Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K.

Mwangi
FLOOD CONTROL AND DAMAGE MITIGATION

Definition: A flood is an unusually high stage of a river that overtops natural / artificial banks in
any reach of a river and inundates adjoining areas. Damage caused by floods in terms of loss of
life, property and economic losses due to disruption of economic activities is normally high.

Overview Of Floods: A popular view is that floods are increasing in magnitude and frequency.
However, available evidence suggests otherwise. But although not increasing in magnitude and
frequency, damages due to floods are increasing steadily due to greater exposure to risk as man
increasingly occupies and obstructs flood plains. Flood control does not imply complete
elimination of floods as this is not physically / economically feasible. What is required is
reduction of flood damage to a minimum consistent with the cost involved hence the term flood
mitigation is preferred. Hydrologic design of structures is concerned with future events for
which magnitude and frequency cannot be predicted accurately. Engineers therefore rely on the
probability that a future discharge will be equaled / exceeded.

Global experience of flood damage: Floods have created problems in many parts of the world
ever since mankind began settling and developing natural flood plains. In recent times urban
flooding has also increased due to the effect of urbanization on particular phases of the
hydrologic cycle and inadequacy / poor design of existing storm sewers and drains.
Flood magnitudes are described by discharge, elevation and volume, each of which is important
in hydrologic design of the different types of flow control structures.

Factors that initiate and modify floods:

These may be grouped into:
i. Natural inputs: e.g. rapid water input (heavy rainfall), jams and blockages (log-jam and
related flood, landslide blockage etc.)
ii. Basin interactions: e.g. hill slope and channel properties.
iii. Human effects: water supply engineering structures, land surface changes and channel
modifications.

Flood studies:
Flood studies aim at determining nature and extent of flood hazard in a particular area and
constitute the first step in flood management. In addition to documenting studies undertaken to
assess the frequency and extent of inundation, flood study reports provide technical details on
flood aspects which should be considered when formulating a flood loss prevention and
management plan. They should also provide relevant information in a comprehensive but
succinct format including:

i. Physical setting of the river basin, topography, soil and vegetation types, land use,
longitudinal stream profiles, channel cross sections, channel roughness, coastal and
estuarine bathymetry.
ii. Nature of flooding
iii. Hydrological analysis: rainfall, stream flow, river stage, sediment load, storm surge, tidal
and wind data.
iv. Hydraulic analysis: operation record of flood control structures- dams, weirs, pumping
stations, gates, retarding basins.
v. Potential flood damages:
(1) Inundation – area, depth, floodwater velocity, duration, volume
(2) Damages- both tangible and intangible

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 Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K. Mwangi
The study may also include preparation of a flood risk map which identifies the extent, severity
and frequency of the flood. Flood zoning is also an important aspect of flood management.

Measures for reducing flood damage:

A flood has three important dimensions, height, volume and discharge. Height is important in
defining the extent of the area inundated and the minimum elevation of any structure built on the
floodplain. Volume of a flood is needed to design retarding and storage structures, while peak
discharge is needed in design of spillways, bridges, culvert openings and channel modifications.
Flood control / mitigation represents all measures adopted to reduce damage to life and property
due to floods. Food control measures can be broadly classified into two types depending on the
feasibility of controlling the magnitude of flood flow involved.

 When it is not possible to reduce peak flows so that some overflowing of banks could
take place then flood damage can be reduced by constructing embankments, flood walls
or through channel improvement.
 When it is possible to reduce peak flows through reservoirs, detention basins, diversions
and soil conservation measures. Reservoirs and detention basins store part of the flood
water and reduce peak flows by moderating flood flows. Diversions carry away part of
the flood to another basin lower down for storage and subsequent use after cessation of
the flood. Soil conservation measures in the basin retard flows and are effective in
handling low and medium floods. All these are referred to as structural flood control
measures.

