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Asian American
SOC I E T Y
Asian American
SOC I E T Y
An Encyclopedia

Volume 1

Mary Yu Danico
EDITOR

Anthony C. Ocampo
ASSOCIATE EDITOR

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

A Joint Publication of the Association for Asian American Studies and SAGE
FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2014 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
E-mail: order@sagepub.com
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard Asian American society : an encyclopedia / Mary Yu
55 City Road Danico, editor.
London EC1Y 1SP volumes cm
United Kingdom Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-4522-8190-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1.
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. Asian Americans--Encyclopedias. I. Danico, Mary Yu,
3 Church Street editor of compilation.
#10-04 Samsung Hub E184.A75A84167 2014
Singapore 049483 973'.0495--dc23
2014008842

Executive Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson

Cover Designer: Anthony Paular
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Reference Systems Coordinators: Laura Notton
Anna Villasenor
Reference Production Manager: Eric Garner
Marketing Manager: Carmel Schrire

Golson Media
President and Editor: J. Geoffrey Golson
Director, Author Management: Lisbeth Rogers
Production Director: Mary Jo Scibetta
Layout Editors: Kenneth W. Heller, Oona Patrick
Copyeditor: Pam Schroeder
Production Editor: TLK Editing Services
Proofreaders: Kathy Hix, Michele Chesley
Indexer: J S Editorial 14 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents
Volume 1
List of Articles vii
Reader’s Guide xiii
About the Editor and AAAS Mission Statement xviii
List of Contributors xix
Introduction xxv
Chronology xxxi

Articles
A 1 E 291
B 137 F 333
C 167 G 395
D 265 H 419

Volume 2
List of Articles vii
Articles
I 481 R 765
J 545 S 789
K 573 T 879
L 619 U 909
M 653 V 921
N 703 W 943
O 713 Y 967
P 725 Z 983

Volume 3
List of Primary Documents vii

Primary Documents
1849 to 1899 987
1900 to 1949 1217
1950 to 1978 1425

(Continued)
 Contents
Volume 4
List of Primary Documents vii

Primary Documents
1979 to 1999 1495
2000 to 2013 1771

Glossary 1925
Resource Guide 1933
Appendix 1939
Index 1975
Photo Credits 2027
 List of Articles

A Asian American Literary Review, The

ABC (American-Born Chinese) Asian American Movement
Academia Asian American Student Organizations
Acculturation Asian American Studies
Activism, Asian American Asian American Studies and Globalization
Actors, Asian American Asian American/Pacific Islanders
Addictions in Philanthropy
Adoption Asian Americans Advancing Justice–Los Angeles
Affirmative Action Asian and Pacific Islander American
Aiiieeeee! Scholarship Fund
Alcatraz, Occupation of Asian Critical Theory
Amerasia Journal Asian Exclusion Acts
Angel Island: Immigration Station Asian Law Caucus
Angry Asian Girl Asian Pacific American Heritage Month
Angry Asian Man Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance
Anime/Manga Asian Settler Colonialism
Anti–Martial Law Movement Asian Women United of California
Anti-Miscegenation Laws Asian–Black Relations
Aoki, Richard Asian–Latino Relations
Ariyoshi, George AsianWeek
Art and Artists, Visual Assimilation/Segmented Assimilation
Asian American and Native American Pacific Association for Asian American Studies
Islander–Serving Institutions Athletes
Asian American and Pacific Islander
Research Coalition B
Asian American Chamber and Junior Chamber Balikbayan
of Commerce Bamboo Ridge: Journal of Hawai‘i Literature
Asian American Greek Life and Arts
Asian American International Film Festival Bangladeshi Americans
Asian American Justice Center Beauty Pageants, Asian American

vii
viii List of Articles

Better Luck Tomorrow E

Bilingual Education East West Players
Boat People Education
Bollywood Elder Care
Buddhism Elected Officials
Burmese/Myanmar Americans Ellis Island
Employment (Overview)
C Environmental Justice
Cambodian Americans Ethnic Studies
Cambodian Americans (Education) Ethnoburbs
Cartoons and Asian Americans EthnoCommunications
Cayetano, Ben Executive Order 9066
Census Demographic Shifts
Center for Asian American Media F
Chan, Charlie Families (Overview)
Chin, Vincent Family Reunification 1965 Immigration Act
Chinatown, Monterey Park Fashion and Designers
Chinatowns Feminism, Asian American
Chinese American Citizens Alliance Filipino American Authors
Chinese American Literature Filipino American Literature
Chinese Americans Filipino American Rap
Chinese Americans, Organization of Filipino Americans
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 Filipino Americans (Education)
Chinese Immigration Filipino Diasporic Identity
Chinese-Vietnamese Americans Filipino Immigration
Christian Missionary Work and Filipino Nurse Migration
Educational Outreach to Asian Americans Filipino Seamen
Christianity Filipino–Latino Relations
Citizenship/Legal Status Film, Asian American
Civil Rights Fisher v. University of Texas
Code Switching Fong, Hiram L.
College Admissions Debates Food, Asian American
Comic and Graphic Novels Foreign Miner’s Tax
Community College, Asian Americans in Foreign Policy: U.S. and China in
Confucianism World War II
Conservatism, Asian American 442nd Regimental Combat Team
Cram Schools/Hagwons
Critical Race Theory G
Cultural Exchange Programs Gambling and Addiction
Cultural Immersion/Language Programs Gangs
Gender and Sexuality
D Giant Robot
Debut Glass Ceiling/Bamboo Ceiling
Demonstration Project for Asian Globalization
Americans Gold Mining
Diasporic Families
Discrimination H
Domestic Violence Hallyu (Korean Wave)
Dong, Arthur Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong
Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Harold and Kumar Films
 List of Articles ix

Hate Crimes K
Hate Crimes Act Kahanamoku, Duke
Hawai‘i, Asian Americans in Kamehameha Schools
Hawai‘i, Education in Karaoke/No Re Bang
Hawai‘i Sugar Plantation Strike of 1946 Kim, Colonel Young-Oak
Hawai‘ian Homestead Lands Kochiyama, Yuri
Hawai‘ian Monarchy, Overthrow of Korea Times
Hawai‘ian Pidgin KoreAm Journal
Hawai‘ian Plantations Korean American Authors
Hawai‘ians, Native Korean American Literature
Hawai‘i/Local Literature Korean Americans
Health Care Korean Immigration Post-1965
Helicopter Parents Korean Immigration Pre-1945
Higher Education, Asian Americans in Korean War
Hinduism Koreatowns
Hirono, Mazie Korematsu v. United States
Hmong Americans KPOP
Hmong Americans (Education)
Human Trafficking L
Hyphen Magazine Language and Identity
Language Programs
I Language Use, Asian American
Identity Formation Laotian Americans
Immigrant Families Laotian Americans (Education)
Immigration (Overview) LGBTQ Asian American Activism
Immigration Acts LGBTQ Families
Immigration Policy LGBTQ Identity
Income LGBTQ Youth
Indian American Literature Lin, Maya
Indian Asian Americans Los Angeles Riots/Sa-I-Gu
Indonesian Americans Lunar New Year
Inouye, Daniel
Interfaith Relationships M
Intergenerational Conflict Malaysian Americans
International Students/Parachute Kids Manila Men
Internet Marriage and Divorce
Internment Camps, Japanese American Martial Arts
Interracial/Interethnic Families Massie-Kahahawai Case
Isolationist Policy, U.S. MELUS
Mental Health
J Mexipino
Japanese American Authors Military Families
Japanese American Citizens League Mink, Patsy
Japanese American Literature Model Minority Stereotype/
Japanese American National Museum Whiz Kids
Japanese Americans Mongolian Americans
Japanese Immigration Motherhood, Asian American
Japantowns Multiracial/Multiethnic Families
Journal of Asian American Studies Multiracial/Multiethnic Identities
Justices, Asian American Music and Musicians
x List of Articles

N Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program

Nail Salons Social Justice
National Archives and Records Administration Social Networks, Asian American
National Council for Japanese American Redress South Asian American Literature
National Latino and Asian American Study South Asian Americans
No-No Boys South Asian Identities
South Asian Immigration
O Southeast Asian American Literature
1.5-Generation Asian American Southeast Asian Americans (Education)
Online Dating Sporting Culture
Organization of Chinese American Women Stereotypes: Dragon Lady or Docile
Organized Crime Stereotypes: Sexuality
Student Affairs, Asian American
P Substance Abuse
Pacific Islander Americans Suburbanization, Asian American
Pakistani Americans Suicide
Pan Asian American Education
Pearl Harbor T
Penn, Kal Taiwanese Americans
Pew Research and State of Asian Americans Teen Pregnancy
Picture Brides Television, Asian Americans and
Plays and Playwrights Television, Korean Americans and
Policy and Research Thai Americans
Politics Thai Refugee/Immigration
Popular Culture (Overview) Theater and Drama
Poverty Tiger Mothers
Prison/Incarceration Transcontinental Railroads

