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PDF Anthropogenic Aquifer Recharge WSP Methods in Water Resources Evaluation Series No 5 Robert G Maliva Ebook Full Chapter
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Springer Hydrogeology
Robert G. Maliva
Anthropogenic
Aquifer
Recharge
WSP Methods in Water Resources
Evaluation Series No. 5
Springer Hydrogeology
Series Editor
Juan Carlos Santamarta Cerezal, San Cristóbal de la Laguna,
Sta. Cruz Tenerife, Spain
The Springer Hydrogeology series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific
books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in hydrogeology.
The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and
conference proceedings. It covers the entire area of hydrogeology including, but not
limited to, isotope hydrology, groundwater models, water resources and systems,
and related subjects.
Anthropogenic Aquifer
Recharge
WSP Methods in Water Resources Evaluation
Series No. 5
123
Robert G. Maliva
WSP
Florida Gulf Coast University
Fort Myers, FL, USA
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Many areas of the world now face water shortages of varying severity, and water
scarcity is being exacerbated by a combination of population growth and economic
development. Fresh groundwater resources are under particular stress because
of their often high quality, lesser vulnerability to disruptions in supply from
short-term climatic variations, and their wide geographic extent that allows for
decentralized use. Climate change is expected to impact global precipitation pat-
terns and recharge rates, although there is still considerable uncertainty as to local
directions and magnitudes of change. The solution to water scarcity will necessarily
involve both demand- and supply-side solutions. It will be increasingly important to
find means to optimize the use of all available water resources.
Anthropogenic aquifer recharge (AAR) is broadly defined as human processes
that increase the flux of water from the land or surface water bodies into underlying
aquifers. AAR has varying degrees of planning and intent. Managed aquifer
recharge (MAR), a major subset of AAR and main focus of this book, is charac-
terized by the intentional use of aquifers to store and treat waters. AAR can be a
secondary result of intentional activities, such as the use of infiltration basins for
stormwater management and septic systems for wastewater disposal, and changes in
land use and land cover. AAR also includes recharge from unintended processes,
such as leakage from water and sewage mains.
MAR includes a broad range of water storage and treatment techniques of
varying scales. In developed countries, MAR is usually implemented based pri-
marily on economic considerations. For example, storage of water underground in
aquifers can be substantially less expensive than the construction of above-ground
reservoirs and tank systems. Similarly, riverbank filtration systems can be less
expensive to construct and operate than conventional intakes and engineered fil-
tration systems. Small-scale decentralized MAR is part of low impact development
and green infrastructure, which aim to infiltrate and recharge runoff from rainfall
close to its source. In developing countries and poor rural areas of newly indus-
trialized countries, limited local technical and economic resources are important
considerations prompting the implementation of MAR. Indirectly extracting water
from a well located near a surface water body can be a simple, low-technology
v
vi Preface
ix
x Contents
Dr. Robert G. Maliva has been a consulting hydrogeologist since 1992 and is
currently a Principal Hydrogeologist and Technical Fellow with WSP USA Inc. and
a Courtesy Faculty Member at the U.A. Whitaker College of Engineering, Florida
Gulf Coast University. He is currently based in Fort Myers, Florida. He specializes
in groundwater resources development including alternative water supply, managed
aquifer recharge, and desalination projects.
He completed his Ph.D. in geology at Harvard University in 1988. He also has a
master’s degree from Indiana University, Bloomington, and a BA in geological
sciences and biological sciences from the State University of New York at
Binghamton. Upon completion of his doctorate degree, he has held research
positions in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Cambridge,
England, and the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science of the
University of Miami, Florida. He grew up in New York City and attended
Stuyvesant High School in Manhattan.
