage and prevents soil erosion? cropping?
a. hilly land system b. crop-animal based a. efficient utilization of soil nutrients
c. lowland rice d. upland crop-based b. increase susceptibility to pests
8. What factor contributes to high level of risk of complexity of a small farm c. maximized land utilization
system? d. promote microbial activity in the soil
a. diversified enterprises c. climatic variability 18. An agricultural system where trees are grown together with annual crops
b. price policies d. scarcity of cash and/or animals.
9. Which is NOT a characteristic of a continuous cropping system? a. Organic agriculture b. Agrofestry
a. with irrigation c. continuous water supply c. Biodynamic agriculture d. Permaculture
b. rainfed d. with water-pump supply 19. The common characteristics of the different existing farming system in the
10. Which of the following statement is NOT a characteristic of an upland crop- country
based farming system? a. small landholdings c. with mixture of different crops
a. no levees and standing water b. with animal integration d. all of the above
b. good soil moisture below field capacity 20. A complex mixture of trees and crops of different canopy height and shapes
c. soil not submerged and well aerated in mixed or row intercropping is employed is known as
d. soils usually submerged to prevent rapid drying of plant a. intercropping b. multistorey cropping
11. Which of the following is NOT a salient production role in livestock-based c. relay cropping d. monocropping
farming system? 21. What are the major influences of soil properties on farming system?
a. subsistence food c. fulfill cultural obligation a. species suitability, land preparation and input application
b. social prestige d. for building construction b. species of pests, harvesting and threshing
12. which of the following is a non-ruminant animal raised in upland crop- c. disease, weeds and harvesting
based farming system? d. all of the above
a. cattle b. turkey c. buffalo d. sheep 22. The formula of land equivalent ratio which is used to measure yield
13. Which of these factors determines the sustainability of a farming system advantage of intercropping is
among small farmers?
a. neighbor b. private agencies c. government d. none of these a. LER = Xi + Yi b. LER = Xi - Yi
14. If you have to plant two or more crops simultaneously in which the second Xj Yj Xj Yj
crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth,
what intercropping pattern is used?
a. relay intercropping c. strip intercropping c. LER = Xi x Yi d. LER = Xi = Yi
b. mixed intercropping d. row intercropping Xj Yj Xj Yj
15. Which of the following is an effect of diversified cropping systems?
a. continuous vegetation cover for soil protection and closing of nutrient cycles 23. The type of farming with rugged terrain with 18% slope or greater in
b. constant production of food, ensuring a varied diet and several marketing elevation is known as
items a. sustainable farming b. hilly farming
c. enhanced biological pest control c. upland farming d. lowland farming
d. all of the above 24. An LER index value higher than 1.00 indicates
16. The study of agro-ecosystems, including all environment and human a. disadvantage of intercropping c. advantage of intercropping
elements, their inter-relationships, and processes in which they are involved is b. break-even point of intercropping d. all of these
called 25. The most critical determinant of cropping patterns in rice followed by rice is
a. agroecosystematics b. agro-ecology c. ecology d. niche a. water availability c. soil texture and topography
b. market accessibility d. technology
26. Because crop production/farming is a regular activity of rural people and a. hyphen (-) b. plus (+) c. slash (/) d. multiply (x)
without it they will never have a normal life. Farming for them is considered 38. Relay cropping is denoted with ―what word or sign‖ between crops?
a. business b. art c. technology d. culture (way of life) a. hyphen (-) b. plus (+) c. slash (/) d. multiply (x)
27. If the area has even distribution of rainfall throughout the year and the 39. Farmers intercropped corn with peanuts because
classification is hilly land, which cropping system is suited in that area? a. it reduces corn borer infestation c. it serves as sources of seeds
a. plantation-based b. ornamental-based b. it serves as animal feeds d. all of these
c. rice-based d. vegetable-based 40. The technology suited for hilly or sloping areas is
28. Ilocos Region has pronounced wet and dry seasons and rainfed lowland rice a. sloping agricultural land technology
fields. Which of the patterns is suitable for this area? b. multiple cropping technology
a. rice-rice-rice c. rice-rice-vegetable c. sloping land agricultural technology
b. rice-legume-vegetable d. rice-rice-corn d. integrated farming technology
29. Row spacing and plant arrangement is important in multiple cropping. 41. Decisions on the quality of output/produce in farming systems are largely
Which of these multiple cropping systems greatly consider this factor? influenced by
a. intercropping b. relay cropping a. technical factor b. exogenous factor
c. sequential cropping d. alley cropping c. endogenous factor d. all of the above
30. Intercropping could increase insect pest population on an area if crop 42. The major feature of integrated farming include
combination is not properly selected. Which of these crop combinations a. waste by-product utilization c. improve space utilization
reduce pest populations? b. need higher capital d. a and c
a. corn+peanut b. corn+tomato 43. In a livestock-fish integrated farming, it is highly recommended to construct
c. tobacco+corn d. cotton+corn the animal pen on
31. A continuous planting of rice in small garden at regular interval and a. fishpond dikes b. over the pond
continuous harvesting is called c. away from the dikes d. all of the above
a. Sorjan b. diverse cropping c. rice garden d. mixed cropping 44. The advantage of integrated farming which is much related to the concept of
32. The following practices are different options for contour farming, EXCEPT sustainable farming is
a. SALT c. use of stones for soil & water conservation a. increased productivity
b. use of rock walls d. use of sand & gravel b. spread of both the biological and economic risk
33. If you are to farm a hilly area, which of the technology listed below is NOT c. great income
appropriate? d. better diet for the family
a. Sorjan cropping b. Alley cropping 45. The common fish species utilized in rice-fish culture technology is
c. Contour farming d. terracing a. mudfish b. milkfish c. salmon d. tilapia
34. Planting of hedgerows along the contour with agricultural crops in between 46. In the coconut-based farming system, the crops that are commonly
hedgerows best describes intercropped include
a. Contour system b. alley cropping a. cabbage, carrot and potato c. chili, sweet pea and radish
c. Sorjan system d. rice garden b. pineapple, papaya and coffee d. eggplant, tomato and amargoso
35. Planting and raising of wooden perennials together with agricultural crops 47. A small scale farming sector is significant in the food system in a
or livestock is done in developing country because they are:
a. alley cropping b. Contour farming a. the backbone of the economy
c. Agroforestry d. Sorjan system b. a and b
36. Sequential cropping is denoted by ―what word or sign‖, in between any two c. they produce 80% of the food crops (cereals & pulses)
succeeding crops? d. none of these
a. hyphen (-) b. plus (+) c. slash (/) d. multiply (x) 48. Small-scale resource limited family farm refers to farms wherein the farmer
37. Intercropping is denoted by ―what word or sign‖, in between two crops has
grown simultaneously? a. less than five hectares of land