R U
Racial Formation Undocumented Immigrants
Racism Undocumented Workers and Students
Rafu Shimpo Unions
Refugees
Religion (Overview) V
Remittance Vera Cruz, Philip
Restaurateurs and Chefs Vietnam War
Vietnamese Americans
S Vietnamese Americans (Education)
Schools, Chinese Language Vietnamese Refugee/Immigration
Schools, Japanese Language Visas
Schools, Korean Language Visual Communications
Science and Scientists
Second-Generation Chinese W
Second-Generation Filipinos Wang, Ling-Chi
Second-Generation Koreans War Brides Act
Sexism Weglyn, Michi
Sexual Health White House Initiative on Asian Americans
Shintoism and Pacific Islanders
Sikhism Women, Asian American
Small Business Ownership Women and Work
 List of Articles xi

World War II Youth, Asian American

YouTube Performers
Y
Yellow Z
Yellow Peril Zia, Helen
 Reader’s Guide

Arts, Culture, Pop Culture, and Media Korea Times

Actors, Asian American
Angry Asian Girl
Angry Asian Man
Anime/Manga
Art and Artists, Visual
Asian American International
Film Festival
AsianWeek
Athletes
Beauty Pageants, Asian American
Better Luck Tomorrow
Bollywood
Cartoons and Asian Americans
Center for Asian American Media
Chan, Charlie
Comic and Graphic Novels
Dong, Arthur
East West Players
Fashion and Designers
Filipino American Rap
Film, Asian American
Food, Asian American
Giant Robot
Hallyu (Korean Wave)
Harold and Kumar Films
Hyphen Magazine
Internet
Japanese American National Museum
Karaoke/No Re Bang
KoreAm Journal
KPOP
Lunar New Year
Martial Arts
Music and Musicians
National Archives and Records
Administration
Plays and Playwrights
Popular Culture (Overview)
Rafu Shimpo
Restaurateurs and Chefs
Smithsonian Asian Pacific American
Program
Social Networks, Asian American
Sporting Culture
Television, Asian Americans and
Television, Korean Americans an
Theater and Drama
Visual Communications
YouTube Performers
Asian American Literature
Aiiieeeee!
Amerasia Journal
Asian American Literary Review, The
Bamboo Ridge: Journal of Hawai‘i Literature
and Arts
Chinese American Literature
Filipino American Authors

xiii
xiv Reader’s Guide

Filipino American Literature Small Business Ownership

Hawai‘ian Pidgin Undocumented Workers and
Hawai‘i/Local Literature Students
Indian American Literature Unions
Japanese American Authors Women and Work
Japanese American Literature
Journal of Asian American Studies Education
Korean American Authors Academia
Korean American Literature Affirmative Action
MELUS Asian American and Native American Pacific
South Asian American Literature Islander Servicing Institutions
Southeast Asian American Literature Asian American and Pacific Islander Research
Coalition
Biographies Asian American Greek Life
Aoki, Richard Asian American Student Organizations
Ariyoshi, George Asian American Studies
Cayetano, Ben Asian American Studies and
Fong, Hiram L. Globalization
442nd Regimental Combat Team Asian and Pacific Islander American
Hirono, Mazie Scholarship Fund
Inouye, Daniel Association for Asian American Studies
Kahanamoku, Duke Bilingual Education
Kim, Colonel Young-Oak Cambodian Americans (Education)
Kochiyama, Yuri College Admissiond Debates
Lin, Maya Community College, Asian Americans in
Mink, Patsy Cram Schools/Hagwons
No-No Boys Cultural Exchange Programs
Penn, Kal Cultural Immersion/Language Programs
Vera Cruz, Philip Education
Wang, Ling-Chi Ethnic Studies
Weglyn, Michi Filipino Americans (Education)
Zia, Helen Fisher v. University of Texas
Hawai‘i, Education
Class, Economy, Labor, and Work Helicopter Parents
Activism, Asian American Higher Education, Asian Americans in
Asian American Chamber and Junior Chamber Hmong Americans (Education)
of Commerce International Students/Parachute Kids
Asian American Movement Kamehameha Schools
Asian Critical Theory Laotian Americans (Education)
Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance Model Minority Stereotype/Whiz Kids
Asian–Black Relations National Latino and Asian
Chinese Americans, Organization of American Study
Employment (Overview) Pan Asian American Education
Glass Ceiling/Bamboo Ceiling Remittance
Globalization Schools, Chinese Language
Gold Mining Schools, Japanese Language
Hawai‘ian Plantations Schools, Korean Language
Income Second-Generation Chinese
Nail Salons Second-Generation Filipino
Science and Scientists Second-Generation Korean
 Reader’s Guide xv

Southeast Asian Americans Stereotypes: Dragon Lady or Docile

(Education) Stereotypes: Sexuality
Student Affairs, Asian American Tiger Mothers
Vietnamese Americans Youth, Asian American
(Education)
History of Asian Americans
Ethnic Groups Angel Island: Immigration Station
Bangladeshi Americans Anti–Martial Law Movement
Burmese/Myanmar Americans Asian Pacific American Heritage Month
Cambodian Americans Asian Settler Colonialism
Chinese Americans Chinatown, Monterey Park
Chinese-Vietnamese Americans Chinatowns
Filipino Americans Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Hawai‘ians, Native Christian Missionary Work and Educational
Hmong Americans Outreach to Asian Americans
Indian Asian Americans Conservatism, Asian American
Indonesian Americans Executive Order 9066
Japanese Americans Filipino Nurse Migration
Korean Americans Filipino Seamen
Laotian Americans Foreign Policy: U.S. and China in
Malaysian Americans World War II
Mongolian Americans Hawai‘i Sugar Plantation Strike of 1946
Pacific Islander Americans Hawai‘ian Homestead Lands
Pakistani Americans Hawai‘ian Monarchy, Overthrow of
South Asian Americans Japantowns
Taiwanese Americans Korean War
Thai Americans Koreatowns
Vietnamese Americans Korematsu v. United States
Manila Men
Family, Generations, and Youth Culture Pearl Harbor
ABC (American-Born Chinese) Pew Research and State of
Adoption Asian Americans
Code Switching Suburbanization, Asian American
Debut Transcontinental Railroads
Diasporic Families Vietnam War
Families (Overview) Women, Asian American
Gender and Sexuality World War II
Immigrant Families Yellow Peril
Interfaith Relationships
Interracial/Interethnic Families Identities
LGBTQ Families Acculturation
LGBTQ Youth Adoption
Marriage and Divorce Asian–Latino Relations
Military Families Assimilation/Segmented Assimilation
Motherhood/Asian Americans Critical Race Theory
Multiracial/Multiethnic Families EthnoCommunications
1.5-Generation Asian American Filipino Diasporic Identity
Online Dating Filipino-Latino Relations
Racism Hawai‘i, Asian Americans in
Sexism Identity Formation
xvi Reader’s Guide

Language and Identity Language Programs

Language Use, Asian American Massie-Kahahawai Case
LGBTQ Identity Policy and Research
Mexipino Politics
Multiracial/Multiethnic Identities Social Justice
Picture Brides War Brides Act
Racial Formation White House Initiative on Asian Americans
South Asian Identities and Pacific Islanders
Yellow
Religion
Immigration/Migration Buddhism
Balikbayan Christianity
Boat People Confucianism
Chinese Immigration Hinduism
Citizenship/Legal Status Religion (Overview)
Ellis Island Shintoism
Ethnoburbs Sikhism
Family Reunification 1965 Immigration Act
Filipino Immigration Social Movement and Social Change
Immigration (Overview) Asian American Justice Center
Immigration Policy Asian American/Pacific Islanders in
Japanese Immigration Philanthropy
Korean Immigration Post-1965 Chin, Vincent
Korean Immigration Pre-1945 Chinese American Citizens Alliance
Refugees Civil Rights
South Asian Immigration Demonstration Project for Asian Americans
Thai Refugee/Immigration Family Reunification 1965 Immigration Act
Undocumented Immigrants Feminism, Asian American
Vietnamese Refugee/Immigration Japanese American Citizens League
Visas LGBTQ Asian American Activism
Los Angeles Riots/Sa-I-Gu
Politics, Government, and Public Policy National Council for Japanese American
Alcatraz, Occupation of Redress
Anti-Miscegenation Laws Organization of Chinese American Women
Asian Americans Advancing Justice–
Los Angeles Social Problems
Asian Exclusion Acts Addictions
Asian Law Caucus Discrimination
Asian Women United of California Domestic Violence
Census Demographic Shifts Elder Care
Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Gambling and Addiction
Elected Officials Gangs
Environmental Justice Hate Crimes
Foreign Miner’s Tax Health Care
Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong Human Trafficking
Hate Crimes Act Intergenerational Conflict
Immigration Acts Mental Health
Internment Camps, Japanese American Organized Crime
Isolationist Policy, U.S. Poverty
Justices, Asian American Prison/Incarceration
 Reader’s Guide xvii