Dr. Maliva has also managed or performed numerous other types of water
resources and hydrological investigations including contamination assessments,
environmental site assessments, water supply investigations, wellfield designs, and
alternative water supply investigations. He has maintained his research interests and
completed studies on such diverse topics as Precambrian silica diagenesis, aquifer
heterogeneity, precipitates in landfill leachate systems, carbonate diagenesis, and
various aspects of the geology of Florida. He gives frequent technical presentations
and has numerous peer-reviewed papers and conference proceedings publications on
ASR, injection well and water supply issues, hydrogeology, and carbonate geology
and diagenesis. He has authored or coauthored the books, Aquifer Storage and
Recovery and Managed Aquifer Recharge Using Wells: Planning, Hydrogeology,
Design, and Operation, Arid Lands Water Evaluation and Management, and Aquifer
Characterization Techniques.
xxv
Chapter 1
Introduction to Anthropogenic Aquifer
Recharge
1.1 Introduction
Groundwater resources are critical for global drinking water supply, and food and
industrial production. It is estimated that groundwater provides almost 50% of the
drinking water used worldwide and 43% of all water consumptively used for irrigation
(Smith et al. 2016). Groundwater resources are being depleted in many areas of the
world due to pumping at rates that greatly exceed the influx of water into aquifers,
which is broadly referred to as recharge. The rate of global groundwater depletion
has been estimated to be approximately 95 km3 /year for the period 1993–2008 based
on hydrological modeling using information from wells and the GRACE satellites
(Döll et al. 2014). Konikow (2015) reported that the estimated total depletion of
groundwater in the United States during the 20th century is about 800 km3 and that
the depletion increased to almost 1,000 km3 by 2008. The greatest groundwater
depletions were reported to have occurred in the High Plains Aquifer, Gulf Coast
Aquifer Systems, and Central Valley of California (Konikow 2015). The Central
Valley has had the greatest depletion intensity, which is defined as the volumetric
rate of depletion divided by the aquifer area.
Groundwater depletion ultimately results in the exhaustion of an aquifer as a use-
able water source. Aquifers will not be pumped completely dry, but rather extraction
costs progressively increase so that the use of an aquifer becomes economically
unviable. In addition, declining groundwater levels may induce adverse water qual-
ity changes, such as vertical and horizontal saline-water intrusion, land subsidence,
decreased stream baseflow, and dehydration of wetlands. Environmental impacts of
aquifer depletion are constraining groundwater use in some areas (e.g., parts of the
High Plains of the west-central United States and the Central Valley of California)
long before physical exhaustion of the resource may occur (Scanlon et al. 2012).
The global rate of groundwater use, and thus aquifer depletion, has increased
over time due to population growth, economic development, climate change, and
other factors. Groundwater will increasingly be needed to perform a stabilization
role in mitigating fluctuations in the supply of surface waters (Tsur 1990). Surface
water supplies may locally become more variable due to climate change. Modeled
intensification of the water cycle is projected to result in more extreme floods inter-
spersed with long-term droughts. It has been recognized that stabilization of water
supplies is the greatest value of groundwater resources, as opposed to full-time sup-
ply. Increasing, or at least maintaining, groundwater resources is a critical issue for
sustainable irrigation and other water uses in areas facing water scarcity. The need
for underground storage of water will increase to mitigate the impacts of climate
change (Scanlon et al. 2012).
Humans impact the recharge of aquifers in a myriad of ways. The impacts can
be either positive or negative with respect to aquifer water budgets and groundwa-
ter depletion. Todd (1959) defined artificial recharge as “the practice of increas-
ing by artificial means the amount of water that enters a ground-water reservoir.”
The term “artificial” is no longer in favor as it can be construed as indicating that
the practice is in some manner unnatural. Morel-Seytoux (1985) defined “man-
aged recharge” as “any process that facilitates transformation of surface water into
ground water.” Dillon (2005) subsequently introduced the term “management of
aquifer recharge” as describing the “intentional banking and treatment of waters
in aquifers.” The term “management of aquifer recharge” has been superseded by
“managed aquifer recharge” (MAR). MAR has been alternatively defined as the “the
purposeful recharge of water to aquifers for subsequent recovery or environmen-
tal benefits” (Dillon 2009; Parsons et al. 2012). Human activities can also increase
groundwater recharge in unplanned, unintentional, and unmanaged manners. The
term “anthropogenic aquifer recharge” (AAR) is recommended herein to broadly
describe increases groundwater recharge caused by human activities. MAR is a sub-
set of AAR.
