CENTRE FOR MATHS – Rasipuram-98943719975

REAL ANALYSIS -I
ORDERED SETS:

Definition: Let S be a set. An order on S is a relation, denoted by < , with the following two
properties:

(i) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆 then one and only one of the statements 𝑥 < 𝑦, 𝑥 = 𝑦, 𝑦 < 𝑥 is true.
(ii) If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, if 𝑥 < 𝑦 and 𝑦 < 𝑧, then 𝑥 < 𝑧
The statement "𝑥 < 𝑦" may be read as “x is less than y “ or “ x is smaller than y “ or “x
precedes y”,
It is often convenient to write 𝑦 > 𝑥 in place of 𝑥 < 𝑦.
The notation 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 indicates that 𝑥 < 𝑦 or 𝑥 = 𝑦, without specifying which of these two
is to hold. In other words, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 is the negation of 𝑥 > 𝑦.

Definition: An ordered set is a set S in which an order is defined.

For example, Q is an ordered set if 𝑟 < 𝑠 is defined to mean that 𝑠 − 𝑟 is a positive rational
number.

Definition: Suppose s is an ordered set, and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑆. If there exists a 𝛽 𝜖 𝑆 such that 𝑥 ≤ 𝛽 for
every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, we say that E is bounded above, and call 𝛽 an upper bound of E.

Lower bounds are defined in the same way (with ≥ in place of ≤)

Upper Bound

Let S be a set of real numbers if    R  x≤ for every x  S then  is said to be the upper
bound of S. We say S is bounded above.(  need not be in S)

Any number greater than  are called upper bound

Maximum

If an upper bound   S then  is the maximum of S

It is denoted by max S   if   S

Lower Bound

Let S be the set of real numbers. If   R    x for every x  S then  is said to be the
lower bound of S. We say S is bounded below.

Any number less than  are called lower bound

Minimum

If a lower bound   S then  is the minimum of S .

L.U.B (or) Supreme of S

Let  is an upper bound, any element of R less than  is not an upper bound then  is said to be
l.u.b.

G.L.U (or) Infimum of S

Let  is an lower bound, any element of R greater than  is not lower bound then  is said to
be g.l.b.

Order completeness Axiom (L.U.B Axiom)

Every non-empty set S of real numbers which is bounded above has an l.u.b.

Every non-empty set S of real numbers which is bounded below has an g.l.b.

Approximation principle

1. Let S be an non-empty set of real numbers. Let   sup S , for any a    some b  S
ab
2. Let   inf S , for any   a  some b  S    b  a

Archimedian Principle

If x  0; y is real number then  a positive integer n ,  nx  y

Definition: Suppose S is an ordered set, 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑆, and E is bounded above. Suppose there exists an
𝛼𝜖𝑆 with the following properties:

(i) 𝛼 is an upper bound of 𝐸.

(ii) If 𝛾 < 𝛼 then 𝛾 is not an upper bound of 𝐸.

Then 𝛼 is called the least upper bound of 𝐸 [that there is at most one such 𝛼 is clear from(ii)]
or the supremum of 𝐸 , and we write

𝛼 = sup 𝐸.

The greatest lower bound, or infimum, of set E which is bounded below is defined in the
same manner: The statement

𝛼 = inf 𝐸.
means that 𝛼 is a lower bound of E and that no 𝛽 with 𝛽 > 𝛼 is a lower bound of E.

Examples

1) Let A be the set of all positive rationals p such that p2 <2 and let B be the set of all positive
rationals p such that p2 >2 . The set A is bounded above. In fact, the upper bounds of A are exactly
the members of B. Since B contains no smallest member, A has no least upper bound in Q.
Similarly, B is bounded below: The set of all lower bounds of B consists of A and of all 𝑟 ∈ 𝑄 with
𝑟 ≤ 0. Since A has no largest member, B has no greatest lower bound in Q.
2) If 𝛼 = sup 𝐸 exists, then 𝛼 may or may not be a member of E. for instance, let 𝐸1 be the set of all
𝑟 ∈ 𝑄 with 𝑟 < 0. Let 𝐸2 be the set of all 𝑟 ∈ 𝑄 with 𝑟 ≤ 0. Then
sup 𝐸1 = 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝐸2 = 0
and 0 ∉ 𝐸1 , 0 ∈ 𝐸2 .
3) Let E consist of all numbers 1/n, where 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….Then sup 𝐸 = 1,which is in E, and inf 𝐸 = 0,
which is not in 𝐸.

Definition: An ordered set 𝑆 is said to have the least-upper-bound property if the following is true:

If 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑆, 𝐸 is not empty, and 𝐸 is bounded above, then sup 𝐸 exists in 𝑆.

From the above example 𝑄 does not have the least-upper-bound property.

We shall now show that there is a close relation between greatest lower bounds and least upper
bounds, and that every ordered set with the least-upper-bond property also has the greatest-lower-bound
property.

Theorem: Suppose 𝑆 is an ordered set with the least-upper-bound property, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑆, 𝐵 is not empty, and 𝐵
is bounded below. Let 𝐿 be the set of all lower bounds of 𝐵.Then

𝛼 = sup 𝐿

exists in 𝑆, and 𝛼 = inf 𝐵. In particular, inf 𝐵 exists in 𝑆.