Sexual Health Suicide

Substance Abuse Teen Pregnancy
 About the Editor
Mary Yu Danico has a Ph.D. in sociology from
the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa and is a vice
chair and professor at the California State Poly-
technic University, Pomona. Her areas of exper-
tise are in race relations and family, and she
has vested interests in Asian American studies,
Korean American family and community forma-
tion, ethnic identity, 1.5- and second-generation
issues, immigration, diaspora and reverse migra-
tion, and LGBT communities.
She developed and runs the department
Peer Mentor program, advises students in the
AAAS Mission Statement
The Association for Asian American Studies
(AAAS) was founded in 1979 for the purpose
of advancing the highest professional stan-
dard of excellence in teaching and research in
the field of Asian American Studies; promoting
better understanding and closer ties between
and among various sub-components within
Asian American Studies: Chinese, Japanese,
Korean, Filipino, Hawaiian, Southeast Asian,
South Asian, Pacific Islander, and other groups.
xviii
Four-Year Pledge program and students who
want to be engaged in university life. She was a
Fulbright Senior Scholar at Seoul Korea (2005–
06), former chair of the American Sociological
Association Asia/Asia America section, and the
president of the Association for Asian Ameri-
can Studies (2012–14). She is the author of The
1.5 Generation: Becoming Korean American in
Hawaii (2004), Asian American Issues (2004)
and Transforming the Ivory Tower: Challeng-
ing Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia in Higher
Education (2012).
AAAS sponsors professional activities to facili-
tate increased communication and scholarly
exchange among teachers, researchers, and stu-
dents in the field of Asian American Studies. The
organization advocates and represents the inter-
ests and welfare of Asian American Studies and
Asian Americans. AAAS is also founded for the
purpose of educating American society about
the history and aspirations of Asian American
ethnic minorities.
 List of Contributors

Omar Abdullah David L. Brunsma

University of California, Davis Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
Margaret Abraham State University
Hofstra University Tracy Lachica Buenavista
Dean Ryuta Adachi California State University,
Claremont Graduate University Northridge
Amefil Agbayani Claudine Castano
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Mount Saint Mary College
Constancio R. Arnaldo, Jr. Edward T. Chang
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign University of California, Riverside
Paul Michael Leonardo Atienza Jason Oliver Chang
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign University of Connecticut
Hazel R. Atuel Stewart Chang
University of Southern California Whittier Law School
Tyler Baldor Prema Chaudhari
University of Pennsylvania Asian and Pacific Islander American
Victor Bascara Scholarship Fund
University of California, Los Angeles Joseph Cheah
Eugenia Beh University of Saint Joseph
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Wendy Cheng
Teresa Bill Arizona State University
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Yuching Cheng
Stephen Bischoff State University of New York,
Washington State University Albany
Rick Bonus Floyd Cheung
University of Washington Smith College
Kyung-Sook Boo Vichet Chhuon
Sogang University University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
Sarah E. Boslaugh Doris Ching
Kennesaw State University University of Hawai‘i

xix
xx List of Contributors

Yu-Fang Cho Sarah Ha

Miami University of Ohio Asian and Pacific Islander American
Raymond Douglas Chong Scholarship Fund
Independent Scholar Thao Le-Thanh Ha
Catherine Ceniza Choy Mira Costa College–Oceanside
University of California, Berkeley Campus
Janet Hyunju Clarke Gena Hamamoto
Stony Brook University University of California, Los Angeles
Mary Yu Danico Nicholas D. Hartlep
California State Polytechnic University, Illinois State University
Pomona Krystal R. Hauseur
Loan Dao Independent Scholar
University of Massachusetts, Boston Biran Masuru Hayashi
Shilpa Davé Kyoto University
University of Virginia Katie Kaori Hayashi
Lawrence-Minh Bui Davis Independent Scholar
Asian American Literary Review Shawn M. Higgins
Kris T. De Pedro University of Connecticut
Chapman University Stephanie Hinnershitz
Jean-Paul R. deGuzman Valdosta State University
University of California, Los Angeles Phoebe Ho
Shruti Devgan University of Pennsylvania
Rutgers University Todd Honma
Lavina Dhingra Pitzer College
Bates College Stephanie Hsu
Pawan Dhingra Pace University
Tufts University Shirley Hune
Hien Duc Do University of Washington
San Jose State University Eric Hung
Patti Duncan Westminster Choir College of Rider University
Oregon State University Florante Peter Ibanez
Daniel B. Eisen Loyola Marymount University
Pacific University Jon Iftikar
Yen Le Espiritu University of Wisconsin, Madison
University of California, San Diego Emily Noelle Sanchez Ignacio
Kale Bantigue Fajardo University of Washington, Tacoma
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Carol Izumi
Timothy Fong University of California, Hastings College
California State University, of the Law
Sacramento Dimpal Jain
Diane C. Fujino California State University,
University of California, Santa Barbara Northridge
Catherine Fung Grace Kao
Bentley University University of Pennsylvania
Juilanne P. Gavino Shilpashri V. Karbhari
University of California, Santa Barbara New Mexico Highlands University
Abbie L. Grubb Nazli Kibria
San Jacinto College Boston University
Rudy P. Guevarra, Jr. Daniel Y. Kim
Arizona State University Brown University
 List of Contributors xxi

Elaine H. Kim Ninochka McTaggart

University of California, Berkeley University of California, Riverside
Eunbi Kim Christine Mok
University of Pennsylvania University of Cincinnati
Jinwon Kim Stephen Murphy Shigematsu
City University of New York Stanford University
Jessica M. Kizer Lata Murti
University of California, Irvine Brandman University
Cynya Michelle Ko Samuel D. Museus
Independent Scholar University of Hawai‘i at Manoa
Sailaja Krishnamurti Asha Nadkarni
University of Toronto, Mississauga University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Bill Kte’pi Eric Nakamura
Independent Scholar Independent Scholar
Robert Ji-Song Ku Don T. Nakanishi
Binghamton University University of California, Los Angeles
Roderick N. Labrador Dana Nakano
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa University of California, Irvine
Mariam B. Lam Anjana Narayan
University of California, Riverside California State Polytechnic University,
Josephine Lee Pomona
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Cheryl Narumi Naruse
Kathy Lee University of Hawai‘i at Manoa
Korea University Franklin Ng
Sharon Heijin Lee California State University, Fresno
New York University Konrad Ng
David J. Leonard Smithsonian Institution
Washington State University Bach Mai Dolly Nguyen
Karen J. Leong University of California, Los Angeles
Arizona State University Phonshia Nie
Genevieve Leung Northwestern University
University of San Francisco erin Khue Ninh
Maxwell Leung University of California, Santa Barbara
California College of the Arts Eileen O’Brien
Beth Lew-Williams Saint Leo University
Northwestern University Anthony C. Ocampo
Wei Li California State Polytechnic University,
Arizona State University Pomona
Nhi T. Lieu Paul Ocampo
Independent Scholar Asian Americans Advancing Justice–Asian
Belinda C. Lum Law Caucus
California State University, Long Beach Franklin Odo
Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie National Historic Landmarks, NPS
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Stella Oh
Hasan Mahmud Loyola Marymount University
University of California, Los Angeles James Ong
Dina C. Maramba University of California,
State University of New York, Binghamton Los Angeles
Davianna Pomaikai McGregor Mark Padoongpatt
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa University of Nevada, Las Vegas
xxii List of Contributors