Structural measures:
Are physical constructions intended to reduce / avoid impacts of flood hazards and may include:

 Reduction of peak flow using detention and storage reservoirs.

 Confinement of flow within predetermined channels using levees / flood
embankments.
 Reduction of peak stage through increased velocities from channel improvement.
 Diversion of flood waters through flood by-passes, which return the water to the
channel at a point downstream or delivers it to a channel of a different watershed.
 Soil conservation and afforestation measures in the catchment.

Flood wall to protect a town from disaster

Flood wall constructed as local flood hazard prevention for some important structure situated at
low ground. Walls are generally made of RCC or masonry and are made parallel to the river.
They are designed against water pressure with a FoS against sliding and a free board. Ends of a
flood wall end in high ground level or it is constructed on all sides of important structures.

Non-structural measures:
 Reduction of flood runoff through proper land management.
 Temporary evacuation of flood threatened areas on the basis of early flood warnings
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 Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K. Mwangi
 Coherent disaster policy and appropriate legislation.
 Flood plain zoning and mapping of flood risk areas.
 Training and education especially on disaster preparedness and response.
Flood zoning aims at restricting flood plain uses to those that cause minimum damage to land
and property during floods. It is done in such as a way that residential, business and industrial
areas are far away from direct threat of flood intrusion. All isolated units of high value i.e.
power stations, water works etc. are individually flood proofed. However, the zoning must
conform to economic criteria where benefits from zoning outweigh capital investments on other
means of flood control.

Flood proofing is providing important public properties e.g. power houses etc. that cannot be
relocated with necessary means of protection such as:
 Evacuating people and all movable property immediately prior to flood occurrence.
 Restricting area inundated during floods using sand bags and temporary embankments.
 Carrying out rapid clean-up and rehabilitation work after floods to minimize flood
damages.
Effectiveness of these measures involves making advance preparation for sufficient provision of
flood fighting materials and an emergency action plan involving all stakeholders.
 Incorporate in building design materials and methods less susceptible to damage by
floods e.g. Concrete and not timber floors.
 Preventing water from entering buildings through use of sealing walls to control seepage
and closing all unnecessary openings in the building.

Flood insurance
Involves providing information to prospective buyers the true cost of flood by levying a suitable
level of premium to cover the risk involved in purchasing land or constructing buildings on
flood plains. Flood insurance does not reduce the physical damages due to floods but only
converts irregular pattern of flood loss into a uniform annual series of payments. These
accumulated payments may then be used to reimburse people suffering from flood damages
hence reducing financial uncertainty associated with flood losses. However, for success the level
of premium which depends on accurate knowledge of flood damage estimates should neither be
too high or too low in order to make insurance accessible to more people.

Flood damage mitigation

Hydrologic design for water control is concerned with mitigating adverse effects of floods.
Magnitudes of floods are described by flood discharge, elevation and volume, each of which is
important in the hydrologic design of different kinds of flow control structures. Flood mitigation
is achieved through flow regulation structures (detention basins, flood control reservoirs etc.)
and flow conveyance structures (storm sewers, levees, flood-by passes etc.). The purpose of
flow regulation structures is to smooth out peak discharges, thereby decreasing downstream
flood elevation peaks while the purpose of flow conveyance structures is to safely convey the
flow to downstream points where its adverse effects are controlled or minimized.

Steps in the design of flood mitigation projects:

