9.

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Maxwell’s equations are the four fundamental equations of electromagnetism.

They are named after the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879).
Maxwell’s equations describe how electric fields E and magnetic fields B are gen-
erated and altered by each other. These equations explain a diverse range of phenom-
ena of electromagnetism. Maxwell understood the connection between electromag-
netic waves and light, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics.
In order to apply Maxwell’s macroscopic equations, it is necessary to specify the
relations between the displacement field D and the electric field E, as well as the
magnetic field B and the magnetizing field H. The equations specifying this re-
sponse are called constitutive relations:

D =  0 r E (9.1)
B = 0  r H

where constants  0 = 8.85 10−12 F / m and 0 = 1.26 10−6 H / m are the permittivity
and the permeability in a vacuum and εr and μr are the relative permittivity and the
relative permeability of a material. Materials are generally dispersive, so εr and μr
depend on the frequency of any incident electromagnetic waves. For isotropic mate-
rials, εr and μr are scalars, while for anisotropic materials they are tensors.

8.1. Gauss’ Law for Electricity

Gauss’s law for electricity describes the relationship between a static electric field
E and the electric charge q that cause it. This law relates a net electric flux ΦE to a
net enclosed electric charge q:

q (9.2)

 E = E  dA =
0

where E is the electric field vector, dA represents the differential limit of an area
vector, and q is the charge enclosed by a closed Gaussian surface.
2 D. Kasprowicz

8.2. Gauss’ Law for Magnetism

Gauss’s law for magnetism states that magnetic monopoles (analogous to electric
charges) do not exist. The law asserts that the net magnetic flux ΦB through any
closed Gaussian surface is zero:


 B = B  dA = 0 (9.3)

where B is the magnetic field vector and dA represents the differential limit of an
area vector.

8.3. Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law describes how a time-varying magnetic field B creates (induces)

an electric field E. This law relates an induced electric field to a changing magnetic
flux ФB:

d B (9.4)
 E  ds = − dt

where E is the electric field vector and ds represents the differential limit of an area
vector. In this equation, E is the electric field induced along a closed loop by a chang-
ing magnetic flux ΦB through that loop. This dynamically induced electric field E
has closed field lines just as a magnetic field B, if not superposed by a static (charge
induced) electric field E.

8.4. Amper-Maxwell Law

Amper-Maxwell law relates an induced magnetic field B to a changing electric

flux ФE and current.
The Faraday’ law of induction given by Eq. 8.15 tells us that the change of mag-
netic flux ФB induces an electric field E. In Maxwell’s law, induction occurs in the
opposite sense: the change of electric flux ФE induces a magnetic field B according
to the relation:

d E (9.5)
 B  ds =  
0 0
dt
.

The circle on the integral sign indicates that the integral is taken around a closed loop
and B is a magnetic field induced along a closed loop by a changing electric flux ФE
through the loop.
 Physics 3

Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s addition states that magnetic fields B can be gen-
erated in two ways: by electrical currents (this was the original Ampere’s law) and
by changing electric fields E (Maxwell’s addition). Maxwell’s addition to Ampere’s
law is particularly important: it shows that not only does a changing magnetic field
B induce an electric field E, but also a changing electric field E induces a magnetic
field B.

d E (9.6)
 B  ds =  
0 0
dt
+ 0 I enc

where the integral of B  ds around a closed loop, Ienc is the current encircled by the
closed loop. When there is a current but no change in electric flux ФE (such as with
a wire carrying a constant current), the first term on the right side of Eq. 9.6 is zero
and Eq. 9.6 is reduced to Eq. 9.6, which is Ampere’s law. When there is a change in
electric flux ФE but no current, the second term on the right side of Eq. 9.6 is zero
and Eq. 9.6 is reduced to Eq. 9.5 − Maxwell’s law of induction. Maxwell’s equations
allow self-sustaining electromagnetic waves to travel through empty space [1−3].
LITERATURE

[1] Halliday D., Resnick R., Walker J., Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley&Sons, Inc.,
New York 1997.
[2] Halliday D., Resnick R., Walker J., Podstawy fizyki tom: 1–5, PWN, Warszawa 2003.
[3] Tipler P.A., Physics for scientists and engineers, W. H. Freeman and Company,
New York, 1999.