FIELDS

Definition A field is a set 𝐹 with two operations, called addition and multiplication, which satisfy the
following so-called “field axioms”

Axioms for addition

1) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, then their sum 𝑥 + 𝑦 is in 𝐹.

2) Addition is commutative: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹
3) Addition is associative: (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹.
4) 𝐹 contains an element 0 such that 0 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹.
5) To every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 corresponds an element – 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑥 + (−𝑥) = 0

Axioms for multiplication

 1) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, then their product 𝑥𝑦 is in 𝐹.
2) Multiplication is commutative: 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹
3) Multiplication is associative: (𝑥𝑦)𝑧 = 𝑥(𝑦𝑧) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹.
4) 𝐹 contains an element 1≠0 such that 1𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹.
5) To every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑥 ≠ 0 then there exist an element 1/𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑥(1/𝑥) = 1.

The distributive law:

𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 holds for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹

Definition

An ordered field is a field 𝐹 which is also an ordered set, such that

(i) 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 𝑥 + 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 < 𝑧,

(ii) 𝑥𝑦 > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 > 0.

If 𝑥 > 0, we call 𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒; if 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.

For example, Q is an ordered field.

Proposition

The following statements are true in every ordered field.

(a) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 − 𝑥 < 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎

(b) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 < 𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥𝑦 < 𝑥𝑧
(c) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 < 𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥𝑦 > 𝑥𝑧.
(d) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 > 0. 𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟, 1 > 0.
1 1
(e) 𝐼𝑓 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑦 < 𝑥.

THE REAL FIELD

We now state the existence theorem which is the core of this chapter.

Theorem: There exists an ordered field 𝑅 which has the least-upper-bound property.
Moreover, 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑄 as a subfield.

Theorem:

(a) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑥 > 𝑦.
(b) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑝 ∈ 𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 < 𝑝 < 𝑦.

Theorem: For every real 𝑥 > 0 and every integer 𝑛 > 0 there is one and only one positive real 𝑦 such that
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥.

This number 𝑦 is written √𝑥 or 𝑥 1⁄𝑛 .

𝑛
THE EXTENDED REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Definition:

The extended real number system consists of the real field 𝑅 and two symbols, +∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ∞. We
preserve the original order in 𝑅, and define

−∞ < 𝑥 < +∞

for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.

SCHWARZ INEQUALITY:

Theorem If 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 , … , 𝑏𝑛 are complex numbers, then

2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2 2
|∑ 𝑎𝑗 𝑏𝑗 | ≤ ∑|𝑎𝑗 | ∑|𝑏𝑗 |
𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1

EUCLIDEAN SPACES

Definition: For each positive integer 𝑘, let 𝑅 𝑘 be the set of all ordered 𝑘-tuples

𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 )

where 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 are real numbers, called the coordinates of x. The elements of 𝑅 𝑘 are called points, or
vectors, especially when 𝑘 > 1. We shall denote vectors by boldfaced letters. If 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑘 ) and if 𝛼 is
a real number, put

𝑥 + 𝑦 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑦𝑘 )

𝛼𝑥 = (𝛼𝑥1 , … , 𝛼𝑥𝑘 )

so that 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 𝑘 and 𝛼𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑘 . This defines addition of vectors, as well as multiplication of a vector by a

real number (a scalar).

Theorem: Suppose 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 𝑘 , and 𝛼 is real. Then

(a) |𝑥| ≥ 0;
(b) |𝑥| = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0;
(c) |𝛼𝑥| = |𝛼||𝑥|;
(d) |𝑥. 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥||𝑦|;
(e) |𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦|;
(f) |𝑥 − 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|;
2. BASIC TOPOLOGY:
Definition: If there exists a 1-1 mapping 𝐴 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐵, we say that 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be put in 1-1
correspondence, or that 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have the same cardinal number, or, briefly, that 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are
equivalent, and we write 𝐴~𝐵. This relation clearly has the following properties:
It is reflexive: 𝐴~𝐴
It is symmetric: If 𝐴~𝐵, then 𝐵~𝐴.
It is transitive: If 𝐴~𝐵, and 𝐵~𝐶, then A~𝐶.
Any relation with these three properties is called an equivalence relation.

Definition: For any positive integer 𝑛, let 𝐽𝑛 be the set whose elements are the integers 1,2, … , 𝑛;
let 𝐽 be the set consisting of all positive integers. For any set 𝐴, we say:
(a) 𝐴 is finite if 𝐴~𝐽𝑛 for some 𝑛(the empty set is also considered to be finite).
(b) 𝐴 is infinite if 𝐴 is not finite.
(c) 𝐴 is countable if 𝐴~𝐽.
(d) 𝐴 is uncountable if 𝐴 is neither finite nor countable.
(e) 𝐴 is at most countable if 𝐴 is finite or countable.

Countable sets are sometimes called enumerable, or denumerable.