 Determine the project design flood and flood characteristics of the area.
 Define the areas to be protected and on the basis of a field survey, determine the
flood damages which can be expected at various stages.
 Determine possible methods of flood protection. If reservoirs or floodways are
feasible, select possible sites and determine their physical characteristics.
 Design necessary facilities for each method of mitigation in sufficient detail to permit
cost estimates and analysis of their effect on flood frequency or stage damage
relations.
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 Select the facility or combination of facilities that offer maximum net benefit.
 Evaluate the social and environmental impacts of the project and consider
alternatives that maximize positive impacts and minimize negative ones.
Flood damages:
Flood damage can be considered from economic, social and environmental
perspectives. Total flood damages are usually categorized into (1) Intangible
damages – Those that cannot be evaluated on the basis of direct monetary losses e.g.
death, sickness, stress, anxiety, environmental quality (2) Tangible damages: Those
which can be evaluated on the basis of direct monetary losses. Tangible damages also
fall in two categories (i) direct damages: inundated buildings fabric and contents,
crops, livestock, infrastructure (ii) indirect damages: disruption of businesses
dependent on raw materials from flooded areas, disruption of communications to
other areas not flood prone, additional costs in emergency response etc.

a) Flood Plain Management:

A flood plain is the normally dry land area adjoining rivers, streams, lakes, bays, or
oceans that are inundated during flood events. Encroachment of flood plains, such as
by artificial fill material, reduces flood-carrying capacity, increases flood heights of
streams and increases flood hazards in areas beyond the encroachment. One aspect of
flood plain management involves balancing the economic gains from flood plain
development against the resulting increase in flood hazard.

b) Flood control by reservoirs:

Reservoirs are either detention type (hold runoff for a short period of time before
releasing it to the natural water course) most cases ungated or retention type (holding
water for considerable long time until flood subsides) outflow manually regulated by
gates. Retention reservoirs are mostly multi-purpose in function. Salient design
issues in reservoirs are: selection of design rainfall, volume of storage needed,
maximum permitted release rate, pollution control requirements and opportunities
and design of outlet works for releasing the detained water. The concept of detaining
runoff and releasing it at a regulated rate results in a distorted outflow hydrograph
which is attenuated with a reduced peak and delayed time to peak. It is the most
effective measures of flood disaster mitigation measure.

Flood Hydrograph with and without a reservoir

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 Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K. Mwangi
c) Flood forecasting:
Flood forecasts provide warnings for people to evacuate areas threatened by floods and help
water management personnel. The challenge to hydrologists is to provide reliable real time
forecasts. These are currently being improved by automated and electronically transmitted data
inputs in models. Forecasting floods in advance enables warnings to be given to people likely to
be affected and further enables civil-defense measures to be organized to evacuate people and
property to safer areas which reduces damage by floods. It forms an important and relatively
inexpensive non-structural flood control measure. However, for them to be effective they must
be given well in advance and be reliable. Erroneous warning can cause the population to lose
faith in the system.

Flood forecasting technique can be broadly divided into 3 categories:

 Short range forecasts- These give an advance warning of 12-40hrs. before
arrival of the flood. River stages at successive gauging stations are monitored
and their correlation with rainfall over the intervening area and antecedent
rainfall index to account for wetness of the basin.
 Medium range forecasts - This gives an advance warning of 2 - 5 days through
co-axical graphical correlation of rainfall with runoff and other parameters like
storm duration, antecedent rainfall etc.
 Long range forecasts- This gives much longer time than the above and involves
use of radars and other data as available from weather satellites. The method is
able to forecast accurately in advance magnitude, direction and time of
occurrence of major rain storms.

Flood forecasting methods:

These may include (1) multiple correlation methods e.g. H-upstream vs H-downstream,
Q-upstream vs Q-downstream Rainfall-upstream vs H-downstream (2) Rainfall-runoff
models: the UH, conceptual models (3) Routing models e.g. Muskingum, kinematic
wave and dynamic wave approaches. When adequate data is available and forecasts of
complete hydrographs are required, rainfall-runoff relations are used to estimate the
amount of water expected to appear in streams while the UH and streamflow routing
procedures are used to determine the time distribution of this water at forecast point.
Stage-discharge relationships are then used to convert these flows to stages.
Computerized real time systems are currently in use in many parts of the world.