b. very limited resources with low level of income 4. The type of seed whose longevity is lengthened when kept at low
c. low standard of living moisture level and low temperature during storage period.
d. all of these a. Orthodox b. Recalcitrant
49. The growing of different crops in a definite order of succession on the same c. Intermediate d. None of the above
land is 5. The optimum drying temperature (°C) for corn seed crops.
a. crop rotation b. farming system a. 50 b. 43 c. 55 d. 60
c. integrated farming d. sustainable farming 6. Specific gravity separator is used to separate:
50. In hilly farming system, slope is synonymous to a. light from heavy seeds b.small from big seeds
a. erosion b. compaction c. contour d. cultivation c. smooth from rough seeds d.none of the above
51. Which of these practices listed is practiced by cultural minorities to 7. Spiral separator is used to separate:
conserve the soil in hilly-land crop-based cropping system? a. Small from big seeds
a. fallow-system approach b. light from heavy seeds
b. applies single approach cropping system c. seeds that differ in flight velocity
c. continuous cropping year round d. none of the above
d. mono-approach cropping system 8. A type of packaging material that allows complete transmission of
52. In crop rotation, the most critical factor to consider is moisture from the surrounding air.
a. proper combination of crops a. Moisture resistant b. Moisture proof
b. proper intercropping of crops c. Porous d. None of the above
c. right sequencing of growing crops 9. In a tetrazolium test, viable seeds will stain
d. proper mixing of crops a. red b. green c. yellow d. blue
53. In the case of small farmers, which among the livestock-based systems fit 10. Carbohydrate reserves of seeds will be hydrolyzed finally as:
their existing resources? a. Galactose b. fructose c. glucose d. cellulose
a. pig-fish b. duck-fish c. chicken-fish d. buffalo-fish 11. This type of dormancy is due to one or more unsuitable factors of the
54. The practice of growing other crops under coconut trees must give major environment, which is not specific in their effect. In seeds, this is
consideration on equivalent to quiescence.
a. photosynthetic active radiation c. distance of planting a. Paradormancy b. Endodormancy
b. quantity of input d. all of these c. Ecodormancy d. Chemical dormancy
55. In hilly land farming, the most commonly used hedgerow crop is 12. Which is not a feature of the Pr form of the phytochrome.
a. mahogany b. eucalyptus c. ipil-ipil d. falcata a. It is blue-green color
SEED TECHNOLOGY b. It is convertible to Pr form
1. Class of seed under the AOSCA scheme which is usually provided to c. It is far-red light absorbing form
seed growers for the production of certified seeds. d. It is red-orange in color
a. Breeder seed b. Certified seed 13. The agency involved in approving the release of recommended
c. Registered seed d. Foundation seed varieties in the Philippines under RA 7308 (Seed Development Act of
2. The type of seed production system where all the activities starting 1992).
from variety development down to seed distribution are performed by a. Philippine Seed Board (PSB)
government personnel. b. National Seed Industry Council (NSIC)
a. Semi-official b. Official c. Department of Agriculture
c. Private d. None of the above d. International Rice Research Institute
3. In seed production, the minimum physical isolation distance (meter) 14. In the point of view of a seed technologist, a seed has germinated:
required when planting between two mungbean cultivars at the same a. When the radicle has emerged
time. b. When the plumule has emerged
a. 3 b. 10 c. 8 d. 5 c. When both the radicle and plumule have emerged