Countable (or) Denumberable

If the set is finite (or) countable infinite then the sets are called countable i.e. if S is equivalent to
N then S is said to be countable. Otherwise it is uncountable

 The set R is uncountable

 The set Z , N , Q are countable
 The intervals [a, b]  [a, b),(a, b] are uncountable.
 The Cartesian product N  N , Z  Z are countable.
 N n  N  N  N...n times is countable
 Union of countable set is countable
 If F is the countable collection of pairwise disjoint countable sets then

F is countable
F F

 Every subset of Rd is open

 Every singleton set in Rd is open
 The set of all rational number Q is countable
 The set of all intervals with rational end points is countable
 If B is an infinite subset of a countable set A then B is countable
 The set of irrational number is uncountable
 R  Q  IR uncountable
 The set of all characteristic function on I is uncountable
 The set of polynomials Pn whose co-efficient are the elements of the countable set then the set of
polynomial is countable
 The set of all rational numbers in the open interval (a, b) is countable.
 The set of all irrational number in the interval (a, b) is uncountable.
 Let A be a infinite set and x  A then A ~ A  {x}
 If f : A  B and the range of f is uncountable then the domain of f is uncountable.
 If A is a countable subset of a uncountable set B then B  A uncountable i.e. R  Q  IR is
uncountable.
 If A is countable, B is uncountable then B-A is similar to B
 If A is the set of all sequences whose elements are the digits 0 and 1 , then A is uncountable.
 The set of all circle in the complex plane having rational radii znd centres with rational coordinates
is countable
 Any collection of disjoint intervals of positive length is countable.

Problems:


1. Find the infimum and supremum of the set S  2 p  3 q  5 r | p, q, r  N 
Solution

A  2 p | p  N 

1 1 1 
  , , ...2  0 
2 4 8 

1
sup A  inf A  0
2

B  3 q | q  N 

1 1 1 
  , , ...  0 
 3 9 27 

1
sup B  inf B  0
3

C  5 r | r  N

1 1 1 
 , , ...  0
 5 25 125 
 1
sup C  inf C  0
5

sup S  sup A  sup B  sup C

1 1 1
  
2 3 5

3  2 1 5 1 25  6 31
     
6 5 6 5 30 30

inf S  inf A  inf B  inf C

inf S  0

2. S  {3x 2  10 x  3  0}

 {x | (3x 1)( x  3)  0}

  1 
  x | 3  x   ( x  3)  0 
  3 

  1 
  x |  x   ( x  3)  0 
  3 

1 
S   ,3  Therefore infS = 1/3 ,sup S = 3
3 

3. S  {x | ( x  a)( x  b)( x  c)( x  d )  0 a  b  c  d}

 (a, b)  (c, d )

inf S  a sup S  d

4. Let A, B be bounded above and sup A  a , sup B  b and C  {xy | x  A, y  B} then

supC  ab I.e. sup C  sup A  sup B
5. If S is a infinite set then S contains a countable infinite subset
6. If A in countable, B in uncountable then B  A is similar to B
7. A real number is called algebraic if it is a root of a polynomial equation with integral co-
efficients.
8. The set of all polynomials with integrals co-efficients is countable and the set of all algebraic
numbers are countable.
9. The transcendental numbers are real number but not algebraic number
 10. The transcendental numbers are uncountable

Examples:

(a) Suppose 𝐸1 consists of 1,2,3 and 𝐸2 consists of 2,3,4. Then 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 consists of 1,2,3,4,
whereas 𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 consists of 2,3.
(b) Let 𝐴 be the set of real numbers 𝑥 such that0 < 𝑥 < 1. For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, let 𝐸𝑥 be the set
of real numbers 𝑦 such that0 < 𝑦 < 𝑥. Then
(i) 𝐸𝑥 ⊂ 𝐸𝑧 if and only if 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 1;
(ii) ⋃𝑥∈𝐴 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1 ;
(iii) ⋂𝑥∈𝐴 𝐸𝑥 is empty;

(i) and (ii) are clear. To prove (iii), we note that for every 𝑦 > 0 , 𝑦 ∉ 𝐸𝑥 if 𝑥 < 𝑦.
Hence 𝑦 ∉ ⋂𝑥∈𝐴 𝐸𝑥 .

Theorem: Let {𝐸𝑛 }, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …, be a sequence of countable sets, and put

∞

𝑆 = ⋃ 𝐸𝑛
𝑛=1

Then 𝑆 is countable.

Corollary: Suppose 𝐴 is at most countable, and, for every 𝛼 ∈ 𝐴, 𝐵𝛼 is at most countable. Put

𝑇 = ⋃ 𝐵𝛼
𝛼∈𝐴

Then 𝑇 is at most countable.

Theorem: Let 𝐴 be a countable set, and let 𝐵𝑛 be the set of all 𝑛-𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ), where 𝑎𝑘 ∈
𝐴(𝑘 = 1, … , 𝑛), and the elements 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 need not be distinct. Then 𝐵𝑛 is countable.

Corollary: The set of all rational numbers is countable.

Theorem: Let 𝐴 be the set of all sequences whose elements are the digits 0 and 1. This set 𝐴 is
uncountable.

METRIC SPACES


Metric space is a pair  M , d  where M is a non-empty set and d : M  M  R satisfying
i) d ( x, y)  0 iff. x  y
ii) d ( x, y)  d ( y, x)
iii) d ( x, z)  d ( x, y)  d ( y, z)  x, y, z  M
Example

1) M  R and d ( x, y)  x  y ,  x, y  R is a metric space it is called usual metric (or)

Euclidean metric on R
2) Discrete Metric Space

Let M is a non-empty set

0 if x  y
d ( x, y )  
1 if x  y

It is a metric space. This metric space is called discrete metric space.