d) Flood Standard:
Is the size of flood adopted as the basis for planning protection of and controlling
development on flood-liable land. The appropriate flood standard should reflect a
realistic level of flood risk while taking into consideration social, economic and
environmental factors associated with a programme of flood loss reduction. The
adopted flood standard will determine the trade-off between short term costs and
long-term damages. Examples of flood standards adopted by some countries are for
the design of levees. (Find out Kenya’s practice in reference to dams- Refer Ministry
of Water and Irrigation design manual):

e) Flood risk analysis and mapping:

Maps are the standard format for presenting flood hazards. The flood hazard areas
are usually divided according to severity (deep or shallow), type (quiet water or high
velocity) or frequency. They are essential to the formulation and implementation of
appropriate flood loss prevention and management strategies. The exercise involves
flood mapping for different risk levels.

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Flood Control
i. Improvement in river regime: Dredging to lower and widen the river bed in order to
prevent further silting which raises the river bed and reduces flood carrying capacity
ii. Soil conservation measures in the catchment such as afforestation good cultivation
practices, gully control and prevention of river bank erosion.
iii. Construction of tanks in the catchment for purposes of moderating floods.
iv. Natural or artificial flood diversion through subsidiary channels of the parent rivers or in
another river system to underground reservoirs linked with the river to selected
depressions, lakes etc.
v. Drainage measures to provide a straight run to the sea from speedy drainage of the flood
water during peak flood period.

Diversion works by a channel for flood mitigation in an important area

A diversion channel with regulator upstream of an important area is constructed. The diversion
channel decreases the stage of the flood near the, thereby reducing flood disaster.

Reservoir versus Embankments

Flood control is achieved by decreasing peak flow rate, increasing channel carrying capacity or
both. The function of the reservoir is to decrease the flood peak passing a given point / points
while the function of channel improvement, levees and flood ways is to increase the carrying
capacity of the channel. The reservoir must be large enough to limit the flood flow to the
capacity of the unimproved channel or the channel must be of sufficient capacity to carry the
maximum unregulated flow. Flood control should be planned in a comprehensive way taking
into consideration other developmental needs of the basin i.e. irrigation, power, navigation etc.
The cheapest method of flood control is to divert flood flow into natural lakes and depressions to
store or detain the flood flow.

Earthen Embankment for increased flood discharge

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 Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K. Mwangi
By constructing embankments, flood flows are confined and overflowing of banks prevented.

River Channel Improvement

Rivers generally take off from mountains, then flow along the plain terrains and finally join
oceans. They form more or less defined channels; drain away the land water obtained by
rainfall; and discharge the unutilized water back into the sea. Rivers not only carry water but
also sediments washed down from the catchment area and eroded from beds and banks of rivers.
Channels are formed by interactions of water and sediments. During large floods, floodwaters
not only overflow and bring about inundation to riverine areas, they also cause serious sediment
related damages. These include: 1) bank erosion/collapse including dike and revetment and 2)
river bed degradation.

Cut-off reduces the length of the river

Channel improvement is carried out in order to decrease the stage and duration of the flood. It
includes: widening or deepening the stream, straightening the meandering type of cut-off to
reduce the time of travel, smoothening the river bed and sides and removing roughness offered
by sand bed, weed growth etc. Many river structures are damaged during floods and inundations
in riverine areas while substantial budgets are spent reconstructing/repairing these structures.
This is attributed to non-existence of design discharge and/or design flood level used for
planning and design. Considering the various functions of rivers, river channel improvement
should be planned and designed based on adequate analysis of river characteristics to attain the
following:

(1) To carry design flood water allocated to the target river channel.
(2) To protect the target river channel from scouring and/or erosion for flood discharges equal to
and lower than the design flood discharge.