d. None of the above 23. Mangosteen and marang are exotic fruits grown in Mindanao. They
15. A seed is considered alive in the tetrazolium test when the: are generally propagated by seeds. After eating the fruit, the seeds are
a. Whole seed is stained germinated right away within a week because they don‘t store well.
b. Radicle portion is not stained but the rest of the seed is The reason is:
stained a. Seeds of mangosteen and marang are orthodox seeds
c. Plumule portion is not stained but the rest of the seed is b. Seeds of mangosteen and marang are apomictic
stained. c. Seeds of mangosteen and marang are recalcitrant
d. Half of the seed is stained. d. Seeds would germinate only in the dark.
16. Seeds which can be dried to a low moisture level but cannot tolerate 24. Crops with any of the following characteristics are direct seeded.
low temperature like coffee and papaya are considered: a. Seeds are difficult to germinate
a. Recalcitrant b. Orthodox b. Seeds are expensive
c. Intermediate d. None of the above c. Seedlings cannot tolerate root disturbance
17. Which of the following is/are optional requirements for favorable seed d. Seedlings develop multiple tap roots
germination? 25. High relative humidity can cause:
a. Optimum temperature a. Plant wilting b. Grain drying
b. 20% oxygen concentration c. High disease incidence d. Breakage of seeds
c. Light 26. In storing seeds with desiccants, seeds should be placed inside a:
d. Proper amount of water a. Polyethylene or plastic bag b. Cloth bag
18. The most favorable condition for storing orthodox seed is c.Aluminum foil d.Paper bag
a. Dry and cool condition 27. Based on postharvest horticulture classification, the perishables are:
b. Dry and hot condition a. Rice and grain corn b. Rice and tobacco
c. Moist and cool condition c.Green corn and tomato d.Tobacco and green corn
d. Moist and hot condition 28. and the durables are:
19. Hard seededness may be broken by the following methods except: a. Rice and grain corn b.Green corn and cotton
a. Soaking in boiling water for several minutes c.Tobacco and tomato d.Tomato and green corn
b. Soaking in tap water for 24 hours 29. The word cereal is derived from the name of the most important grain
c. Rubbing the embryo part on sand paper deity.
d. Both A and C a. the Roman Goddess Venus
20. Among the following desiccants or drying agents, ______is the most b. the Roman Goddess Ceres
effective c. the Roman God of Soul
a. Lime b. Charcoal c.Silica gel d. Wood ash d. the Xeres God of Israel
21. The most suitable substrate for germination test of very small seeds is: 30. In coconut, Cocos nucifera L., the endosperm is classified into coconut
a. Rolled filter paper meat and coconut water. The botanical term for the coconut meat is
b. Petri dish lined with filter paper a. liquid endosperm c. endocarp
c. Ragdoll method b. solid endosperm d. mesocarp
d. Sand 31. Apical dominance is a phenomenon wherein lateral buds are dormant
22. To reduce postharvest losses, the care start with the field practices. in the presence of terminal buds is effected by
Among the practices in the field that would influence most the a. Ethylene b. gibberellins c. auxins d. cytokinins
postharvest quality of produce is: 32. Most tropical seed usually germinate in air containing
a. Pruning the plants to reduce diseases a. 50% O2 b. 55% O2 c. 40% O2 d. 20% O2
b. Timing of the flower induction 33. Type of germination when the cotyledon comes above the ground
c. Irrigation of the crop one day before harvesting a. Hypogeal b. Epigeal c. Hypo-epigeal d.
d. Harvesting the crop at appropriate maturity for the product Exodermus

34. Term to describe the mucilage or waxy materials around some seed 45. Under Philippine condition, what character is not routinely analyzed in
which causes physical dormancy the seed testing laboratory to become a certified seed
a. Exodermus b. Seed coat c. Sacro-testa d. Hypogeal a. Physical purity c. Incidence of seedborne diseases
35. The treatment that removes the seed coat or alter it making it b. Germination d. Moisture content
permeable to water 46. Which is not recommended for treating seed dormancy?
a. Scarification b. stratification c. vernalization d. separation a. HCl treatment
36. The placement of seeds between layers of either moist sand, soil, or b. Hot water treatment
sawdust at high or low temperature so the action of water high and low c. Mechanical abrasion of seed coat
temperature will soften the seedcoat d. Treating the seeds using abscissic acid
a. Separation b. Vernalization c. Scarification d. Stratification 47. In purity analysis of the seeds, pure seed excludes
37. Another for propagating material a. Immature seeds
a. Vegetative b. Separation c. Division d. Propagules b. Seedlike structures
38. Sexual propagation is also known as c. Seeds less than one half in size of the seeds currently
a. Vegetative propagation c. Embryo culture analyzed and
b. Tissue culture d. Seed propagation d. All of the above
39. Propagation which preserves the characters of the parent plant 48. What moisture content of the seed that inhibits insect activity or little
a. Sexual b. Thinning c. Asexual d. Etiolation insect activity
40. A properly dried seed can be stored for longer duration with high a. 45-60% c. above 14% but below 45%
germination using this container b. 18-20% d. below 8 to 9%
a. Paper bags c. Jute sack 49. Seed processing is defined as the preparation of harvested seeds for:
b. Sealed in cans d. Plastic sack a. Storage b. Marketing c. Handling d. Testing
41. It is not an example of classes of seed recognized by the Philippine 50. Magnetic separator is used to separate good seeds from contaminants
Seed Certification scheme based on:
a. Foundation seed c. Good seed a. Color c. Weight
b. Registered seed d. Certified seed b. Flight velocity d. Surface texture differences
42. Cabbage, onion, carrots require
a. Vernalization c. High temperature PRE-BOARD: CROP SCIENCE
b. Rainfall d. Adequate amount of fertilizer for flower 1. Plant breeding is synonymous to
induction a. animal production b. crop improvement
43. Which is not included as rogues in seed production c. crop production d. all
a. Weeds 2. Components in plant being changed during crop improvement
b. Plants that are genetically pure and conform with the standard a. genetic b. environment c. both a & b d. none
of the variety intended for reproduction 3. Which of the statements below is not true about plant breeding?
c. Plants of another cultivars of the same species a. A multidisciplinary approach of improving crop
d. Diseased plants of the same crop species b. Crop improvement is mainly based on the needs of the plant
44. Theoretically, crops intended for seed production shall be harvested at c. It is an art, science and business of changing the genetic structure of plant
the point of d. All of the above
a. Physiological maturity 4. Superiority of the F1 over the two parents
b. When the fruits are very dry a. selfing b. heterosis c. inbreeding depression d. backcrossing
c. When there is no rain 5. Which is not true about plant breeding as a business?
d. When the sunlight is very intense so that the seed quality are a. requires personnel b. involves time
good c. money is not important d. all
6. Reason why there‘s a need to improve crops except.