3) M  Rn and d ( x, y)  x  y where x   x1 , x2 ,..., xn  , y   y1, y2 ,..., yn 

1
 n

   xk  yk 
2 2


 k 1 

Then (M , d ) is metric space. This metric space is called Euclidean metric on R n

4) M  {( x, y ) | x 2  y 2  1}

i.e. the points on the unit circle ( x 2  y 2  1) in R 2 and d ( x, y)  length of the smaller
arc joining the points x and y , then (M , d ) is a metric space.

5) M  R1 , d ( x, y)  tan 1 x  tan 1 y Then ( R1 , d ) is a metric space in R1 .

x y
6) M  R1 , d ( x, y )   is a metric space in R1 .
1 x 1 y
x  y x y
7) The set C of complex numbers with the metric defined by d ( x, y )   is a
 0 x y
metric.
d ( x, y )
8) Let ( X , d ) be any metric space and the function d1 defined by d1 ( x, y )  for
1  d ( x, y)
every x, y  X is a metric on X .
9) Let M=R2 and d is defined as d(x, y) = (x1-y1)2 + 4(x2–y2)2.Then, (M, d) is a Metric Space
10) l∞is the set of all bounded sequences {xn}of real numbers with

d({xn}, {yn}) = sup{ │xn-yn│; nN}  {xn}, {yn} l∞. This metric is called supremum metric
 
2
11) l is the class of all sequences {sn} s
n 1
n
2
 ∞ , d is defined as

1
 2
d({xn}, {yn})    xn  yn 
2
  {xn}, {yn}l . This metric is called Hilbert metric
2

 n1 

12) In Rn, d is defined by d(x,y)∑∞

𝑖=1 │𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 │ = is a metric .This metric is called Rectangular
n
metric on R .
1
 n 2
13) In Rn, d(x, y)    xn  yn 
2 1 ∞
 and d (x, y ) = ∑𝑖=1 │𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 │ .Then,
 n1 

d(x, y)≤d1(x, y)≤n d(x, y)

14) In Rn, d* is defined as d*(x, y) = Max│𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 │ , 1≤i≤n. Then

d*(x, y)≤d1(x, y)≤n d*(x, y)
15) If (M, ) is a metric , then(M, 2) is also a metric
16) If (M, )and (M, ) are two metrics on M , then + is also a metric on M.
17) If d1(x, y) == Max│𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 │ and d2(x, y) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 │𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 │ are two metrics on Rn then,

d1(x, y)≤ ‖𝑥 − 𝑦‖ ≤d2(x, y) and

d2(x, y)≤𝑛‖𝑥 − 𝑦‖ ≤ 𝑛 d1(x, y)  x, y Rn.

Open ball and open sets

Let a  R , r be any positive number. The set of all points x in Rn  x  a  r is called the
n

open n ball with centre a and radius r . It is denoted by

B[a; r ]  {x | x  a  r} , i.e. B [a; r ] consists of all points whose distance from a is less then r .

Note: In R1 , B(a; r ) is an open interval with centre at a and radius r

In R 2 , B(a; r ) is an open disk with centre at a and radius r

In R 3 , B(a; r ) is an open sphere with centre at a and radius r

Neighbourhood of a point:

A set N is called a neighbourhood of a point x if there exist an open interval I such that x  I  N .

Deleted Neighbourhood:
Let N be the neighbourhood of x then N-{x} is a deleted neighbourhood of x.

 An open interval is a neighbourhood of each of its points.

 R is the neighbourhood of each and every point of it.
 The set Q of rational numbers is not the neighbourhood of any of its points.
 A non-empty finite set cannot be a neighbourhood of its points.
 A closed interval [a,b] is a neighbourhood of each of its points except the two end points

a and b.


 1 1
 Let In=   ,1   then I n =[0,1] which is an closed intervals. It is neighbourhood of each of its
 n n n 1
points except the end points 0 and 1.
 The intersection of two neighbourhood of a point is also a neighbourhood of that point.

Interior Points

Let S  R and a  S , a is called the interior point of S if  an open n -ball with centre at a
n

all of whose points belongs to S .i.e., B(a, r)  S for some r 0

A point x is called an interior point of a set S if S is a neighbourhood of x.

Notation: IntS  The set of all interior points of S .

Exterior point:

A point x is called an exterior point of a set S if there exist a neighbourhood N of x such that N  S   .

Note: A point x is called a boundary point of S if it is neither interior nor exterior.

Example

1) Let S  (0,1) then every point on S is interior points

2) S  [0,1] the end points 0,1 are not an interior point of S
3) Let S  {( x, y ) | x 2  y 2  1} all points of S are interior points.
4) S  {( x, y ) | x 2  y 2  1} all points on S except boundary points are interior points of S
[a, b] 
[a, b) 
 
5) int    ( a, b)
 ( a , b ) 
(a, b]
6) In N it has no interior point
7) In Z it has no interior point
8) In Q it has no interior point
9) In R it has all interior point
Open set

Let S in R n is called open set if all its points are interior points i.e. S is open iff.
the int S  S .