Leah L. Panganiban Paul Spickard

University of Washington University of California, Santa Barbara
Jerry Z. Park Phi Hong Su
Baylor University University of California,
Wayne Patterson Los Angeles
St. Norbert College Phung Su
Malaphone Phommasa California State University, Fullerton
University of California, Santa Barbara Marie-Therese Cecilia Sulit
Eric Pido Mount Saint Mary College
San Francisco State University Bob H. Suzuki
OiYan A. Poon California State Polytechnic University,
Loyola University Chicago Pomona
Elizabeth Rholetter Purdy Renee Tajima-Pena
Independent Scholar University of California, Los Angeles
Wylene Rholetter Dana Y. Takagi
Auburn University University of California, Santa Cruz
Greg Robinson Winnie Tang
Université du Québec à Montréal University of British Columbia
Robyn Magalit Rodriguez Jake Tarrence
University of California, Davis Western Washington University
John P. Rosa Robert Teranishi
University of Hawai‘i University of California, Los Angeles
Shantee Rosado Stanley Thangaraj
University of Pennsylvania City College of New York
Tanya Sanabria Tomoko Tokunaga
University of California, Irvine Independent Scholar
Cathy J. Schlund-Vials Yamanishi Toshihiro
University of Connecticut, Storrs Oyama National College of Technology,
Shalini Shankar Japan
Northwestern University Jean Toyama
Nitasha Tamar Sharma University of Hawai‘i at Manoa
Northwestern University Monica M. Trieu
Jeff Sheng Purdue University
Stanford University Justin K. H. Tse
Miya Shichinohe-Suga University of Washington
Tokyo Gakugei University Glenn Tsunokai
Elena Shih Western Washington University
Brown University Dawn Lee Tu
Kevin Yang Shih University of San Francisco
University of California, Davis Mia Tuan
Haerlin Shin University of Oregon
Vanderbilt University Phitsamay Sychitkokhong Uy
Jaideep Singh University of Massachusetts, Lowell
California State University, East Bay Chia Youyee Vang
Jane Le Skaife University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
University of California, Davis Tanya Grace Velasquez
Daniel Soodjinda University of Washington, Tacoma
California State University, Stanislaus Leighton Kenji Vila
Micheline M. Soong Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
Hawai‘i Pacific University State University
 List of Contributors xxiii

Linda Trinh Vo Vivian Wong

University of California, Irvine University of California, Los Angeles
Thuy Vo Dang Laura A. Wright
University of California, Irvine University of Connecticut
Grace Wang Frank H. Wu
University of California, Davis University of California, Hastings College
Kaori Mori Want of the Law
Shibaura Institute of Technology Ming-Hsuan Wu
Kathy Warnes University of Pennsylvania
Independent Scholar David K. Yoo
Jenny Heijun Wills University of California, Los Angeles
University of Winnipeg Nancy Yuen
Diane Wong Biola University
Cornell University James Zarsadiaz
Janelle S. Wong Northwestern University
University of Maryland, College Park
Kent Wong
UCLA Center for Labor Research
& Education
 Introduction
This encyclopedia is an ambitious project that
describes the breadth and depth of Asian Ameri-
can society. By presenting the multifaceted nature
and the intersectionality of Asian American Stud-
ies, this project brings together Association for
Asian American Studies members, leading and
emerging scholars in the field, to provide articles
that we hope will capture the critical imagination
of our readers. We recognize that it is impossible
to discuss every facet of Asian American society,
but we have put forth our best efforts to exam-
ine the historical, social, cultural, economic, and
political aspects of our society through the lens of
multiple disciplines and voices. The encyclopedia
astutely addresses and questions Asian Ameri-
can studies in the past, today, and the future. We
examine our positionality on linking transna-
tional and diasporic connections that continue to
strengthen Asian American communities with the
help of technology and advancements such as the
social media that have opened up the airwaves to
pop culture, social movements, and international
human rights issues. The oceans that once sepa-
rated us are now linked by modernization, glo-
balization, and increased diasporic connections
via social media, affordable travel, and height-
ened awareness of how to stay connected to our
global neighbors. Furthermore, the imperializa-
tion that has permeated much of Asia’s continent
has taken on a neoimperial position as peoples
are still commodified in the labor and entertain-
ment industry. This encyclopedia encourages the
readers to rethink our positionality in this global
village and to challenge the global–local as well
as the paradox that exists in our respective impe-
rial nations, both at the macro- and microinter-
personal levels.
Is Asian American the “New Immigrant”?
According to the U.S. census, Asian American
populations have increased four times faster than
the total U.S. population. The total U.S. popula-
tion grew by 9.7 percent, from 281.4 million in
2000 to 308.7 million in 2010. In comparison,
the Asian American population increased more
than four times faster than the total U.S. popu-
lation, growing by 43 percent from 10.2 million
to 14.7 million. This seemed to surprise many, as
Latinos were slated as the fastest growing immi-
grant group. What many fail to address is that
U.S. policies against undocumented immigrants
in general, and Latino profiling in particular,
have reduced the number of Latino immigrant
groups. Yet when we exam Asian American his-
tory, it is clear that policies also reduced the num-
ber of Asian immigrants at different time periods
in U.S. history. Policies that were formalized, for
example, in the Immigration Act of 1790 and the
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which restricted
access for Asian immigrants to the United States,
xxv
xxvi Introduction
are not new and, in some cases, entrance to the
United States was given to laborers or temporary
visa holders but without the opportunities for
citizenship or ownership of land. It was not until
the 1940s and early 1950s that people of Asian
descent were allowed to become naturalized: the
Chinese in 1943, Filipinos and Asian Indians in
1946, and Japanese and Koreans in 1952. Despite
the long history of Asian immigrants in the United
States and Hawai‘i (before it became the 50th
state), Asian Americans continue to face the ste-
reotype of being foreigners in the United States.
Compared to the number of Asian immigrants
in the early 1800s, there is a significant shift in the
way the United States looks at and responds to
Asian Americans today.
Early immigrants worked on orange groves,
Hawai‘i plantations, and railroads with a
sojourner mentality. While laborers, largely men,
came in droves to supplement the United States’
growing agricultural, fishing, and industrial econ-
omy, upper-class Asian Americans have long trav-
eled to the United States as students and diplo-
mats. While the elites maintained the privilege of
early diasporic identities, laborers sought ways to
support themselves and their families back home.
There is documentation from all Asian ethnic
groups of sending money back home, consolidat-
ing wages to help one member bring a bride or
family member to join them, and, in some cases,
creating calabash families in their temporary
home. While laborers were predominantly men
in the beginning, women laborers also entered
the U.S. landscape early on as picture brides,
war brides, and domestic workers. The women,
in many ways, should be credited with creating
Asian American family structures in the United
States and, in some cases, crossing ethnic and
racial boundaries by having mixed race or mixed
ethnic children. As families situated themselves
or nomadically sought out places where oppor-
tunities surfaced, incidents of hate crimes against
Asian immigrants, domestic violence, sexual
assault, and racial discrimination permeated the
society of the United States. The challenges and
often-violent experiences of the early immigrants
cannot be overstated; however, the purpose of
this discussion is not to give a historical overview
but rather to connect how situations, while sig-
nificantly different, mirror those of the past.
No incident can portray the institutional racism
better than the incarceration of Japanese Ameri-
cans in the United States. First- and second-gen-
eration Japanese Americans were deemed enemies
of the country and possible threats to national
security after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. As
non-Japanese Asians wore badges that stated “I’m
not Japanese,” Japanese Americans and some non-
Japanese family members were interned in various
camps throughout the Midwest, South, and West
Coast. As anti-Japanese sentiments flared, so did
the need to profess one’s American-ness. For Japa-
nese Americans this was done by taking the loy-
alty oath that swore allegiance to the United States
while stating a clear abandonment of the Japanese
emperor. Those who resisted the internments or
the loyalty oath were received with disdain and
contempt. The Japanese American Citizens League
also condemned resisters such as Fred Korematsu
and the No-No boys. The 442nd combat troupe,
however, were the most decorated and most lauded
as the ideal Japanese immigrants as they clearly
showed their loyalty to the United States.
Post-War Immigrants
The post-1965 immigrants came with a different
background from that of the early immigrants,
as they were more educated and came with
capital, which made transition slightly easier. In
addition, they immigrated at the turn of the civil
rights movement when demand for racial justice,
combined with a call to ban Eurocentric teach-
ings in the United States, and growing anger with
the U.S. occupation in Asian countries meant the
climate was significantly different. The Ameri-
canization campaign’s forced assimilation of
Japanese Americans through incarceration sent
a clear message to Asian Americans that, in the
word of Star Trek’s Borg, “resistance is futile.”
Yet, the notion of resistance is what fueled Asian
American studies, as it partnered with the Chi-
cano/Latino Studies and Black Studies move-
ment of 1968. While Asian Americans are often
left invisible in the discourse of the civil rights
movement, early pioneers like Richard Aoki and
Yuri Koshigaya led the way to begin the ideas
of building coalitions with other ethnic groups
to develop antiracist, antioppression, and anti-
imperial ideas of who belongs in the U.S. land-
scape and in the U.S. curriculum.