a. to feed the ever increasing population 21. The ethical dimension to equity refers to
b. great demand for specialty crops for non-food use a. equity between the interests and rights of different social groups within a
c. abundance of food supply generation
d. transformed plant to be used as ―reactors‖ for the production of large b. equity between the interests and rights of present and future generations
amount of plant –derived pharmaceuticals. c. equity between the interests and rights of human beings and other species
7. Major goals of crop improvement except d. all of the above
a. increase production 22. The attitude that regards the value of nature merely as a pool of exploitable
b. improved resistance to biotic and abiotic factors resources to be used for the satisfaction of human wants
c. improved quality a. profitable attitude c. biocentric-holistic attitude
d. none b. anthropocentric attitude d. none of these
8. Hereditary unit that is transmitted from one generation to the next. 23. Sustainable agriculture is___ because it is not prescriptive of a defined set
a. cell b. gene c. nucleus d. plastid of properties, method, techniques or technologies that would restrict the option
9. Chemical basis of heredity. of the farmer.
a. cell b. protein c. carbohydrates d. DNA a. flexible b. experiential c. proactive d. participatory
10. Threadlike structure of DNA coiled around a protein core found in the 24. Because sustainable agriculture is a process of learning and not the
nucleus. imposition of a simple model or package, it is said to be
a. cell b. plastid c. chromosome d. mitochondria a. flexible b. experiential c. participatory d. proactive
11. Any measurable or distinctive traits of an organism. 25. The practitioner of sustainable agriculture considers himself
a. genotype b. recessive c. phenotype d. all a. the master of nature b. a part of nature
12. Gene that control two or more traits/characters in an organism. c. an outsider of nature d. all of these
a. dominant b. recessive c. pleiotropic d. epistatic 26. Which of the following is/are forms of green manuring?
13. Constriction point which divide the chromosome into 2 section or ―arm‖. a. improved fallow and alleycropping
a. satellite b. spindle fiber c. kinetochore d . centromere b. Integrating trees into croplands
14. Phase of the cell cycle where the cell undergoes cell division. c. Minus-One-Element Technique (MOET)
a. G1 b. S c. G2 d. M d. Azolla and blue green algae
15. An organism with a DD genotype will produce how many kinds of gamete? 27. Which of the following is NOT a natural pest control (repellent crops) for
a. one b. two c. three d. four an organic garden?
16. Type of dominance relationship where the F1 progenies are intermediate a. Basil and Garlic b. Neem tree
between the two parents c. Marigold and Peppermint d. Rosemary
a. complete b. incomplete c. overdominance d. co-dominance 28. Sustainable agriculture focuses on the
17. Another type of dominance relationship where dominant gene masked the a. farmer b. environment c. production d. income
effect of recessive gene. 29. A major strategy in Sustainable Agriculture is to restore the agricultural
a. complete b. incomplete c. overdominance d. co-dominance diversity in time and space through
18. Which of the following best defines sustainable development? a. crop rotations and intercroppig
a. a conceptual framework c. a new development strategy b. crop-livestock mixtures
b. an intellectual approach d. all of these c. polycultures and cover cropping
19. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) which d. all of these
was formed by the UN in 1983 is better known as 30. It is a farming system developed by Teruo Higa of Japan which
a. Montreal Protocol b. Sustainable Development Commission means saving the world which involves the use of beneficial organisms and
c. Brundtland Commission d. Environment Commission inoculants to increase microbial diversity, health and yield of crops.
20. The report of the WCED which was issued on April 1987 is entitled a. Kyusei Nature Farming c. Organic Farming
a. Sustainable Development b. Our Common Future b. Precision Farming d. Regenerative Agriculture
c. Sustainable Agriculture d. Conserving the Earth