Economic Analysis of flood protection:

Economic analysis of flood loss prevention options usually follows conventional cost-benefit
analysis in making comparisons of flood protection schemes. This approach to project appraisal
is appropriate where governments, acting on behalf of society, wish to justify that expenditure of
public funds is in the best interest of society. Widespread misuse of this technique has been
identified, particularly the tendency to select a discount rate to yield the desired cost-benefit
ratio. In addition, difficulties exist with quantification of certain types of benefits. In an effort to
overcome deficiencies of strict cost-benefit analyses, the multi objective planning approach
requires consideration of social and environmental objectives as well as economic factors. It not
unusual to proceed with flood loss prevention and management schemes on social grounds. In
fact, it is often the experience worldwide, that these types of schemes are found to be
uneconomical in straight cost-benefit terms. More often, the cost effectiveness approach is
adopted. This approach specifies a goal then examines the most cost-effective way of attaining
that goal. First, a standard flood is adopted and then investigations seek to find the most cost-
effective methods to provide protection against that flood. The least cost method of achieving
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the required level of protection is then chosen. It should be recognized that use of this method
will not necessarily result in acceptance of the most economically efficient scheme.

Economics of Flood Control

Alluvial valleys of rivers, formed by the rich silt deposited by rivers themselves are the most
fertile lands and highly suitable for agricultural production.

Direct tangible loses from floods include:

i. Damage to properties and communication ways.
ii. Destruction of crops
iii. Loss of earnings and services
iv. Flood risk to life and property.

Indirect tangible losses:

i. Inconvenience resulting from disruption of means of communication
ii. Enhanced expenditure on medical care
iii. Labour losses
iv. Decline in produce

Tangible benefits:
Environmental impacts of flood control works is that the land is saved from inundation making
available more land for cultivation, urbanization and industrial growth. It also reduces the
frequency of occurrence of certain water borne diseases.

Intangible benefits:
These are benefits that cannot be assigned monetary value.
i. Protection of life and health
ii. Reduction of hazards to occupants of protected areas
iii. Improved general welfare of the community
iv. Increased production

Cost Benefit Analysis

Effect of a project on economic welfare can be evaluated in terms of relative value of benefits
and costs associated with it. An excess of benefits over costs implies people would be better off
with the project than without it. Cost Benefit Analysis is a tool for assessing the viability of
flood control projects. It helps to select not only the optimum level of adjustment to a flood but
also on optimum combination of measures for the purpose. CBA hinges on the capital cost and
annual average cost of a project on the one hand and benefits thereof on the other hand.

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COST-EFFECTIVENESS APPROACH
Costs:
Include the cost of investigation and planning, land, buildings, works, tools and plants. Work
charged staff, maintenance during construction, contingencies etc. Annual average cost includes
annual interest on capital cost, depreciation and maintenance costs each calculated at a
prescribed % of the capital cost.

Benefits:
Annual benefit is the average monetary value of annual flood damages of few years before the
construction of the project. The benefit is estimated by multiplying the area affected by an
assumed value of damage per Ha. From this, an estimate of the average annual damage after
construction of the project is supposed to be deducted. Adjustments are also made for the
beneficial value of silt deposition if any. Benefit takes into account expenditure on relief and
rehabilitation, revenue remission agricultural loans etc.

Cost Benefit Ratio

A favorable Benefit Cost Ratio is a pre-requisite for taking up projects, but the benefit cost ratio
of a project depends on its scales of protection. In case of flood control projects, the scale is
interpreted in terms of design flood against which protection is to be provided. This flood is
usually denoted by its frequency and indicates the degree of protection provided. The general
practice is to design against maximum flood.

Limitations of Flood Control Measures

Undesirable changes in ground water table, water level drop in river flow, deterioration of
ecological conditions etc. It also causes suppression of favorable effects of floods such as loss of
silt and nutrients which has to be compensated by increased application of fertilizers which leads
to water pollution.