There have been key moments in Asian Ameri-
can history that have been well documented and
taught in Asian American Studies courses. The
relocation of peoples, whether it be through the
internment and incarceration of bodies or the dis-
placement of people in SF I Hotel or the coloniza-
tion of the sovereign nation of Hawai‘i, is slowly
entering the academic consciousness of Asian
Americanists who study Asian Americans in the
United States and the Pacific.
Yet, for Asian Americanists raised in the 1980s,
the brutal murder of Vincent Chin in 1982 slapped
the reality of racisms and anti-Japanese and anti-
Asian sentiment that continued to permeate the
U.S. consciousness. The perpetrators of the attack
faced no prison time and were released with no
consequences, despite the challenges of Vincent
Chin’s mother and an army of community lead-
ers/activists who continued to fight for justice for
Vincent Chin. Today, the question “Who killed
Vincent Chin?” would be merely a question that
has no contextual framework if not for the teach-
ing of Asian American Studies classes that remind
us that racism and the foreignization of Asian
Americans lingers. The racial divide in the United
States has been polarized as black and white. The
binary paradigm continues despite the long his-
tory of anti-Asian sentiments and discrimination
against people of color.
In 1992, the Los Angeles Riots became the first
multiethnic uprising in response to the acquittal
of police officers who were videotaped beating
Rodney King. The question “Why can’t we get
along?” became a mantra for this period when
scholars and community members alike question
why it was difficult for those living in the United
States to get along. In the case of the Los Angeles
Riots, the black–Korean conflict was highlighted
by the media, who ignored that the riot or upris-
ing stemmed from a response to what the pub-
lic perceived as an unjust verdict. Angela Oh, an
attorney who eloquently articulated the positions
of Korean Americans living in Los Angeles and
its “Koreatown,” quickly challenged images of
vigilante immigrants holding off rioters with guns,
speaking broken English. This became a pivotal
moment for many Korean Americans as it became
evidently clear that the 1.5 generation and 2nd
generation were fast becoming community lead-
ers and spokespersons, and they did not personify
Introduction xxvii
the stereotypical foreigner image that the media
was continuing to perpetuate. Only a decade later,
September 11, 2001, created a new enemy in our
homeland when the Twin Towers in New York
City, the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and the
Flight 93 crash in Pennsylvania were all linked to
terrorist attacks on U.S. soil. Not since Pearl Har-
bor had the United States encountered the vulner-
ability of being attacked on U.S. soil. This event
ignited patriotism throughout the nation as Amer-
ican flags were seen flying on a majority of cars
driving on national roads and Americans sought to
support and help each other grieve the loss of their
friends and families. Concurrently, an increased
level of hate crimes against Middle Easterners,
Sikh Indians, and anyone perceived as Muslim.
The paradox of being Asian American is that
we are perceived as both the model minority who
are “happier, more successful, and more edu-
cated” while at the same time a perpetual for-
eigner. The 2012 Pew report titled “The Rise of
Asian Americans” stated that not only were Asian
Americans the fastest growing immigrant group,
they were also the most successful and happiest of
all groups. Through an expansive survey, the Pew
report concluded what many demographers have
known for a while. Yet, this report was a surprise
to many, and news reporters and television sta-
tions read the summaries of the report with little
discussion. Fact checking was minimal, since the
Pew Center, a respected think tank, stood by its
report that Asian Americans were on the rise. The
report reaffirmed long-held stereotypes of Asian
Americans as the model minority who are in many
ways doing much better economically and socially
than other racial groups. The monolithic views
of Asian Americans sparked a healthy discussion
between Asian American and Pacific Islander com-
munities and galvanized divergent communities to
respond to the stagnant stereotypes that permeate
Asian American communities.
As president of the Association for Asian
American Studies, I responded that the discourse
on Asian Americans has not been in-depth and
has not represented the diverse experiences of
Asian Americans. Generalizations, based on
aggregate data, have been used to make assump-
tions about all Asian Americans. This general-
ization has led to stereotypes, including that of
perpetual foreigners or honorary whites, aka
xxviii Introduction
the model minority. And these stereotypes have
been used to exclude or ignore various issues
and problems that many subgroups of Asian
American still face. Sadly, the recent Pew Center
report perpetuated this sentiment in its framing
of the model minority, tiger mom, foreigner, and
the implication of an Asian Invasion. The way
in which the data were contextualized made this
report a red flag concern for many Asian Ameri-
can advocates around the nation.
Scholars accurately questioned the exclusion
of different subgroups of Asian American com-
munities, as well as raised concerns about the
potential interethnic conflict that may arise and
hate crimes against Asian Americans. Why make
a fuss? Why make waves? Why not just take it
as a compliment? To be lauded as educated, suc-
cessful, and happy should make any community
happy? These are a few of the questions that have
been asked since the Pew Report. Why is a mono-
lithic view about Asian immigrants and ignoring
a large segment of our Asian American commu-
nity a compliment?
What is even more alarming is the message
that the report reinforces to those who feel that
Asian Americans have an unfair advantage, that
they are taking over, and that perhaps they are
going to take over our society. The framing from
the media is likely to flame the fires of anti-Asian
sentiments in an economically challenged United
States. We need to learn from the 30-year anni-
versary of Vincent Chin’s murder to ensure that
reports such as this need to portray a comprehen-
sive picture. We also see a rebirth of anti–Affirma-
tive Action brought on by the 80-20 initiative or
the Supreme Court decision in Fisher v. University
of Texas at Austin.
What has been impactful about the Pew report
is that the study has galvanized Asian American
scholars and community organizations to be
engaged in the discussion. Those who feel that the
report accurately represents Asian Americans and
those who feel marginalized by the report all have
an opportunity to dialogue about the importance
of understanding the diverse and nuanced com-
plexity of Asian American communities.
What is clear is that the report does not reflect
the lives of Asian Americans today, but it has
opened the gates so that we can discuss what
more needs to be done.
Bringing to light the positive accomplishments
of Asian Americans is a part of the immigrant nar-
rative but it is not the only one. The reality is that
there is a significant body of our community who
are not happy, educated, or high-income earners.
In fact, these invisible Asian Americans are among
our poor and those with limited opportunities for
education.
Following the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) crisis, there was a political shift in Korea,
India, and China, and Asian Americans began to
move back to Asia for work, family, and com-
munity. The idea of reverse migration became an
interest for many Asian Americanist as the reality
of transnational lives became increasingly evident
throughout the globe. There is also a challenge
here for Asian Americans returning to their home-
land or to Asia. What becomes clear to some is
that they are foreigners in the United States and
they are foreigners in Asia as well. Many suggest
a feeling of not being accepted here nor there and
struggling to find a place. The U.S. powers have
encouraged cultural amnesia for people of Asian
descent. The assimilation or Americanization
campaign post–World War II and the continuing
significance of anti-immigrant laws throughout
the United States have incentivized immigrants
against adopting the American way of live. There
has been resistance, however, from those who see
the advantage of having and maintaining multiple
cultural lives. The changing economic standing
of Asian countries has also elevated their social
standing. I use Korean Pop Music (KPOP) or
the Korean Wave (Hallyu) as examples of how
the social media outlets have globalized Korean
culture and also have added cultural and social
capital to being Korean. The social media outlets
like YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, etc., have made
Korean culture accessible and available to millions
of viewers and observers around the world. Social
media have also opened the gates of social move-
ments and political issues that are impacting our
world and have motivated many to be engaged in
events occurring outside the United States.
Asian American Studies: What Is Our
Role Now and What Is the Future of
Asian American Studies?
As Asian American Studies (AAS) celebrates 45
years of struggle and institutional recognition, the
Another random document with
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whenever the cage is cleaned, and in addition the pan should be
washed in hot water from time to time. Lime on the perches may be
removed by means of a scraper made of a bit of tin fastened to a
wire or tacked at right angles to a stick small enough to pass easily
between the wires of the cage. Cages with bottom attached should
be provided with a sand tray that slides in and out through a slot in
the front. This serves to catch droppings, seed hulls, and other
waste, and may be easily pulled out, cleaned, and refilled with fresh
sand.
 INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AVIARIES.