31. It is a management strategy that is also called site specific farming which a. root crops b. vegetable crops c. non-food crops d. grains crops
employs detailed information to precisely manage crop production inputs using 42. A farmer has enough labor and capital but with a very limited land. What
computers, telecommunications and global positioning systems (GPS). crop will you recommend him to raise?
a. Integrated Farming c. Precision Farming a. root crops b. vegetable crops c. non-food crops d. grains crops
b. Holistic Management d. Natural Farming 43. A farmer inherited from his parents an arable land that is near an irrigation
32. It is a mini farming system introduced by Alan Chadwick about the concept system. He plans to convert that into a rice field. What method of rice
of double dug method of making raised beds, intensive planting, composting, culture will he adapt?
companion cropping and whole system synergy. a. direct seeding b. transplanting c. dry land seeding d. a and b
a. Bio-intensive gardening (BIG) c. Site Specific Farming 44. The practice of working the soil for the purpose of bringing about more
b. Integrated Farming d. Biodynamic Farming favorable conditions for plant growth.
33. Site characterization and selection of crop production in the Philippines a. tillage b. pricking c. furrowing d. rotavating
require knowledge of 45. The tillage operations where primary and secondary tillage are employed.
a. geographical characteristics of the area a. plowing b. harrowing
b. botanical characteristics of crops c. conventional tillage d. minimum or economy tillage
c. Indicators of land, climate, crops, ecology, culture and market dynamics 46. A tillage operation wherein the only necessary tillage operation is
d. geography, soil & climatic characteristics only employed.
34. A component in crop production system that cannot be controlled by human a. plowing b. harrowing
beings. c. conventional tillage d. minimum/reduced/economy
a. Technological factor c. Environmental & Climatic factors 47. The degree of tillage varies widely depending on these considerations,
b. Biological factor d. all of these namely:
35. Which of the following climatic components directly affect the type and a. the type of crop being planted
kind of crop to grown in a specific area? b. the type of farming techniques being practiced by farmers
a. wind velocity b. temperature c. solar radiation d. rainfall c. the type of climate and weather conditions
36. In Ilocos Region, the principal crops are rice or corn during rainy season d. both a and b
followed by tobacco or tomato. These crops grow well in this area because it 48. Which of the following operations is not included in primary tillage
has distinct wet and dry seasons. The most probable cropping system. operation?
a. monocropping b. Greenhouse cropping a. the first breaking of the soil surface
c. multiple cropping d. plantation b. inverts cuts or shatters the soil surface to a depth of 12-14 inches
37. The staple crops in Ilocos region are: c. harrowing to break the clods into smaller particles
a. rice and tobacco b. rice and corn d. sub-soiling)
c. tomato and tobacco d. rice and tomato 49. The fundamental purposes of land preparation are:
38. The most perishable crops in Ilocos Region are: a. develop proper soil structure b. control weeds and other pests
a. rice and grain corn c. tomato and green corn c. aerate the soil d. all of the above
b. rice and tobacco d. grain corn & tobacco 50. The process of bringing the water from the source to the place of
39. In areas that are said to be ―typhoon belts‖, the suitable crops to be grown application is known as:
by farmers are a. sub-irrigation b. irrigation c. drainage d. sprinkler irrigation
a. cereal b. rootcrops c. pulses d. plantation crops 51. The right soil condition for fertilizer application in an upland soil is when:
40. Davao and Bukidnon become the preferred sites for planting export crops a. soil is too dry b. soil is too wet
such as banana. The reason for this is/are c. soil has sufficient moisture d. none of the above
a. the areas are typhoon-free c. estate farms are available 52. To minimize losses of grains(mungo) due to shattering of pods, harvesting
b. port facilities are accessible d. all of these should be done:
41. Which of the following crops will you plant if you have low labor supply a. early in the morning b. late in the afternoon
and low capital input? c. at noon time d. a and b