MAR includes methods intended to increase the volume of water in storage, such
as recharge by infiltration and using wells. The logic of MAR is straightforward;
excess water is captured and stored underground when available during wet seasons or
low-demand periods, and later recovered for use during dry or high-demand periods.
The solution to groundwater depletion is to bring aquifer water budgets back into
balance by decreasing extractions, increasing recharge, or a combination of both.
Although MAR is recognized to be an important tool for addressing water scarcity, it
is not a substitute for demand management in resolving groundwater over extraction
(Gale et al. 2006). Foster and Garduño (2013) noted that
whilst ‘managed aquifer recharge’ should be encouraged, it is not usually the solution to
groundwater resources imbalance and if pursued in isolation (rather than as part of a balanced
suite of management measures) may merely result in increased demand.
MAR can be viewed as a means for optimizing the use of aquifers. Dillon et al.
(2012) observed that the “Objectives of groundwater management relate to maxi-
mizing economic utility of aquifers while sustaining the environment and providing
security for meeting human needs.”
MAR technologies have a long history. For example, harvesting and storage of
monsoon rains, including techniques that recharged local aquifers, have been con-
tinuously practiced in India since at least the third millennium BC (Agarwal and
1.1 Introduction 3
The decentralized nature and low technical requirements of some types of MAR
are now viewed as important advantages. Small-scale MAR systems implemented on
the local level in developing countries can have marked water supply and public health
benefits. For example, extraction of water from rivers or streams using wells (i.e.,
riverbank filtration), as opposed to direct extraction, can result in a dramatic reduction
in pathogen concentrations and associated incidence of disease. MAR technologies
are economically attractive for rural areas of developing countries where they are a
viable alternative to treatment works for medium-sized water supplies (Hofkes and
Visscher 1986). While the capital costs of MAR schemes are comparable to those
of more conventional water treatment systems, their operational and maintenance
(O&M) costs are likely to be lower (Hofkes and Visscher 1986). The lower O&M
financial and technical requirements for MAR systems are particularly important in
some developing countries where many engineered systems have fallen into disrepair
or have been abandoned because of a lack of resources.
MAR includes “environmentally sound technologies” (ESTs), which are defined
to (UNEP 2008)
encompass technologies that have the potential for significantly improved environmental
performance relative to other technologies. Broadly speaking, these technologies protect the
environment, are less polluting, use resources in a sustainable manner, recycle more of their
wastes and products, and handle all residual wastes in a more environmentally acceptable
way than the technologies for which they are substitutes.
1.2 Definitions
A variety of terms have been used, often inconsistently, to categorized MAR and
AAR systems. The key aspects of MAR are that aquifer recharge is intentional and
there is at least some control over the recharge process. The National Research
Council (2008) Committee on Sustainable Underground Storage of Recoverable
Water introduced the similar term “managed underground storage of recoverable
water” (MUS), which denotes the “purposeful recharge of water into an aquifer
system for intended recovery and use as an element of long-term water resources
management.” The Dillon (2005) definition of MAR is currently most widely used
for purposeful aquifer recharge.
The Australian NRMMC, EPHC and NHMRC (2009) differentiated between
unintentional recharge and unmanaged recharge (UMAR). The former includes
unplanned recharge, such as from pipe leakage. UMAR includes intentional activ-
ities that have a primary disposal function in which recharge is incidental, such as
discharges to septic system leach fields. UMAR and unintentional aquifer recharge
include:
• infiltration of stormwater in retention basins
• leakage from potable water and sewer mains
• discharges to on-site sewage disposal and treatment systems (e.g., septic systems
and cesspools)
• irrigation return flows
• leakage from canals
• discharge of wastewater to ephemeral streams.