Those who keep birds for pleasure, and who do not care to breed
them for exhibition or to maintain any particular standard, may
receive much enjoyment from aviaries in which numbers of canaries
are kept in one inclosure. The size of the aviary or bird room will be
governed wholly by circumstances, as it may range from an entire
room to a small screened inclosure or part of a conservatory. A room
large enough for the owner to enter without unduly frightening the
occupants makes an ideal indoor aviary, and where space permits it
may be fitted up without great expense. The floor should be covered
to the depth of half an inch to an inch with clean sand or sawdust.
Small evergreen trees planted in large pots furnish suitable
decorations, and may be replaced from time to time as they are
destroyed by the inmates of the aviary. A branching dead tree and
one or two limbs nailed across corners at suitable heights furnish
more artistic perches than straight rods. In addition, pegs 4 or 5
inches long may be driven or nailed to the walls to furnish resting
places.
Seed should be supplied in self-regulating hoppers, preferably
attached to the wall, and water given in self-feeding fountain
containers. These become less dirty than open dishes placed on the
floor. Sand must be furnished in a box or dish where it is not used on
the floor. Soft foods and green foods may be supplied on little
shelves or a small table. At the proper season nesting boxes may be
hung on the walls, and nesting material supplied in racks or in open-
mesh bags hung to some support. A shallow pan of water may be
kept constantly on the floor or, better, may be inserted for an hour
each day for bathing. A screened flying cage may be built on the
outside of a window and the birds admitted to it in pleasant weather.
Perches, if of natural wood, should have smooth bark or should be
peeled, as crevices often harbor mites. Plants and other decorations
should not be placed so near the wall that birds may be trapped
behind them.
 Aviaries constructed out of doors, like bird rooms, may be made
simple or elaborate, large or small, according to circumstances.
Where there is sufficient ground available a small frame structure
may be built and covered with strong galvanized wire screen of
small-sized mesh. Part, at least, of the roof should be covered as a
protection against stormy weather, and two sides should be boarded
up to afford protection from cold winds. Where the winter climate is
severe it is necessary to build a closed addition with board or cement
floor and a connecting door, in which the birds may be protected
during the cold season. Canaries when acclimatized, however, can
withstand moderately cold weather as well as native birds.
The open portion of the aviary should have a board or cement
base sunk to a depth of 8 to 10 inches around the bottom to prevent
entrance of rats, mice, or larger animals. If a fence with an overhang
at the top is not constructed to keep out animals, it is best to make
the screen walls double by nailing screen wire to both sides of the
wooden frame, so that birds clinging to the wire may not be injured
by cats or dogs. Where space does not permit an elaborate structure
a lean-to may be built against another wall to make an inclosure
large enough for a number of birds. Where needed, the sides of the
aviary may be fitted with windows that can be put in place in winter.
The entrance to the outdoor aviary should be through a small porch
or anteroom that need be merely large enough to permit entrance
through an outside door, with a second door leading into the aviary
itself. The outside door should be closed before the inner one is
opened, so that none of the birds can escape.
The fittings of the outdoor aviary may be adapted from those
described for the indoor bird room. With an earth floor it is possible
to grow evergreen and deciduous shrubs for shelter and ornament.
Where space permits a hedge of privet along the open side of the
aviary furnishes a shelter in which birds delight to nest. To avoid
overheating in hot weather shade should be provided for part of the
structure.
In aviaries birds pair more or less at random. To avoid constant
bickering or even serious fighting in the breeding season it is usual
to regulate the number of males so that the females outnumber them
two to one.
 FOOD.

The food requirements of canaries are simple. Canary seed to

which have been added rape seed and a little hemp is a staple diet
that persons who keep only a few birds usually purchase ready
mixed. Canary seed alone does not furnish a balanced food, but
forms a good combination with hemp and summer rape. Much of the
rape seed in prepared seed sold in cartons is of a species that even
wild birds do not eat, as it is pungent and bitter in flavor, but all relish
the mild taste of true summer rape. Seed is given in little cups that
are fastened between the wires of the cage.
In addition to a seed supply lettuce or a bit of apple should be
placed between the wires of the cage frequently. And those properly
situated may, in season, vary this menu by the addition of
chickweed, dandelion heads, thistle and plantain seeds, and the
fruiting heads and tender leaves of senecio and shepherd’s purse.
Watercress, wild oats, knot grass, and other grasses are relished,
especially in spring and early in summer.
Bread moistened in scalded milk, given cold at intervals, is
beneficial. Soft foods must not be made too wet. With bread, enough
liquid to soften the food but not to run or render it a paste is
sufficient. Supplies of moist foods must be kept strictly fresh and
clean or sickness may result. Special dishes, known as food holders,
or slides that slip through the wires of the cage are often used in
giving softened bread and similar supplies. Cuttle bone should
always be available.
When canaries do not seem to thrive it is well to crack open a few
of the seeds to make certain that empty husks alone are not being
fed. Hemp, while a valuable addition to the diet, should not be given
in excess, as it is fattening and may make birds so lethargic that they
cease to sing, or in exceptional cases may even cause death. When
canaries cease to sing from the effects of overfeeding it is well to
supply some of the stimulating foods known as song restorers, or
other prepared foods that may be obtained from dealers.
 During the time of molt a few linseeds added to the seed supply
are believed to give gloss and sheen to the new feathers. Linseeds
should be given in small quantity, as they are injurious if eaten in
excess. Meal worms fed occasionally are beneficial for birds that are
not thriving. A craving for animal food may be satisfied by bits of raw
steak, but it is not well to continue feeding raw meat for any length of
time, as it may cause a foul odor about the cage. Delicate birds may
be fed canary, rape, and hemp seed soaked in cold water for 24
hours, rinsed, and then drained. Maw seed (poppy seed) is favored
by English canary fanciers as a stimulant, but its use must be
guarded, as it may be poisonous to other animals, including man.
During the breeding season egg food must be given daily as soon
as the birds are paired. This is prepared by mincing an entire hard-
boiled egg or passing it through a sieve, and adding to it an equal
quantity of bread or unsalted cracker crumbs. This may be given to
unmated birds as well at intervals of a week or so. When female
canaries begin to incubate, egg food may be fed every three or four
days or even less frequently. Addition of brown sugar in small
quantity to the egg food is supposed to prevent egg-binding in young
females. When the young hatch, egg food should be supplied at
once. Some recommend that the yolk of a hard-boiled egg be given
alone for the first day. Bread crumbs are added to this daily until on
the third day egg food as ordinarily prepared is supplied. Attempt
should be made to regulate the supply of egg food or other soft food
so that it will be eaten without waste. The actual quantity will vary in
individual cases. The usual seed supply should be present, no
matter what other food is given. Egg food must be given until the
young are fully grown and able to crack seed for themselves.
Cracked seed may be fed to lighten the labor of the parents, but it is
well to eliminate hemp from such a supply, as the hull of hemp seed
contains a poisonous substance that occasionally kills young birds.
Drinking water should be available to canaries at all times.
 BATHING.

Under normal conditions most birds probably bathe daily, and

canaries in captivity should be allowed the same opportunity. In open
wire cages in common use for singing birds the base is removed and
the cage placed over a small dish containing water. In open-front
cages in which the bottom is not detachable small bath cages which
fasten at the open door are used. These are only a few inches wide
but serve to hold a dish for water. Many birds are notional in bathing
and at times ignore the offered bath. Usually the process of cleaning
the cage and renewing the seed and water will excite in them a
desire for bathing, and often when a bath is not provided the bird will
do its best to perform its ablutions in the small supply of water in the
drinking cup. When individual birds obstinately refuse to enter the
water, if enough clean sand to cover the bottom is placed in the dish
they bathe more readily. After the bath the water may be drained
carefully and the sand left to dry in the dish for use another time.
Birds brought into strange quarters may refuse to bathe for the first
few days. When water is offered they either ignore it or sitting on a
perch go through the motions of bathing and drying, fluttering wings
and tail with a great whirring of feathers. The bath should be offered
whenever the cage is cleaned, and if left alone the birds will act
normally after a few days.
Small china or earthenware dishes that are not too deep make
good bathing pans. When a bird becomes accustomed to one dish it
will usually refuse to bathe in another of different shape or color. In
winter the water should be warmed until tepid. Even in warm weather
very cold water is not advisable. If the room, ordinarily warm,
becomes cold temporarily, birds should not be allowed to bathe. With
the plumage wet and bedraggled there is increased susceptibility to
cold drafts. During molt the bath should be given not more than twice
each week. If the bird is molting on color food, one bath each week
is sufficient. The female canary should not be allowed to bathe from
the time the eggs hatch until the young are 3 or 4 days old.
 MOLT.