Example

1) Every open interval is a open set

2) Every open ball in a metric space M is an open set in M
3) The set of real numbers R is a open set
4) The set of irrational is not open
5) The set of Q is not open
6) The set of N is not open
7) The set of Z is not open
8) Every open interval is an open set but every open set is not an open interval
9) [a,b] is not open, since a,b are not the interior point
10) The interior of the disk in R2 is open set
11) Union of two open set open

Ex: (1, 2)  (3,5)

It is an open set but it is not a open interval

12) Arbitrary union of open set is open

13) The intersection of finite collection of open set is open
14) But the intersection of arbitrary collection of open set is not open


 1 1
Let An    ,  , then An  {0} it is not open.
 n n n 1

15) R n is open, (a1 , b1 )  (a2 , b2 )...  (an , bn ) of n -one dimensional open interval is a open set
in R n . In R1 , the union of a countable collection of disjoint open intervals is an open set.
16) Set of all complex numbers is open
17) The metric space M &  are open
18) Every subset of Rd is open.
19) Every singleton set in Rd is open.
20) The Cartesian product of two one dimensional open interval is open
21) No subset of R1 (except the empty set) can be open in R 2 .
22) In R n the empty set is open.
23) Every open n ball is an open set in R n
Theorem:

Let (S, d) be a metric subspace of (M, d) and Let X be a subset of S. Then, X is open in S iff

X = AS for some set A which is open in M.

Closed Sets

A set S in R n is called closed if its component Rn  S is open

Example

1) The metric space M &  are closed

Since M is open, M c   is closed

 is open,  c  M is closed

 Any metric space M &  are both open and closed.

The closed set

2) [0,1]  closed

[0,1]c  (, 0)  (1, )  open

3) (0,1) is open interval,

(0,1)c  (, 0]  [1, )

 (0,1)c is closed

4) [a, b] is a closed set

[a, b] is closed not open

(a, b) is open not closed

[a, b) is not open and not closed

(a, b] is not open and not closed.

5) The Cartesian product of closed set is closed

 i.e. [a1 , b1 ]  [a2 , b2 ]...[an , bn ] is closed

6) The union of finite collection of closed set is closed

7) The union of arbitrary collection of closed set not closed
For example:


 1  1
let Fn  1, 2   , n  1, 2,... are closed in R1 then 1, 2  n   [1, 2) is not closed.
 n  n 1

8) Arbitrary intersection of closed set is closed

9) Arbitrary union of closed set is not closed
10) Finite intersection of closed set is closed
11) Set of all line L in R 2 is closed in R2

12)Let M be a metric space, A is the open subset, B is the closed subset in M

then A  B  A  BC is open, B  A  B  AC is closed.

Adherent Point

Let S be the subset of R n and ' x ' is a point in R n , x not necessary in S then x is said to be a
adherent point to S if every n -ball B( x) contain at least one point in S . i.e. x0 is said to be an adherent
point of S , if every neighbourhood of x0 contains a point of S .

If x  S then x is an adherent point of S . i.e. every point of S is adherent to S .

If S is a subset of R( S  R) which is bounded above then supremum of S is adherent to S .

If S is a subset of R( S  R) which is bounded below then infimum of S is adherent to S .

Accumulation point(or) Cluster point (or) Linient Point (or) Condensation point:

S is said to be an accumulation point (cluster point) of the set S if every open ball of x contain at
least one point in S other than x .

i.e. x is a accumulation point iff. it is adherent point to S  {x}

Statement: Every accumulation point is adherent point but converse need not be true.

Example: [0,1] every point inside the interval are accumulation point.

Closure of a Set

The set of all adherent points of a set S is called the closure of S and it is denoted by S

Example: 1) S = set of all adherent point of S . For any set, S  S , since every point of S is
adherent to S , if S  S then S is closed.

2) Let N = {1,2,3…},each of its point is an adherent point . but it has no accumulation point.

Isolated Point of S

A point x is said to be isolated point of S if x  S and x is not an accumulation point of S .

Example

1) N  {1, 2,3,...} ,each and every point is isolated point.

[a, b] 
[a, b) 
 
2) Every point of   is accumulation of (a, b)
( a , b ) 
 (a, b]

1 
3) Find the accumulation point of the set S   n  1, 2,...
n 

1 1 1 1 1
Lt 0 i.e.S =  , , ,... 
n  n 1 2 3 

only zero is the accumulation point

 4) The set of rational number has every real number as an accumulation point.
5) If x is an accumulation point of S then every n -ball B( x) contains infinitely many points of
S.
6) Every interior point of S is an accumulation of S converse not true
7) Every real number is a accumulation point of set of irrational number
8) In discrete metric space every point is an isolated point.

M  metric space

0 if x  y
d ( x, y )  
1 if x  y

 1  1
Consider B  x;    x  M | d ( x, y )  
 2  2 

 {x}  is adherent point.

x is an isolated point . The discrete metric space is called space of isolated points.

A set S in R n is closed iff. it contains all its adherent point.

Theorem:

If x is an accumulation point of S then every open ball about x contains infinitely many
points of S.

Every interior point of Rn is an accumulation point of Rn but converse not true.