The distinction between MAR and UMAR can be an exercise in semantics, espe-
cially where systems serve multiple intended purposes. For example, a stormwater
infiltration basin could be categorized as either a managed or unmanaged system
depending upon whether its primary purpose is either stormwater management or
aquifer recharge. Stormwater infiltration basins also serve both aquifer recharge and
water treatment functions.
A differentiating criterion between MAR and UMAR is whether the additional
aquifer recharge serves an intended beneficial purpose. For example, increased
recharge of stormwater to a shallow aquifer that is not used for water supply and
does not support a groundwater-dependent environment (i.e., is purely a water dis-
posal system) could have neutral or potentially adverse hydrological impacts, and
would be categorized as UMAR. The same system that was constructed with the
primary goal to augment local groundwater supplies or increase dry season baseflow
in a nearby stream would be categorized as MAR. MAR includes technologies to:
• store water underground for later use
• improve the quality of water through natural contaminant attenuation process that
occur during infiltration, groundwater flow, and underground storage
• protect the quality of existing fresh groundwater resources (e.g., control saline-
water intrusion)
1.2 Definitions 5
• prevent or mitigate adverse impacts associated with groundwater use, such as land
subsidence, reduction in stream baseflow, and wetland dehydration.
AAR also includes land use/land cover (LULC) changes that increase net
recharge. Bouwer (2002) included enhanced recharge, induced recharge, and inci-
dental recharge in artificial recharge. Enhanced recharge, as defined by Bouwer
(2002), consists mainly of vegetation management techniques, such as replacing
deep-rooted vegetation with shallow-rooted vegetation or bare soil, and changing
vegetation to types that intercept less rainfall with their foliage. Induced recharge is
achieved by placing wells near streams, rivers or other surface water bodies to lower
the water table and draw more water into an aquifer. Incidental recharge includes
human activities that unintentionally increase recharge.
The categorization of AAR techniques and processes used herein is intended to
facilitate their discussion. An important goal is to increase the management and
control of both UMAR and unintentional recharge. Recharge may progress from
unmanaged to managed by approximately accounting for human health and environ-
mental risks (NRMCC, EPHC and NHMRC 2009) and accounting for site-specific
hydrogeology and geochemistry in their design and operation.
MAR techniques vary both in their objectives and how recharge is performed or
induced (Table 1.1). MAR is most commonly employed to either increase the vol-
ume of freshwater stored in an aquifer or reduce the rate of decline in water storage
caused by excessive groundwater pumping. Increasing the volume of water in storage
may have intended secondary benefits, such as controlling saline-water intrusion and
environmental protection (e.g., maintaining or restoring stream baseflows and wet-
land hydroperiods). The second broad category of MAR techniques have a primary
water treatment goal. Various natural contaminant attenuation processes are taken
advantage of to improve the quality of recharged water. Some MAR systems have
dual storage and treatment objectives.
Depending upon the system, recharge is performed by either applying water onto
a land surface (surface spreading), subsurface discharge into the vadose zone using
wells, galleries, and trenches, or by injection using wells into either confined or
unconfined aquifers. Recharge may also be induced by pumping groundwater close
to connected surface water bodies (induced recharge). Modifications of the land sur-
face and stream channels, such as by the removal (or change of) vegetation and con-
struction of dams and levees, are also used to intentionally increase aquifer recharge.
It has been advocated that the more precise term “injection” be replaced with
the more general and innocuous-sounding term “recharge” (e.g., National Research
Council 2008) because the former may have a negative public association with dis-
posal wells. The term “injection” is retained in places herein because it clearly and
specifically describes the process of emplacing water into an aquifer using wells.
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