Canaries renew their covering of feathers once each year. In

adults this molt occurs late in summer, and the first sign of it may be
the presence of a wing or tail feather on the bottom of the cage.
These large feathers are shed in pairs, so that one from either wing
or from either side of the tail is dropped at approximately the same
time. Never in ordinary circumstances does the canary have the
wing and tail entirely devoid of large feathers. This provision is of no
particular significance in a cage bird, but enables wild birds to
maintain their powers of flight. The bodily covering is renewed
piecemeal as well, so that except about the head there is normally
no extensive area wholly devoid of feathers at any time. Some birds
drop a few of the body feathers all through the year, a symptom that
need cause no anxiety.
With breeding birds the molt usually comes immediately after the
breeding season and may begin as early as the latter part of July.
Normally it comes during August, and on the average should be at
its height in September. Young birds molt the juvenal body plumage
after leaving the nest, but retain the first growth of wing and tail
feathers for a year. In healthy birds the entire molt requires about two
months.
Canaries usually need no special care during molt. Though in an
abnormal bodily state at this time, healthy individuals will come
through the period in good condition. Birds are somewhat dull and
stupid when molting and should be disturbed as little as possible.
Bathing may be permitted once or twice each week, but if birds do
not wish to bathe they should not be sprayed with water. It is well to
add egg food or moistened bread to the ordinary fare once or twice
each week during molt. For ailing birds a very slight quantity of
sulphur may be added to the egg food, or a weak saffron tea given
instead of pure drinking water. A few linseeds in the seed supply give
a gloss and sheen to the new feathers not otherwise obtainable.
 When canaries fail to molt at the proper season molt may
sometimes be induced by covering the cage with a dark cloth and
placing it in a warm protected place where the bird will not be
disturbed.
Old birds or those weak in physical vigor often fail to renew their
entire feather covering, a condition for which little remedy may be
offered. Usually this incomplete molt is a sign of extreme age or
breakdown, though if the bird lives, a supply of nutritious, easily
assimilated food and careful protection during the next molt may
result in improvement.
A great change in temperature or a sudden chill may check the
progress of molt and occasionally cause serious trouble. If a bird
shows signs of distress, it should be placed at once in a warm,
protected place. Ten drops of sweet spirits of niter and a few shreds
of saffron added to the drinking water are beneficial.
 COLOR FEEDING.

That the color of canaries may be deepened or intensified by

certain foods given during the molt is well known and has attracted
much interest. Turmeric, marigold flowers, saffron, cochineal,
annatto, mustard seed, and other agents rich in natural color are
often used for this purpose, ordinarily in combination with red pepper
as a base. For a long time methods of preparing and feeding color
foods were kept secret, but now they are outlined in many manuals
on canary feeding.
In selecting canaries for experiments in color feeding preference
should be given to strong, vigorous, male birds. During digestion and
assimilation the concentrated food used puts more or less of a strain
upon the system, and birds that are old or constitutionally weak may
not thrive, or may even succumb under the treatment. Color food
may be given young canaries at the age of 7 or 8 weeks to produce
a deep color at their first molt. Birds with color that is naturally full
and rich should be selected. Those having greenish markings or
those descended from a male parent well marked with green are
preferable. Pale birds seldom color well.
A standard color food may be prepared as follows: To the ordinary
egg food (one hard-boiled egg chopped fine with an equal bulk of
bread crumbs or unsalted cracker crumbs) add a teaspoonful of
ground sweet red pepper. Mix until the food shows an even reddish
tint throughout. Care should be taken to see that the supply of
ground sweet pepper used is fresh and clean and that it is not
artificially colored. Each bird to be experimented upon should receive
one small teaspoonful of the prepared food daily. The quantity of
pepper in the mixture is increased gradually, until two heaping
teaspoonfuls are used. Addition of a little brown sugar and a few
drops of pure olive oil is beneficial, and a small quantity of hot red
pepper gives a better flavor. The food should be prepared fresh each
day, and in mixing allowance must be made for variation in the size
of eggs used.
 Some breeders increase the proportion of sweet red pepper until 4
teaspoonfuls are added to the usual quantity of egg food. Half a
teaspoonful of this concentrated food is allowed each bird. This
method may be used during a short, quick molt. The usual supply of
seed must be kept in the cage, for canaries can not subsist on the
color food alone.
Those who do not care to use such an elaborate preparation in
color feeding may substitute pieces of the common sweet red
peppers sold in fresh vegetable markets for the bits of lettuce
ordinarily given as green food. Canaries eat these readily, and from
the effect of this food eaten during molt become noticeably deeper
and richer in color.
Color feeding to be successful must be started as soon as the
canaries are ready to molt, and feeding must be continued until no
more pin feathers can be found anywhere on the body when the
feathers are carefully blown aside. The color food actually supplies
an enriched color element that otherwise is lacking. Until the artificial
color is firmly fixed in the matured feather it fades easily when
exposed to strong light. The birds chosen for color feeding should be
kept in a dim light away from the windows and with the cages
shaded. Open-front cages are easily provided with a screen of paper
or cloth, but care must be taken to leave space for ventilation. Direct
sunlight must be avoided. Bathing must not be permitted more often
than once a week, and the birds should be disturbed as little as
possible.
Should a bird refuse the color food, the seed supply may be
removed for a short time morning and evening and the color food
substituted. Usually in a day or two the stimulating food will be eaten
eagerly. Linseeds should be given (as during the regular molt) to
impart a gloss to the new feathers. With proper care there will be
little trouble in producing fine, healthy birds with rich, highly colored
plumage. The enhanced color lasts only during the continuance of
the growth of feathers, and if color feeding is not resorted to at the
next molt the canary will again be plain.
 BREEDING.

The breeding season for canaries begins properly in March.