Examples:

1)In [1, 2] all points including 1, 2 are accumulation point but1,2are not interior poits.

2)Let(M, d) be a metric space. Then, the open ball B(a, ½) = {a}

If aM then B(a, ½) = {a}

Therefore, every point of M is an Isolated point.

Therefore, Discrete metric space is called space of Isolated points.

Closed set:

Let S  Rn is closed iff it contains all its adherent points ie., S is closed iff S S but S S is
obvious. Ie., S is closed iff S  S
Example:

1.Let M = Q with a Euclidean metric of R. Let S consists of all rational numbers in (a, b) where
a, b are irrartional. Then S is closed subset of Q

2.Any non-empty finite set cannot be open.

3.Superset of an open set need not be open

4.Subset of open set need not be open.

5.In Rd , any finite set is both open and closed.

Derived set : The set of all accumulation point of E is called the derived set of S it is denoted by E 

Clearly E  E  E

Note : E is closed iff. E  E

E  E  E

i.e. E  E  E 

i.e E  E i.e. E contains all its accumulative point.

i.e. E is closed iff E contains all its accumulation point.

Everywhere Dense Set :The set E is said to be everywhere dense in X if E  X

Example : 1)The set of rational Q is everywhere dense in R because Q  R

2)The set ofir rational numbers are everywhere dense in R because R  Q  R

3) The discrete Metric space Rd has no dense subset expect Rd itself.

4)Every Closed interval is dense in itself.

Perfect set:If E  E  then the set E is said to be perfect

Example : 1)Any closed set [a, b] is perfect

2)Q is not perfect,since Q’ = R

3)empty set is perfect

 4)R is perfect

5)Z is not perfect, since Z’ = ∅

6) Non empty perfect set in Rk is uncountable.

Note : No finite set can have an accumulative point.

i.e. a necessary condition for a set E to have an accumulative point is that the set be infinite.

Bounded Set: Let S be a subset of R n . Then S is said to be bounded if it lies entirely within an n -ball
B[a; r ] for some r  0 and some a in R n .

Note: 1)R1is not bounded

2)Rd is bounded.

Theorem:

Let (S, d) be a metric subspace of (M, d) and Let X be a subset of S. Then, X is closed in S iff

X = AS for some set A which is closed in M.

Nowhere dense:

Aset A is said to be nowhere dense in X if the complement of the closure of A is dense in X.

A is nowhere dense in X iff int(𝐴̅) =∅

i.e. 𝐴̅ contains no open intervals.

Note: 1.Ifthe closed set F is said to be nowhere dense if F contains no open interval.

2.IA is dense in S, Sis dense in T , then A is dense in T

Note

1) Any non empty finite set cannot be open.

2) Every open set is union a of open intervals
3) Interior of a set is an open intervals
 1  1
4) 1, 2  is not open in R ,  0, 2  is open in the discrete metric [0,1]
5) Any non-empty finite set cannot be open
6) The super set of an open set need not be open (0,1)  [1, 2]
7) Subset of an open set need not be open [2.1, 2.7]  (2,3)
8) Consider the set {x |1  x  5, x  3, 4}
 S  {x |1  x  5, x  3, 4}

(1,3)  (3, 4)  (4,5) ,so it is open.

9) Derived set of a bounded set is bounded

10) Derived set of any set is closed
11) A set S is dense in itself if every point of S is a limit point . Q is dense in itself but not closed
12) Finite set is closed but not dense in itself. N , Z are not dense in itself.
13) Derived set of a discrete matic space is empty.

Open cover

A collection F of sets is said to be covering of a given set S if S  A . The collection F is also said to
AF
cover S , if F is collection of open set then F is called an open covering of S

Example

1 2
1)  ,  n  1, 2,... is an open covering of (0,1)
n n
2) An   n, n  then  An  is open covering of R .

Bn  (2n, 2n) , then Bn  in the open covering of R . But Bn  An

 Bn is sub covering of set An

Bolzano Weistrass Theorem

If a bounded set S in R n contains infinitely many points then there is at least one point in R n
which is a accumulation point of S .

(every bounded infinite subset of R has at least one accumulation point in R1 )

Note: Bolzano Weistrass theorem is fails if the set is either infinite or unbounded

Cantor Intersection Theorem

Let the set F1 , F2 ,... be a countable collection non-empty sets in R n such that Fn 1  Fn ,

n  1, 2,3,... and F1 is bounded then Fn closed and non-empty.
n 1
Lindelof Covering Theorem

Given an arbitrary family F of open sets in R n that covers a subset A of R n then there exist a
countable sub collection of F which also covers A .

Heine – Borel Property

A subset A of R is said to be have a Heine – Boral property if every open covers of A has a finite
sub cover.

Heine – Borel Theorem

Let S be an open covering of a closed and bounded set A in R n then there exists a finite sub
cover.

Compact set :

A set S in R n is said to be compact iff every open covering of S containing a finite subcover.

Note:R has no finite sub cover.