53. The percentage nutrient element content of the fertilizer material is: b. National Seed Industry Council (NSIC)
a. rate of recommendation b. analysis grade c. Department of Agriculture
c. fertilizer content d. element d. International Rice Research Institute
54. An irrigation system that require a dam to divert the water from the 65. Which of the following is/are optional requirements for favorable seed
streams. germination?
a. pumping b. gravity a. Optimum temperature b.20% oxygen concentration
c. subsurface irrigation d. none of the above c. Light d. Proper amount of water
55. A general method of irrigation wherein water is applied in controlled state 66. Among the following desiccants or drying agents, ___ is the most effective
with fertilizer. a. Lime b. silica gel c. charcoal d. wood ash
a. gravity b. pumping 67. High relative humidity can cause:
c. fertigation/drip irrigation d. none of the above a. Plant wilting c. high disease incidence
56. A system of irrigation with the use of pumps to draw water from nearby b. Grain drying d. breakage of seeds
stream and underground water supply. 68. Most tropical seed usually germinate in air containing
a. gravity b. pumping a. 50% O2 b. 55% O2 c. 40% O2 d. 20% O2
c. surface irrigation d. none of the above 69. The treatment that removes the seed coat or alter it making it permeable to
57. Water is applied in the form of spray or artificial rain. water
a. gravity b. pumping a. Scarification b. stratification c. vernalization d. separation
c. surface irrigation d. sprinkler irrigation 70. Another term of propagating material
58. The process of breaking the surface soil at exact depth using a tractor a. Vegetative b. separation c. division d. propagules
cultivator or an animal drawn plow. 71. The average annual rice consumption in the Philippines per capita is
a. plowing b. harrowing c. furrowing d. sub-soiling a. 93 kg b. 103 kg c. 123 kg d. 133 kg
59. Class of seed under the AOSCA scheme which is usually provided to seed 72. GATT-WTO is about
growers for the production of certified seeds. a. Joint military exercises c. Agriculture trade liberalization
a. Breeder seed c. registered seed b. Mutual defense treaty d. Agriculture subsidy
b. Certified seed d. foundation seed 73. The major agricultural export product of the Philippine includes
60. The type of seed production system where all the activities starting from a. Rice and corn c. seaweeds and carrageenan
variety development down to seed distribution are performed by b. Coconut products and bananas d. soybeans and wheat
government personnel. 74. The group of people considered as the first agriculturist
a. Semi-official b. Private c. official d. none of the above a. Africans b. Canaans c. Cushites d. Indians
61. The optimum drying temperature (°C) for corn seed crops. 75. Corn (Zea mays) has originated from:
a. 50 b. 43 c. 55 d. 60 a. Africa b. Europe c. India d. Mexico
62. A type of packaging material that allows complete transmission of 76. The Philippines has a total land area of about
moisture from the surrounding air. a. 20 million has. b. 30 million has.
a. Moisture resistant c. Porous c. 40 million has. d. 50 million has.
b. Moisture proof d. none of the above 77. If the Philippines aims to fast rack its development into newly
63. This type of dormancy is due to one or more unsuitable factors of the industrialized country (NIC) it has to hasten its development of
environment, which is not specific in their effect. In seeds, this is a. Tourist spots c. Trade relation
equivalent to quiescence. b. Foreign relation d. Agriculture
a. Paradormancy c. Endodormancy 78. Rapid industrialization has resulted to increase in the value of agricultural
b. Ecodormancy d. Chemical dormancy lands in the urban areas because of
64. The agency involved in approving the release of recommended varieties in a. More workers work abroad
the Philippines under RA 7308 (Seed Development Act of 1992). b. Massive conversion of agricultural land to industrial sites
a. Philippine Seed Board (PSB) c. greater utilization of technologies