Economic Measures of Flood Control

Because of the limitations and economics of flood control by embankments, alternative
economic measures are required to control floods and these include:

 Improvement in river regime. Dredging to lower and widen the river bed in order to
prevent further silting which raises the river bed and reduces flood carrying capacity.
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 Lecture Notes. ECE 2410: Hydrology II by Dr. J.K. Mwangi
 Soil conservation measures in the catchment such as afforestation, cultivation practices,
gully control and prevention of river bank erosion.
 Drainage measures to provide a straight run to the sea for speedy drainage of flood water
during peak flood period.
 Natural or artificial flood diversion through subsidiary channels of the parent rivers or in
another river system or to underground reservoirs linked with the river to selected
depressions, lakes etc. with a view to relieving the intensity of flood in the main river.

Floods in Kenya
Kenya has experienced serious incidents of flood and drought disasters, in different parts of the
country that caused major disturbances, destroying property and resulting in loss of life. Floods
occur due to natural factors like flash floods, river floods and coastal floods. They may also
occur due to human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and flood plains. For example,
in some cases floods have occurred in river basins even with normal rains because of excess
surface water runoff occasioned by deforestation and upstream land degradation. Kenya is
affected by floods following torrential rainfall. These force thousands of people living in
lowlands to move to higher grounds. The people affected are mostly in western and Nyanza
provinces and in Tana River district. However, slum dwellers in towns like Nairobi who have
erected informal structures near rivers are not spared. In Nyanza Province River Nyando is
notorious for bursting its banks during the rainy season.

Kenya’s record of flood disasters indicates the worst floods recorded in 1961-62 and 1997-98,
the latter ones being the most intense, most widespread and most severe. During this season
flooding was associated with the El Nino phenomenon, a weather pattern that affects most parts
of the world. El Niño is a disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific
having important consequences for weather around the globe. It may cause increased rainfall in
some areas and drought in others thus changing the normal weather pattern.

Factors that contribute to flood vulnerability hence causing flood disasters in Kenya
 Location of settlement in the flood plains
 Cultivation of crops along slopes adjacent to the floodplains, causing massive erosion
and destruction of trees in the catchments.
 Lack of awareness of the flood hazard by the local communities
 Where the capacity of the soil to absorb water is reduced due to erosion
 Poor building materials leading to non-resistant structures and foundations that cannot
withstand the running waters
 High risk infrastructure

Factors that contribute to increased flood hazard in river NZOIA

The main factors contributing to increased incidence of floods in the lower reaches of NZOIA
river in Budalangi Division of Busia district are: -

1. Reduced flood carrying capacity of the rivers due to excessive siltation of their bed.

2. Settlement of the dykes in some places reducing the effective height, thereby rendering the
dyke susceptible to over-topping during floods.

3. Erosion of dykes due to river attacks making them susceptible to breaches even during
Floods of lower magnitudes than the design flood.

4. Increase in flood discharges due to severe degradation of watersheds caused by

uncontrolled and unregulated human activity, especially large-scale deforestation.
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5. The dykes are, at present, overgrown with trees and shrubs resulting in loosening and
cracking of the dykes.

6. Excessive encroachment of flood plains by the people for agriculture and livestock
farming and fishery.

7. There is no programme / provision for routine maintenance of dykes. Specific schemes are
formulated from time to time to repair the breached or severely damaged sections.
A combination of the above factors results in dykes being breached very frequently.

Threats to Flood Management

In Kenya factors contributing to increased flood disasters could be summarized as follows:

i. Population pressure: Intensive economic use of the flood plains for agriculture and
livestock farming.

ii. Deteriorating infrastructure: Lack of systematic and routine maintenance of flood

dykes, makes them susceptible to breaches even during floods of lower magnitudes
than the design flood.

iii. Environmental degradation of watersheds caused by uncontrolled and unregulated

human activity, especially large-scale deforestation and cultivation practices
resulting in:

 Increase in flood peaks.

 Reduced flood carrying capacity of the rivers due to excessive siltation of their bed.
 Excessive siltation of the river mouths at discharge into the lakes and oceans.
 Shifting of river courses causing erosion of dykes.

A submerged hut in western Kenya Displaced residents in a slum area

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