Statement

Let S be a subset of, then the following statements are equivalent

i) S is compact
ii) S is closed and bounded
iii) Every infinite subset of S has an accumulation point in S

Statement

1) Let S be a compact subset of a metric space X . Then S is bounded and closed converse is not true
( but in R n the converse is true)
2) A closed subset of a compact metric space is compact
3) The any set in R1 which are both open and closed are the empty set and R1 itself.
4) Let S and T are subsets of metric space X then
i) (int S )  (int T )  int(S  T )
ii) (int S )  (int T )  int(S  T )
iii) S  is a closed set in X
iv) (S  T )  S   T 
v) (S  T )  S  T
vi) (S  T )  S  T
 
Closure of any subset E of the metric space M is closed i.e. E is closed, i.e E  E 
 6) Every finite set in R is closed and bounded.

every finite set in R is compact.

7) If A is bounded ,then 𝐴̅ is bounded

8)For any set A, A and A’ are closed

9)Let A be any set ,then 𝐴̅ is the smallest closed set containing A.

Definition: By the segment (𝑎, 𝑏) we mean the set of all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.

By the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] we mean the set of all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.

Occasionally we shall also encounter “half-open intervals” [𝑎, 𝑏)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎, 𝑏]; the first
consists of all 𝑥 such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏, the second of all 𝑥 such that 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.

If 𝑎𝑖 < 𝑏𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑘, the set of all points 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 ) in 𝑅 𝑘 whose coordinates

satisfy the inequalities 𝑎𝑖 ≤ 𝑥𝑖 ≤ 𝑏𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘) is called a 𝑘-cell. Thus a 1-cell is an interval, a 2-
cell is a rectangle, etc.

If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑘 and 𝑟 > 0, then open (or closed) ball B with center 𝑥 and radius 𝑟 is defined to
be the set of all 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 𝑘 such that |𝑦 − 𝑧| < 𝑟(𝑜𝑟|𝑦 − 𝑥| ≤ 𝑟).

We call a set 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑅 𝑘 convex if

𝜆𝑥 + (1 − 𝜆)𝑦 ∈ 𝐸

whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝜆 < 1.

Definition: Let 𝑋 be a metric space. All points and sets mentioned below are understood to be
elements and sunsets of 𝑋.

(a) A neighborhood of 𝑝 is a set 𝑁𝑟 (𝑝) consisting of all 𝑞 such that 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) < 𝑟, for some 𝑟 >
0. The number 𝑟 is called the radius of 𝑁𝑟 (𝑝)
(b) A point 𝑝 is a limit point of the set 𝐸 if every neighborhood of 𝑝 contains a point 𝑞 ≠ 𝑝
such that 𝑞 ∈ 𝐸.
(c) If 𝑝 ∈ 𝐸 and 𝑝 is not a limit point of 𝐸, then 𝑝 is called an isolated point of 𝐸.
(d) 𝐸 is closed if every limit point of 𝐸 is a point of 𝐸.
(e) A point 𝑝 is an interior point of 𝐸 if there is a neighborhood 𝑁 of 𝑝 such that 𝑁 ⊂ 𝐸.
(f) 𝐸 is open if every point of 𝐸 is an interior point of 𝐸.
(g) The complement of 𝐸(denoted by 𝐸 𝑐 ) is the set of all points 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐸.
(h) 𝐸 is perfect if 𝐸 is closed and if every point of 𝐸 is a limit point of 𝐸 .
 (i) 𝐸 is bounded id there is a real number 𝑀 and a point 𝑞 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) < 𝑀 for all
𝑝 ∈ 𝐸.
(j) 𝐸 is dense is 𝑋 if every point of 𝑋 is a limit point of 𝐸, or a point of 𝐸(or both).

Let us note that in 𝑅1 neighborhoods are segments, whereas in 𝑅 2 neighborhoods are interiors of
circles.

Theorem: Every neighborhood is an open set.

Theorem: If 𝑝 is a limit point of a set 𝐸, then every neighborhood of 𝑝 contains infinitely many
points of 𝐸.

Corollary: A finite point set has no limit points.

Examples: Let us consider the following subsets of 𝑅 2 :

(a) The set of all complex 𝑧 such that |𝑧| < 1.

(b) The set of all complex 𝑧 such that |𝑧| ≤ 1.
(c) A nonempty finite set.
(d) The set of all integers.
(e) The set consisting of the numbers 1/n (n=1,2,3,…) . Let us note that this set 𝐸 has a limit point
(𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑧 = 0) but that no point of 𝐸 is a limit point of 𝐸; we wish to stress the difference
between a limit point and containing one.
(f) The set of all complex numbers (that is, 𝑅 2 ).
(g) The segment (𝑎, 𝑏).

Let us note that (d), (e), (g) can be regarded also as subsets of 𝑅1 .Some properties of these sets
are tabulated below:

Closed Open Perfect Bounded

(a) No Yes No Yes

(b) Yes No Yes Yes

(c) Yes No No Yes

(d) Yes No No No

(e) No No No Yes

(f) Yes Yes Yes No

 (g) No No Yes

In (g) ,we left the second entry blank. The reason is that the segment (𝑎, 𝑏) is not open

if we regard it as a subset of 𝑅 2 , but it is an open subset of 𝑅1 .

Theorem: Let {𝐸𝛼 } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets 𝐸𝛼 . Then

𝑐

(⋃ 𝐸𝛼 ) = ⋂(𝐸𝛼𝑐 ).
𝛼 𝛼

Theorem: A set 𝐸 is open if and only if its complement if closed.