d. excessive pollution 92. The highest pest population that can be tolerated by the crop without its
79. rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines is difficult to achieve because: yield being adversely affected
a. area planted to rice is small a. ETL b. IPM c. EPTC d. GSL
b. irrigation facilities is insufficient 93. Which among the following is not a component of the disease triangle?
c. high rate of increase in population a. Space b. host plant c. plant pathogen d. environment
d. all of the above 94. The innate property of a chemical/pesticide to cause harm is
80. the Philippines is a tropical country in Asia consisting of two distinct a. Hazard b. risk c. toxicity d. lethal dose
seasons such as: 95. All life forms existing and within the immediate vicinity of the crop
a. wet and dry seasons c. wet and very wet seasons a. Edaphic factors c. biotic factors
c. very wet and very dry seasons d. dry and very dry seasons b. Abiotic factors d. climatic factors
81. Characteristics of horticultural perishables: 96. This describe the evolution of the flower with its pollinator to make them
a. need metabolic energy to keep tissues alive better adapted to each other
b. undergo programmed changes a. Homeostases b. Equilibrium c. balance d. coevolution
c. react to adverse environmental conditions 97. Which is not true about insect-pollinated flowers
d. all of the above a. Sweet-smelling c. colorful
82. Horticultural commodities carry the following physiological processes b. With nectarines d. odorless
except: 98. The relationship existing between a nitrogen-fixing bacteria and a legume
a. Respiration b. transpiration c. photosynthesis d. senescence plant
83. The process of converting sugars, fats, proteins and other food reserves into a. Commensalism c. parasitism
metabolic energy needed to keep tissues alive and functioning. b. Symbiosis d. predation
a. respiration b. transpiration c. photosynthesis d. senescence 99. Unicellular or multicellular, achlorophyllus disease- causing organisms
84. Oxygen depletion during respiration does not lead to which exist as saprophytes or parasites
a. off-flavors b. prolonged shelf life c. disorders d. abnormal ripening a. Fungi c. bacteria
85. A non-climacteric fruit b. Biological control agents d. insects
a. pineapple b. banana c. mango d. papaya 100. The substance which gives the pink color in nodules
86. Greening in potato is caused by a. Leghaemoglobin c. anthocyanin
a. temperature b. solanine c. gasses d. waxe b. Chlorophyll d. xanthophylls
87. Products or metabolites of fungal organisms which infect food products.
a. isocoumarine b. salmonella c. mycotoxins d. linamarin ANSWER KEY
88. Wrapping flower bunches at least 2 inches above the head and greater than PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY/ HISTORY, NATURE AND
half of the stem with the top open IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
a. tying b. pulsing c. bunching d. sleeving 1 B 16 B 31 B 46 C
89. Why should crops be harvested at the proper stage of maturity? 2 B 17 D 32 D 47 A
a. chemicals responsible for flavor and aroma of fruits have fully developed D D
3 18 33 D 48 B
b. there is maximum accumulation of reserve food
c. protective layer of fruits and vegetables will be thicker while stomates will be 4 A 19 A 34 D 49 D
lesser 5 B 20 A 35 B 50 D
d. all of the above 6 D 21 A 36 C 51 A
90. A gas given off by injured cells that causes rapid ripening of most fruits. B
7 22 A 37 D
a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide c. ethylene d. carbon monoxide
91. The IPM was created by virtue of what DA Special Order no.? 8 B 23 C 38 B
a. 485 b. 495 c. 594 d. 584 9 C 24 D 39 C
10 D 25 A 40 A
11 C 26 D 41 A 15. A 35. D 55. C
12 B 27 B 42 C 16. C 36. C 56. B
13 C 28 A 43 A 17. D 37. A 57. D
14 D 29 D 44 D 18. C 38. C 58. D
15 D 30 A 45 D 19. D 39. D 59. D
CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS 20. A 40. B
1 B 16 A 31 C 46 C PLANT GROWTH
2 C 17 A 32 A 47 B 1 A 11 B 21 D 31 D
3 A 18 C 33 B 48 D 2 D 12 D 22 D 32 C
4 A 19 A 34 B 49 A 3 C 13 C 23 C 33 B
5 D 20 A 35 C 50 D 4 D 14 A 24 B 34 D
6 C 21 C 36 A 5 D 15 B 25 C 35 A
7 D 22 D 37 B 6 B 16 B 26 B
8 A 23 C 38 C 7 C 17 B 27 E
9 A 24 B 39 C 8 D 18 C 28 C
10 B 25 D 40 B 9 C 19 E 29 A
11 B 26 B 41 A 10 D 20 A 30 D
12 C 27 A 42 C FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
13 C 28 A 43 D 1 C 11 D
14 D 29 B 44 B 2 D 12 D
15 D 30 C 45 D 3 B 13 D
NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
1. C 21. B 41. D 4 B 14 A
2. B 22. C 42. B 5 A 15 B
3. C 23. A 43. B 6 C 16 B
4. B 24. A 44. A 7 C 17 D
5. C 25. A 45. D
8 D 18 C
6. B 26. C 46. B
7. C 27. B 47. B 9 D 19 B
8. D 28. B 48. D 10 B 20 D
9. A 29. B 49. C BIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
10. B 30. B 50. C 1 C 16 A 31 C
11. D 31. B 51. C 2 B 17 A 32 A
12. C 32. B 52. A B C
3 18 33 A
13. B 33. A 53. C
4 D 19 A 34 C
14. B 34. B 54. A
5 D 20 A 35 D
6 C 21 A 36 C 7 C 22 C 37 A
7 A 22 A 37 C 8 A 23 D 38 B
8 D 23 C 38 D B
9 24 A 39 B
9 B 24 B 39 D A
10 25 D 40 B
10 A 25 A 40 B C
11 26 D 41 A
11 C 26 D A
12 27 B 42 B
12 B 27 A C
13 28 C 43 B
13 C 28 C C
14 29 C 44 A
14 B 29 D 15 D 30 A 45 B