Though birds often show signs of its approach as early as January, it
is better, because of the effect of changing weather conditions upon
callow young, to postpone nesting activities until later, if possible.
Some canary fanciers keep canaries paired throughout the year, but
the more common practice is to separate the sexes except when
breeding. The beginning of the mating season is marked by ringing,
vigorous song among male birds, accompanied by much restless
activity. Females, indifferent until now, respond with loud call notes,
flit their wings, and otherwise evince their interest. Birds may be
paired without these preliminary signs, but usually this tends only to
lengthen the breeding season without material benefit. The instinct to
breed may be stimulated when necessary by the addition of egg food
and green stuff to the diet.
Canaries in captivity are polygamous when opportunity offers, and
many breeders place two or even three females with each male.
Others, however, keep canaries in pairs, as they are more readily
handled, and when the young are hatched the male is able to assist
in caring for them. Where two females are kept with one male the
birds should be placed in a cage divided by slides into three
compartments. The male is placed in the middle, and a female on
either side. During half the day the male is thrown with one female
and during the remainder with the other. This arrangement
necessitates the use of three sets of seed and water cups in each
cage. When the females begin to incubate the male is removed or
excluded from both.
A cage suitable for one pair of canaries should be equipped with a
sliding wire partition. The male and the female are placed one in
either compartment and the two left to make acquaintance. The male
will begin to feed the female through the wires in a day or two, or
perhaps at once, and when this is observed the slide may be
withdrawn and the birds kept together. If a cage is used that has no
slide, there is usually some bickering between the birds at first, but
birds are rarely found that do not in the end agree. A cage thus used
without a slide should be new to both birds, in order that neither may
resent the presence of an intruder in a cage which it has been
accustomed to consider its own.
Soon after pairing the female will be seen carrying feathers in her
bill or searching about the bottom of the cage. If a little nesting
material is given her she will be content to arrange and rearrange it
for a few days. As soon as she shows serious intention of building,
enough material for actual nest construction may be supplied. If a
considerable quantity is furnished at first it is merely wasted. The
material may be held in a small wire rack suspended on the outside
of the cage or placed inside. Bits of string, cotton, slender blades of
dried grass, dried moss, cow’s hair, or other soft material will serve
well. No long strings or long hairs should be given, as these may
cause trouble later by entangling the feet and legs of mother and
young. Everything furnished should be clean and free from dust.
Some canaries are expert nest builders, while others construct a
slovenly structure that barely serves to contain the eggs. Some
fanciers prefer to construct nests for their birds, and with certain
birds this is necessary as some females may refuse to build.
Canaries build in anything that offers support. A nest box of wood,
or, better, an earthenware nest pan, may be fastened to the side or
back of the cage midway between the two perches. The rush or
willow nests sold by many dealers, while serviceable, may harbor
vermin. The earthenware nest pan is best, as when the breeding
season is over it is readily cleaned and put away for another year.
Failing this, a box 1¼ inches or more deep made of thin wood may
be used. The nest box or pan should have a lining or bottom
covering of felt. This may be pasted in the earthenware pan, and
may be soaked loose without trouble when it is desired to renew it.
The nest receptacle, of whatever description, should be suspended
an inch above the level of the perches. This prevents the young from
leaving the nest too soon. The receptacle should not be near enough
to the top of the cage to interfere with the movements of the
occupants. If the nest is not too near the perches the male is not so
likely to be obtrusive during incubation.
The first egg will be deposited from a week to a month after the
birds are paired. Normally it is laid in about two weeks. The number
of eggs in a sitting may vary from three to six, with four or five as the
usual number. The eggs should be removed as soon as laid. This
may be done readily with a teaspoon, with care not to injure the
delicate shells. They should be kept in a cool place, slightly
embedded in fine corn meal or bran or cared for in some other
manner that does not allow them to roll about or touch each other.
On the evening of the day on which the third egg is laid all may be
returned to the nest.
Removing the eggs and then replacing them postpones incubation
and development in those first laid and makes the time of hatching
more even. The normal period of incubation is 14 days.
Egg binding sometimes causes trouble and may be dealt with as
follows: The vent may be oiled carefully with a drop or two of
warmed castor oil and the bird returned to the cage. If the egg is not
deposited within half an hour the canary should be held for a few
minutes with the vent over the steam of hot water. A good method is
to fill a narrow-necked jar or bottle with hot water and cover the
mouth of the receptacle with cheese cloth; the female is then held
carefully for a minute or two in the rising steam. Often the egg will
drop at once and be caught in the cheesecloth, or it may be
deposited in the normal manner after the bird is returned to the cage.
The male canary is ordinarily a model husband and parent, giving
no trouble, but if he should annoy the female during incubation or
attempt to injure the young he should be removed at once. It is the
natural instinct of an incubating bird to conceal itself as much as
possible, and though canaries are tame, this tendency should be
recognized and respected. This does not mean that they are to be
neglected. Each breeding cage should be equipped with a sand tray
which should be cleaned at least every other day. In no other way
can it be hoped to rear numbers of birds successfully. Except for this
necessary care and the provision of food, water, and bathing
facilities, the birds should be bothered as little as possible.
Sometimes trouble is caused by inability of the young to free
themselves from the shell or egg membrane, a condition for which
there is usually no remedy at the time. With succeeding settings the
difficulty may be obviated by sprinkling the eggs slightly with water
each evening. Some breeders when the young canaries are 8 days
old place them in a new nest, a practice that may be necessary
when the old nest is infested with parasites. In such instances a little
insect powder should be sprinkled over the body before the young
birds are placed in their new quarters.
The young birds leave the nest when 20 to 30 days old. They may
be left with the parents as long as they are fed and should never be
removed entirely until it is found that they are able to crack the seeds
upon which they must feed. It is advisable to continue the use of egg
food for a time and gradually to decrease the amount given to get
the birds accustomed to a diet of seed alone.
Canaries often rear two or three broods a season and the female
may be ready to breed again when the young are three weeks old. It
is only necessary to provide a second nest and nesting material and
let her proceed. The care of the young will then devolve on the male.
Nesting material should be provided at once or the female may pluck
the feathers from her growing young. If this can not be stopped the
young should be placed in a small nursery cage suspended from the
side of the breeding cage in a manner that will allow feeding
between the wires. When the young are finally removed they must
not be placed with birds older and stronger for a time. They should
be watched carefully the first day, and if any one does not feed it
must be returned to the parents at once. Though most of the losses
among canaries come at this time, with care in food and cleanliness
there should be little trouble.
 SEX AND AGE.

To determine sex and age in living canaries is difficult and is to be

attempted only by one who has had long experience as a canary
fancier. The external characters denoting sex are not easily
described. In nearly all cases a male may be recognized by his
proficiency as a songster, but occasionally female birds also possess
a clear, full song. When in breeding condition the sex may be
determined readily by examining the vent. In males it is protuberant,
while in females it does not project below the level of the abdomen.
By daily observation the canary breeder is generally able to
distinguish the sexes through slight differences in carriage and
mannerisms not apparent to one not familiar with them.
In judging age the feet offer the only characters easily seen, but
even these can not always be relied upon. Birds a year old or less
usually have the skin and scales covering the feet and tarsi smooth
and of fine texture. In older birds they appear coarser and
roughened. Very old birds usually have had the claws trimmed until
they appear blunt or rounded rather than sharp and pointed (see p.
19).
Canaries have lived many years when cared for regularly. Dr. C.
W. Richmond, Associate Curator of Birds in the United States
National Museum, relates that two birds, hatched in the same brood
and kept entirely separated after they left the nest, lived 18 years,
dying within a few weeks of each other. Another case is on record in
which a canary was known to be at least 34 years old when it died,
and even this advanced age may have been exceeded. Usually with
advancing years birds molt irregularly or lose part of the feathers
entirely. Often their eyesight is impaired. It is said that canaries that
have not been paired live much longer than those allowed to breed.
 VERMIN.

Canaries are affected by two forms of external parasites. The

larger of these, a bird louse[2] known usually as the gray louse, is an
insect with a slender, elongate body and a large head armed with
strong jaws. This pest feeds upon the feather structure of the bird’s
outer covering, and though it does not suck the blood of its host, its
sharp claws irritate the skin and cause discomfort to the bird. The
eggs of the gray louse are attached to the feathers by a gum and are
not easily removed. The young insects resemble the adults and in a
few weeks after hatching are fully grown. They are best combated by
blowing insect powder (pyrethrum) into the plumage of the affected
bird with a small bellows or blower. This treatment should be
repeated two or three times at intervals of a week to insure the
destruction of any young lice hatching in the meantime.
The other parasite of canaries is a small mite,[3] a minute
spiderlike creature that when fully grown is barely visible to the
unaided eye. Its natural color is whitish, but nearly always it is filled
with blood sucked from the body of the unfortunate bird harboring it,
so that it appears bright red. These mites are nocturnal, and except
in cases of severe infestation are seldom found upon the body of
their host during the day. They are often found in the slits at the ends
of the perches or in the round piece of metal forming the support at
the top of the ordinary wire cage. In wooden cages they hide in
cracks, nail holes, or crevices, and their presence is betrayed upon
close examination by minute white spottings. If unnoticed, they
multiply rapidly and sap the strength of the bird by sucking its blood.
When their presence is suspected a little coal oil, or kerosene,
applied freely to the cage with a brush may be sufficient to kill the
pests. Or the bird may be removed temporarily and the cage cleaned
thoroughly with a solution of 1 ounce of commercial carbolic acid in a
gallon of water, applied with a small brush, taking care to reach all
crevices. In severe infestations it may be necessary to immerse the
cage for several minutes in water that is boiling hot. Insect powder
may be used as for the gray louse.
 Where facilities for frequent bathing are offered and the cage is
kept clean, there is usually little trouble with either mites or bird lice.
When a bird is sick and neglects its customary bathing, cleaning,
and preening, it is surprising to see how rapidly these pests multiply.
With care, however, they may be completely eradicated, though
fresh outbreaks are likely to occur when new birds are obtained. In
wooden cages cracks in the boards that have harbored mites may
be closed with glue to prevent a return of the pests.

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Docophorns communis Nitzsch. Order Mallophaga.

[3] Dermanyssus avium De Geer, closely allied to the chicken
mite D. gallinae De Geer.
 CARE OF FEET AND BILL.

As a canary grows old it will be noticed that its claws become long
and catch on the perches and wires as it hops about the cage. In a
state of nature the activities of the bird as it moves about on the
ground or among twigs and limbs keep the claws properly worn
down. Confined in a cage the canary is less active, and while the
claws have the same rate of growth they are here subject to much
less abrasion. It is necessary, therefore, to trim them with a pair of
sharp scissors every few months. It is important to watch the
condition of the claws carefully, as by catching they may cause a
broken leg. In each claw a slender blood vessel extends well down
toward the tip. This is indicated in Figure 6 by the letter A, and may
be seen on close examination through the transparent sheath of the
bird’s claw. In trimming cut well beyond this canal (at the point B in
the figure) and take special care not to break the leg while handling
the bird.

Fig. 6.—Diagram of foot of canary with

overgrown claws. A, Terminal blood
vessel; B, point at which claw may
be trimmed without injury.
 In cage birds the horny covering of the bill, as well as the claws,
sometimes becomes distorted through growth without sufficient
wear. The tips of the mandibles may be pared down with a sharp
knife, but care must be taken not to cut deep enough to reach the
quick.