Corollary A set 𝐹 is closed if and only if its complement is open.

Theorem:

(a) For any collection {𝐺𝛼 } of open sets, ⋃𝛼 𝐺𝛼 is open.

(b) For any collection {𝐹𝛼 } of closed sets, ⋂𝛼 𝐹𝛼 is closed.
(c) For any finite collection 𝐺1 , … , 𝐺𝑛 of open sets, ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖 is open.
(d) For any finite collection 𝐹1 , … , 𝐹𝑛 of closed sets, ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝐹𝑖 is closed.

Examples: In parts (c) and (d) of the preceding theorem, the finiteness of the collections is
1 1
essential. For let 𝐺𝑛 ne the segment (− , ) (𝑛 = 1,2,3, … ). Then 𝐺𝑛 is an open subset of 𝑅1 . Put
𝑛 𝑛
𝐺 = ⋂∞𝑛=1 𝐺𝑛 . Then 𝐺 consists of a single point (namely, 𝑥 = 0) and is therefore not an open
subset of 𝑅1 .

Thus the intersection of an infinite collection of open sets need not be open. Similarly,
the union of an infinite collection of closed sets need not be closed.

Definition: If 𝑋 is a metric space, if 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑋, and if 𝐸′ denotes the set of all limit points of 𝐸 in 𝑋,
then the closure of 𝐸 is the set 𝐸 = 𝐸 ∪ 𝐸′.

Theorem: If 𝑋 is a metric space and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑋, then

(a) 𝐸 is closed,
(b) 𝐸 = 𝐸 if and only if 𝐸 is closed,
(c) 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹 for every closed set 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑋 such that 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹.

By (a) and (c), 𝐸 is the smallest closed subset of 𝑋 that contains 𝐸.

Theorem: Let 𝐸 be a nonempty set of real numbers which is bounded above. Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝐸. Then
𝑦 ∈ 𝐸. Hence 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 if 𝐸 is closed.
Theorem: Suppose 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑋. A subset 𝐸 of 𝑌 is open relative to 𝑌 if and only if 𝐸 = 𝑌 ∩ 𝐺 for some
open subset of 𝐺 of 𝑋.

COMPACT SETS

Definition: By open cover of a set 𝐸 in a metric space 𝑋 we mean a collection {𝐺𝛼 } of open
subsets of 𝑋 such that 𝐸 ⊂ ⋃𝛼 𝐺𝛼 .

Definition: A subset 𝐾 of a metric space 𝑋 is said to be compact if every open coverof 𝐾 contains
a finite subcover.

More explicitly, the requirement is that if {𝐺𝛼 } is an open cover of 𝐾, then there are
finitely many indices 𝛼1 , … , 𝛼𝑛 such that

𝐾 ⊂ 𝐺𝛼1 ∪ … ∪ 𝐺𝛼𝑛 .

Theorem: Suppose𝐾 ⊂ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑋. Then 𝐾 is compact relative to 𝑋 if and only id 𝐾 is compact

relative to 𝑌.

Theorem: Compact subsets of metric spaces are closed.

Theorem: Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.

Corollary: If 𝐹 is closed and 𝐾 is compact, then 𝐹 ∩ 𝐾 is compact.

Compect Set : A metric space M is compact iff every sequence of points in M has a subsequence
converging to a poit in M.

Example: 1.R1is not compact

2.(0,1) is not compact in the metric space M =(0,2]

3.Any closed interval with usual metric is compact.

4.In the discrete metric space with with finite number of elements is compact.

 Finte subset of Rd is compact

 Infinte subset of Rd is not compact
 (0,1) with usual metric is not compact
 Every compact subset S of a metric space M is closed. But not converse .
Since, [0,∞) is closed,not bounded,has no finite sub cover,hence it is not compact.
 Every finite subset of any metric space is compact.

Statement:

1.If F is closed and T is compact in a metric space (X,d) then S∩T is compact.

2.The union of finite collection of compact subsets of a metric space is compact.

 3.The intersection of arbitrary collection of compact subsets of a metric space is compact.

4.Let Q be a metric space of all rational numbers with the usual metric and S = Q∩(a,b)
where a,b are irrational. Then S is closed and bounded in Q, but not compact .

Example: 
i) A  x | x 2  3x  2  0 
 (1, 2) infinite set not closed


ii) A  x | x 2  3x  2  0 
 {1, 2} finite set compact

iii) [a, b] in R is compact.

iv) Any other type of interval is not compact.

i.e.[a, b),(a, b],(a, b) are not compact 

v) Union of finite family of compact set is compact

 1   1 
vi) A  {1;1}  1  | n  N   1  | n  N 
 n   n 

then A  [2, 2] . A is compact.

14. Intersection of arbitrary family of compact set is compact.

15. S  {1,1.1,0.9,1.01,0.99,1.001,0.999}

 1 
 {1}  1  n | n  N  , It is bounded and l.u.b = 1.1 ; g.l.b = 0.9 ,it is the union of compact sets
 10 
, S is compact

16. N is not compact because N is not bounded

17. Z is not compact because Z is not bounded
18. Q is not compact because Q is not bounded
19. R is not compact because R is not bounded but closed
20. The set (2, ) is not compact. Closed but not bounded