15 C 30 A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1 D 16 B 31 B
1 C 16 D 31 C 46 D 2 C 17 D 32 A
2 B 17 A 32 B 47 B 3 B 18 C 33 B
3 D 18 D 33 A 48 B 4 B 19 D 34 B
4 C 19 D 34 A 49 A 5 A 20 D 35 B
5 C 20 C 35 B 50 D 6 C 21 C 36 B
6 C 21 C 36 D 7 C 22 B 37 A
7 A 22 C 37 E 8 A 23 C 38 B
8 C 23 C 38 A 9 B 24 B 39 A
9 B 24 C 39 D 10 A 25 B 40 C
10 B 25 C 40 D 11 D 26 D 41 D
11 B 26 C 41 A 12 B 27 B 42 A
12 B 27 C 42 B 13 D 28 D 43 A
13 A 28 C 43 C 14 A 29 D 44 C
14 B 29 C 44 B 15 B 30 D 45 A
15 A 30 C 45 D SITE CHARACTERIZATION
CROP IMPROVEMENT 1 C 11 A 21 B
A B 2 C 12 B 22 A
1 16 31 B 46 B
3 D 13 C 23 B
2 C 17 B 32 D 47 A 4 A 14 B 24 C
3 B 18 B 33 48 5 D 15 A 25 B
C C
6 A 16 B 26 D
4 C 19 B 34 A 49 B 7 D 17 B 27 C
5 C 20 D 35 B 50 A 8 B 18 A 28 D
9 D 19 C 29 B
6 B 21 B 36 C 10 A 20 C 30 D
CROP PRODUCTION
1 A 16 C 31 B 46 D 5 D 15 C 25 B
2 D 17 D 32 C 47 C 6 C 16 B 26 B
3 C 18 C 33 C 48 C
4 B 19 D 34 C 49 B 7 A 17 A 27 A
5 D 20 A 35 D 50 B
8 B 18 B 28 A
6 B 21 B 36 A
7 C 22 B 37 B 9 A 19 B 29 B
8 D 23 D 38 B
10 A 20 D 30 D
9 D 24 D 39 A
10 B 25 B 40 A SPECIALIZED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CROP
11 B 26 E 41 B PRODUCTION
12 A 27 C 42 B 1 D 11 B 21 D
13 D 28 A 43 C 2 D 12 C 22 A
14 A 29 B 44 A 3 C 13 D 23 A
15 A 30 F 45 B 4 C 14 A/C 24 C
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
5 D 15 A 25 D
1 A 11 D 21 C 31 D 41 C 6 A 16 D 26 D
2 C 12 C 22 D 32 D 42 B 7 B 17 A 27 D
3 D 13 A 23 A 33 D 43 D 8 A 18 C 28 B
4 D 14 A 24 B 34 B 44 A 9 A 19 C 29 A
5 15 25 35 45 10 D 20 A 30 D
C C B A B
HARVESTING AND POST PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
6 D 16 B 26 B 36 A HORTICULTURE
7 D 17 A 27 A 37 B 1 D 11 B 21 B
8 D 18 C 28 C 38 A 2 C 12 B 22 C
3 A 13 C 23 D
9 C 19 B 29 D 39 C 4 B 14 C 24 D
10 C 20 B 30 B 40 B 5 B 15 A 25 C
IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 6 A 16 B
7 D 17 D
1 A 11 A 21 B 31 A 8 C 18 D
9 B 19 A
2 A 12 D 22 B 10 A 20 B
3 A 13 D 23 D J. FARMING SYSTEMS
1 D 16 B 31 C 46 B
4 D 14 D 24 B 2 C 17 B 32 D 47 C
3 B 18 B 33 A 48 D
4 A 19 D 34 B 49 A 13 D 33 C 53 A 73 B 93 A
5 B 20 B 35 C 50 A 14 D 34 C 54 B 74 C 94 C
6 D 21 A 36 A 51 A 15 A 35 D 55 C 75 D 95 C
7 A 22 A 37 B 52 C
16 B 36 A 56 B 76 B 96 D
8 C 23 B 38 C 53 D
B 17 A 37 B 57 D 77 D 97 D
9 24 C 39 A 54 A
10 D 25 A 40 A 55 C 18 D 38 C 58 A 78 B 98 B
11 D 26 D 41 D 19 C 39 B 59 C 79 D 99 A
12 B 27 A 42 D 20 B 40 D 60 C 80 A 100 A
13 C 28 B 43 B
14 A 29 A 44 A
15 D 30 A 45 D References
SEED TECHNOLOGY
1 C 11 C 21 B 31 C 41 C 1. ^ "Biological Abstracts - Journal List". Intellectual Property &
2 B 12 D 22 D 32 D 42 A Science. Clarivate Analytics. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
3 D 13 B 23 C 33 B 43 B 2. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Master Journal List". Intellectual Property &
4 A 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 A Science. Clarivate Analytics. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
5 B 15 A 25 C 35 A 45 C 3. ^ "Serials cited". CAB Abstracts. CABI. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
6 A 16 C 26 C 36 D 46 D 4. ^ "Source details: Crop Science". Scopus preview. Elsevier.
7 C 17 C 27 C 37 D 47 C Retrieved 2018-04-09.
8 C 18 A 28 A 38 D 48 D 5. ^ "Crop Science". 2016 Journal Citation Reports. Web of
9 A 19 D 29 B 39 C 49 B Science (Science ed.). Clarivate Analytics. 2017.
10 C 20 C 30 B 40 B 50 C
PRE-BOARD: CROP SCIENCE
1 B 21 C 41 D 61 B 81 D
2 A 22 A 42 B 62 C 82 C
3 B 23 A 43 D 63 B 83 A
4 B 24 B 44 A 64 B 84 B
5 C 25 B 45 C 65 C 85 A
6 C 26 C 46 D 66 B 86 B
7 D 27 B 47 D 67 C 87 C
8 B 28 B 48 C 68 D 88 D
9 D 29 D 49 D 69 A 89 D
10 C 30 A 50 B 70 D 90 C
11 C 31 C 51 C 71 B 91 B
12 C 32 A 52 D 72 C 92 A

RJJM Crop Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

RJJM Crop Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EXAMINATION SYLLABUS iii.

The three major functions of roots are

1000 ppm CO2

Supply Higher Lower

Price lower Higher

Dry Matter (for grains)

50-50 Hi (High-low) X HI (High)

Properties of the Plants that Affect Light Utilization

Leaf Area Index

2. Photoperiod insensitive Plants Rs

 produces food  uses food

* Selection of individuals * Higher percentage of desirable

Single Seed Descent Method

Ear-to-row selection, generalized scheme (Source: Acquaah, 2006)

Half-sib Selection, with a progeny test (Source: Acquaah, 2006)

ANTHURIUMS SPATHE FULLY OPEN WITH ½ TO

DENDROBIUM 75% - 80% OF THE FLORETS

CATTLEYAS AND FLOWER IS FULLY OPEN

Methods of determining maturity

CITRUS FOR ORANGES: AT LEAST 25% OF FOR CALAMANSI LOCAL MARKET:

POTATO LEAVES TURN DRY, WATERMELON A DULL HOLLW SOUND

Methods of determining maturity

Color indices for some fruits

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 100

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 101

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 102

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 103

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 104

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 105

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 106

www.facebook.com/LicensureExaminationInAgriculture Page 111

You might also like